^1 K u K' >?|" te ?»A UK - ' ' ? If,-,: ^V ' • -.•;••£?. THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST SECOND THIRD FOURTH FIFTH SIXTH SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH TENTH ELEVENTH edition, published in three volumes,. 1768—1771. ten 1777—1)84. eighteen 1788 — 1797. twenty 1801 — 1810. twenty 1815 — 1817. twenty 1823 — 1824. twenty-one 1830 — 1842. twenty-two 1853 — 1860. twenty-five 1875 — 1889. ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE A II rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXIII REFECTORY to SAINTE-BEUVE Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 E3 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company A. G.* INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXIII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. Ch. A. B. CHATWOOD, Ass.M.lNST.C.E., M.INST.ELEC.E. \ Safes, Strong-rooms and Vaults. A. C. G. ALBERT CHARLES LEWIS GOTTHILF GUENTHER, M.A., M.D., PH.D., F.R.S. f Keeper of Zoological Department, British Museum, 1875-1895. Gold Medallist,] DO_«:I«C. w«t~,«, t;~ Royal Society, 1878. Author of Catalogue cf Colubrine Snakes, Batrachia, Salientia, 1 KePtlles- History (in part) and Fishes in the British Museum ; &c. A. D. HENRY AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D. / D . . See the biographical article: DOBSON, HENRY AUSTIN. \ Richardson, Samuel. A. D. Mo. ANSON DANIEL MORSE, M.A., LL.D. r Emeritus Professor of History at Amherst College, Mass. Professor at Amherst -< Republican Party. College, 1877-1908. ARTHUR GAMGEE, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P., LL.D., D.Sc. (1841-1000). f .. Formerly Fullerian Professor of Physiology, Royal Institution of Great Britain, and I ResPiratory System: Move- Professor of Physiology in the University of Manchester. Author of Text-Book of] ments of Respiration. the Physiological Chemistry of the Animal Body; &c. A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. / Dlhadpnpira Ppdro A Lecturer in Church History in the University of Manchester. A. H.* ALBERT HAUCK, D.Tn., D.Pn. Professor of Church History in the University of Leipzig, and Director of the Museum of Ecclesiastical Archaeology. Geheimer Kirchenrat of Saxony. Member of the Royal Saxon Academy of Sciences and Corresponding Member of the 4 Relics. Academies of Berlin and Munich. Author of Kirchengeschichte Deutschlands; &c. ' Editor of the new edition of Herzog's Realencyklopddie fur protestantische Theologie und Kirche. „ t A. Ha. ADOLF HARNACK, D.Pn. f _ . ... See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. \9 A. H.-S. SlR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. f p . , General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. A. H. Sm. ARTHUR HAMILTON SMITH, M.A., F.S.A. Keeper of the Department of Greek and Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. I Ring (in part). Member of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of Catalogue of 1 Greek Sculpture in the British Museum ; &c. A. M. C. AGNES MARY CLERKE. f Rp?iomontanus See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M. \ Keg101 A. M. F. D. AGNES MARY FRANCES DUCLAUX. J See the biographical article: DUCLAUX, A. M. F. \ A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. f Rhea; Rifleman-bird; See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. \ Roller (Bird) ; Ruff. A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. < Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical practice in South Africa till -j Rhodesia: History (in part). 1896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910. A. S. P.-P. ANDREW SETH PRINGLE-PATTISON, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L. r Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Gifford J DoM Thmnoc <;~ j>».i\ Lecturer in the University of Aberdeen, 1911. Fellow of the British Academy. \ Reld» Tnomas (>n part). Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; &c. A. S. Wo. ARTHUR SMITH WOODWARD, LL.D., F.R.S. f DeDtiies. TJiitnrv (in barh and Keeper of Geology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Secretary of \ * the Geological Society, London. I General Characters. 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. V 1992 vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. / _ Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. \ KeglClue, Rienzi, Cola di. A. W. R. ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws "i Rent. of England. Fellow, Tutor and Librarian of Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Religion of\ Roman Religion. Ancient Rome; &c. C. B. P. CATHERINE BEATRICE PHILLIPS, B.A. (Mrs W. ALISON PHILLIPS). /Robes. Associate of Bedford College, London. C. E.* CHARLES EVERITT, M.A., F.C.S., F.G.S.,-F.R.A.S. /Refraction: Refraction of Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oxford. \ Light. C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Rjfle f{n pan\ . Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal •{ D-.CCKO.,V, Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour. ( "oss C. H. Ha. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M.,. PH.D. f Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Members Rosary. of the American Historical Association. C. H. W. J. REV. CLAUDE HERMANN WALTER JOHNS, M.A., Lrrr.D. f Sabbath- Babylonian and Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Canon of Norwich. Author of \ . Da°yl° Assyrian Deeds and Documents. I Assyrian. C. L. K. CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HiST.S. Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of Life of Henry V. Editor Richard II.; Richard III.; Rivers, Richard Woodville, Earl* of Chronicles of London and Stow's Survey of London. Russell, Bishop. C. Mi P. CHARLES MURRAY PITMAN. (" Sometime Scholar of New College, Oxford. Formerly Stroke of the Oxford Uni- \ Rowing. versity Eight. C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Rubruquis, William of of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. \ i^n t>ari\ Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. C. We. CECIL WEATHERLY. f Saddlprv and Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. \ ™ D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. i Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. J Rum Or Roum. Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional ] Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. D. C. T. DAVID CROAL THOMSON. (" Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon \ Rousseau, Pierre E. T. School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c. D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. . f Rnvthm- in music- Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The \ D j Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. )nuO. D. H. DAVID HANNAY. f Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal \ Rigging. Navy ; Life of Emilia Castelar ; &c. D. H. M. DAVID HEINRICH MULLER, D.Pn. Professor of Semitic Languages in the University of Vienna. Hofrat of the Austrian < Sabaeans. Empire. Knight of the Order of Leopold. Author of Die Gesetze Hammurabi; &c. [ D. LI. T. DANIEL LLEUFER THOMAS. Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Stipendiary Magistrate at Pontypridd and ] Rhondda. Rhondda. D. M. W. SIR DONALD MACKENZIE WALLACE, K.C.I.E., K.C.V.O. Extra Groom of the Bedchamber to H.M. King George V. Director of the Foreign Department of The Times, 1891-1899. Member of Institut de Droit International and Officier de 1'Instruction Publique of France. Joint-editor of New Volumes (loth ed.) of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Author of Russia; Egypt and Egyptian Question ; The Web of Empire ; &c. Russia: History (in part). D. R.-M. DAVID RANDALL- MACIVER, M.A., D.Sc. r Curator of Egyptian Department, LTniversity of Pennsylvania. Formerly Worcester \ Rhodesia: Archaeology. Reader in Egyptology, University of Oxford. Author of Medieval Rhodesia ; &c. [ E. B. EDWARD BRECK, M.A., PH.D. r Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the New York Herald and the New York Times. \ Sabre-fencing. Author of Fencing; Wilderness Pets; Sporting in Nova Scotia; &c. f Robert Guiscard; E. Cu. EDMUND CURTIS, M.A. » J Roppr T of S! =,'. Keble College, Oxford. Lecturer on History in the University of Sheffield. [ £°!|£ {j of Sicily E. C. B. RIGHT REV, EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., O.S.B., D.LITT. f Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius," ~\ Sabas, St. in Cambridge Texts and Studies. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Vll E. F. S. E.G. E. Gr. E. Ha. E.He. E. H. B. E. H. M. E. L. B. E.G.* E. Pr. F. C. C. F. G. P. F. G. S. F. Ha. F. J. H. F. J. S. F. LI. G. F. L. L. F. P. F. R. C. F.We. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. f Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of J Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint-editor 1 of Bell's " Cathedral Series. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, M.A. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY. REV. EDWIN HATCH, M.A., D.D. See the biographical article: HATCH, EDWIN. EDWARD HEAWOOD, M.A. Gonville and Cains College, Cambridge. Society, London. Librarian of the Royal Geographical -j L Repin, Ilja. Rhyme; Rhythm (in verse); Rimbaud, Jean; Rivers, Anthony Woodville, Earl; Rossetti, Christina; Runes, Runic Language and Inscriptions; Rydberg, Abraham; Saga. Rhodes (in part). Sacrifice: In the Christian Church. Rudolf (Lake); Ruwenzori; Sahara (in part). SIR EDWARD HERBERT BUNBURY, Bart., M.A., F.R.G.S. (d. 1895). M.P. for Bury St Edmunds, 1847-1852. Author of A History of Ancient Geography; \ Rhodes (in part). &c. t ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. f University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian \ Russian Language, at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. EDWARD LIVERMORE BURLINGAME, A.M., PH.D. /_ Editor of Scribner's Magazine. Formerly on the Staff of New York Tribune. \ '"P16*' George. EDMUND OWEN, F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc. [ Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Ex- -I Respiratory System: Surgery. aminer in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of A Manual of A natomy for Senior Students. EDGAR PRESTAGE. Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Ex- aminer in Portuguese in the Universities of London, Manchester, &c. Com- mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal ' Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; &c. Editor of Letters of a Portuguese Nun ; Azurara's Chronicles of Guinea ; &c. Resende, Andre de; Resende, Garcia de; Ribeiro, Bernardim; Sa de Miranda, Francisco de. FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.Tn. r Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. I _ Editor of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle. Author of Myth, Magic and] Sacrament. Morals; &c. FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S. r Vice- President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on J Reproductive System; Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women, 1 Respiratory System: Anatomy. London. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons. F. Formerly Art Critic of the Athenaeum. Author of Artists at Home ; George Cruik- J Rossetti' Dante Gabriel (in shank ;_ Memorial s_of W. Mulready; French and Flemish Pictures; Sir E. Land-~\ part). seer; T. C. Hook, R.A.; &c. FREDERIC HARRISON. See the biographical article: HARRISON, FREDERIC. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of Brasenose College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &c. FREDERICK JOHN SNELL, M.A. Balliol College, Oxford. Author of The Age of Chaucer; &c. J Ruskin, John. Roman Army. J Robin Hood (in part). FRANCIS LLEWELLYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A. c Reader in Egyptology, Oxford University. Editor of the Archaeological Survey J Rosetta. and Archaeological Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of Imperial 1 German Archaeological Institute. LADY LUGARD. See the biographical article: LUGARD, SIR F. J. D. FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (1856-1910). Sometime Scholar of Pembroke College, Oxford. Mesmerism and Christian Science; &c. J Rhodes, Cecil. Author of Modern Spiritualism ; J Retro-cognition. FRANK R. CANA. f Rhodesia: History (in part); Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. \ Sahara (in part). FREDERICK WEDMORE. See the biographical article: WEDMORE, FREDERICK. ! Ribot, Theoduie viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. [ Rock-Crystal; Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. | p. ,•,-,•:,! President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. lle> G. A.* GERTRUDE FRANKLIN ATHERTON. f Author of Rezdnov ; A ncestors ; The Tower of Ivory ; &c. \ G. Ch. GEORGE CHRYSTAL, M.A., LL.D. Professor of Mathematics and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, Edinburgh University, -j Riemann, Georg. Hon. Fellow and formerly Fellow and Lecturer of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. I G. C. W. GEORGE CHARLES WILLIAMSON, LITT.D. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Portrait Miniatures ; Life of Richard I „ „„.„ i-i,_ Cosway, R.A.; George Englekeart; Portrait Drawings; &c. Editor of the New] eu> Jonn Edition of Bryan's Dictionary of Painters and Engravers. G. Du. GEORGE DUTHIE, M.A., F.R.S. (Edin.). /Rhodesia: Geography and Director of Education, Southern Rhodesia. I Statistics. G. J. T. GEORGE JAMES TURNER. f Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Sclden -j Ridings. Society. G. R. P. GEORGE ROBERT PARKIN, LL.D., C.M.G. / Rhodes, Cecil: Rhodes See the biographical article: PARKIN, G. R. I Scholarships. _ f Retz, Cardinal de; G. Sa. GEORGE SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.C.L. I Rom,ni>_. Rnll<;arH. See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, GEORGE E. B. ( Rousseau, Jean Jacques. G. Sn. GRANT SHOWERMAN, A.M., Pii.D. Professor of Latin at the University of Wisconsin. Member of the Archaeological j Institute of America. Member of the American Philological Association. Author of 1 Rhea (Mythology). With the Professor; The Great Mother of the Gods; &c. H. B. HILARY BAUERMANN, F.G.S. (d. 1909). Formerly Lecturer on Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of ^ Safety-Lamp. A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron. { H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. f Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British •] Riddles. Academy. Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making. of English; &c. H. B. M. THE VERY REV. CANON H. B. MACKEY, O.S.B. f ,;.,.,_.., Hooi Author of Four Essays on St Francis de Sales. \ * H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A. f Ron.--.,-*..*!,.,,. Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the 1 1 th edition of 1 "' I. , the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the loth edition. ' Rosebery, Earl Of. H. De. HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J. r pocj, g*. Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: Analecla Bollandiana •< and Ada. Sanctorum. [ Rupert, St; Saint. H. E. KARL HERMANN ETHE, M.A., PH.D. Professor of Oriental Languages, University College, Aberystwyth (University of Wales). Author of Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts in the India Office Library, 1 Sa'di. London (Clarendon Press) ; &c. H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S. , PH.D. f_ ... Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge.-! Reptiles: Anatomy and Author of " Amphibia and Reptiles," in the Cambridge Natural History. [ Distribution. H. F. P. HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM, LL.D., D.C.L. f Rome: Ancient History See the biographical article: PELHAM, H. F. ^ (fn part) H. Go. HENRY GOUDY, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. r Regius Professor of Civil Law, Oxford, and Fellow of All Souls' College. Author -< Roman Law. of The Law of Bankruptcy in Scotland ; &c. H. H. HENRI SIMON HYMANS, PH.D. Keeper of the Bibliotheque Royale de Belgique, Brussels. Author of Rubens: sa •{ Rubens (in part), vie et son ceuvre. I Respiratory System: H. L. H. HARRIET L. HENNESSY, M.D. (Brux.), L.R.C.P.I., L.R.C.S.I. Pathology (in part); ( Rheumatoid Arthritis. H. M. V. HERBERT M. VAUGHAN, F.S.A. Keble College, Oxford. Author of Tlie Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Medici Popes; \ St Davids. The Last Stuart Queen. H. R. T. HENRY RICHARD TEDDER, F.S.A. f Secretary and Librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. \ Rymer, Thomas. H. St. HENRY STURT, M.A. / Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. \ Relativity Of Knowledge. H. S. J. HENRY STUART JONES, M.A. [ Roman Art; Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College, Oxford, and Director of the British J Rome: Ancient City (in part), School at Rome. Member of the German Imperial Archaeological Institute. Author 1 Christian Rome (in part) and of The Roman Empire ; &c. Ancient History (in part). H. S.-K. SIR HENRY SETON-KARR, C.M.G., M.A. f M.P. for St Helen's, 1885-1906. Author of My Sporting Holidays; &c. \ Rlfle' INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES IX H. Tr. SIR HENRY TROTTER, K.C.M.G., C.B. Lieutenant-Colonel, Royal Engineers. H.B.M. Consul-General for Roumania, J Rumania* Historv (in Dart) 1894-1906, and British Delegate on the European Commission of the Danube. Victoria Medallist, Royal Geographical Society, 1878. Richard, Earl of Cornwall; H. W. C. D. HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A. Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford, - 1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angevins; Charlemagne. H. W. S. H. WICKHAM STEED. Richard I.; Richard of Devizes; Robert of Gloucester; Roger of Hoveden; Roger of Wendover. ICKHAM STEED. Correspondent of The Times at Vienna. Correspondent of The Times at Rome, 4 Ricasoli Baron. ^ H. Y. SIR HENRY YULE, K.C.S.I., C.B. j?1^1' M?tte°'.11. See the biographical article: YULE, SIR HENRY. 'I Rubruquis, William of I (in part). 1. A. ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. f Ritual Murder; Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. I Sabbalai Sebi; Formerly President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short I Sabbatiorr History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; &c. I S h M'' h 1 J. A. H. JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc. Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of The Geology of Building Stones. J. A. S. JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D. See the biograph' J. Bra. JOSEPH BRAUN, S.J. See the biographical article: SYMONDS, J. A. { Renaissance. ;PH BRAUN, S.J. f Author of Die Lilurgische Gewandung; &c. 1 KOChet. J. Bt. JAMES BARTLETT. Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &c., at King's J Roofs College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of Junior 1 Engineers. J. B. B. JOHN BAGNALL BURY, D.Lrrr., D.C.L. f _ _ See the biographical article: BURY, J. B. \ Roman Empire, Later. J. B. M. JAMES BASS MULLINGER, M.A. r Lecturer in History, St John's College, Cambridge. Formerly University Lecturer in History and President of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society. Birkbeck Lecturer < Richard of Cirencester. in Ecclesiastical History at Trinity College, Cambridge, 1890-1894. Author of History of the University of Cambridge ; The Schools of Charles the Great ; &c. J. D. B. JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. King's College, Cambridge. ; Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J R. rt h T Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1 ' "ovan- Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria. J. E. C. REV. JOSEPH ESTLIN CARPENTER, M.A., D.Lrrr:, D.D., D.Tn. r Principal of Manchester College, Oxford. Author of The First Three Gospels, their -! Religion. Origin and Relations ; The Bible in the Nineteenth Century ; &c. J. F. H. B. SIR JOHN FRANCIS HARPIN BROADBENT, BART., M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. r Physician to Out- Patients, St Mary's Hospital, London ; Physician to the Hamp- J _. stead General Hospital ; Assistant Physician to the London Fever Hospital. ] Rheumatism. Author of Heart Disease and Aneurysm; &c. J. F.-K. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lrrr.D., F.R.HiST.S. f Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Norman McCoIl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. •< Ruiz, Juan. Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Knight Commander of the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A" History of Spanish Literature; &c. J. F. M. JAMES FULLARTON MUIRHEAD, LL.D. Editor of many of Baedeker's Guide Books. Author of America, the Land »/•! Rhine (in part). Contrasts. I J. F. W. JOHN FORBES WHITE, M.A., LL.D. (d. 1004). f Rembrandt (In toarfi Joint-author of the Life and Art of G. P. Chalmers, R.S.A. ; &c. t *& J. G. His EMINENCE CARDINAL TAMES GIBBONS. f Roman Catholic Church: See the biographical article : GIBBONS, JAMES. \ United States. J. G. H. JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E. f Rolling-mill Author of Plating and Boiler Making; Practical Metal Turning; &c. I J. H. A. H. JOHN HENRY ARTHUR HART, M.A. I gadducees Fellow, Theological Lecturer and Librarian, St John's College, Cambridge. Rietschel, Ernst; J. H. M. JOHN HENRY MIDDLETON, M.A., Lrrr.D., F.S.A., D.C.L. (1846-1896). Slade Professor of Fine Art in the University of Cambridge, 1886-1895. Director of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, 1889-1892. Art Director of the South' Kensington Museum, 1892-1896. Author of The Engraved Gems of Classical Times; Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval Times. Ring (in part) ; Rome: The Ancient City (in part) ; and Christian Rome (in part); Round Towers. J. H. R. JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family -! Register. History; Peerage and Pedigree. x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES J. H. R.* JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON, A.M., PH.D. [ Professor of History, Columbia University, New York. Author of Petrarch, lhe~\ Reformation, The. First Modern Scholar ; History of Western Europe ; &c. J. HI. R. JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., Lin.D. Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Reichstadt, Duke of. University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I.; Napoleonic Studies ; The Development of the European Na'ions ; The Life of Pitt ; &c. J. H. V. C. JOHN HENRY VERRINDER CROWE. f Lieut.-Colonel, Royal Artillery. Commandant of the Royal Military College of I Russo-Turkish War- Canada. Formerly Chief Instructor in Military Topography and Military History -j , „ K\ and Tactics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. Author of Epitome of the Russo-Turkish War, 1877-78; &c. J. J. L.* REV. JOHN JAMES LIAS, M.A. f Chancellor of Llandaff Cathedral. Formerly Hulsean Lecturer in Divinity and I Reuscn franz H Lady Margaret Preacher, University of Cambridge. Author of Miracles, Science | and Prayer ; &c. J. J. T. SIR JOSEPH JOHN THOMSON, D.Sc., LL.D., PH.D., F.R.S. Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics and Fellow of Trinity College, Cam- bridge. President of the British Association, 1909-1910. Author of A Treatise on J\ Rontgen Rays. the Motion of Vortex Rings; Application of Dynamics to Physics and Chemistry; Recent Researches in Electricity and Magnetism ; &c. J. L. W. JESSIE LAIDLAY WESTON. f Round Tahla Th* Author of Arthurian Romances unrepresented in Malory. \ " 3le> • J. Mt. JAMES MOFFATT, M.A., D.D. f Minister of the United Free Church of Scotland. Jowett Lecturer, London, 1907. -< Romans, Epistle to the. Author of Historical New Testament; &c. J. S. F. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Rhyolite burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby ] Medallist of the Geological Society of London. J. S. H. JOHN SCOTT HALDANE, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. r Fellow of New College, Oxford, and University Reader in Physiology. Metro- Respiratory System: Physio- politan Gas Referee to the Board of Trade. Joint-editor and founder of the Journal < of Hygiene. Author of Blue-books on " The Causes of Death in Colliery Explo- sions ' ; &c. L J. S. R. JAMES SMITH REID, M.A., LL.M., LITT.D., LL.D. f Jj11?01}1' Friedrich W.; Professor of Ancient History and Fellow and Tutor of Gonville and Caius College, I Kuhl ken> David; Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Lecturer, of Christ's College. | RutiliUS, Claudius Editor of Cicero's Academica; De Amicitia; &c. Namatianus. J. T. Be. JOHN THOMAS BEALBY. r Riga (in part) ; Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical J Russia: Geography and Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet; &c. {_ Statistics (in part). J. T. S.* JAMES THOMSON SHOTWELL, Pn.D. f Richelieu, Cardinal; Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. 1 Sacrilege. J. W. JAMES WILLIAMS, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. f Roman catholi< All Souls' Reader in Roman Law in the University of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln 4 „ , . College. Barrister-at-Law of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Law of the Universities; &c. L English Law. J. Wai.* JAMES WALKER, M.A. r Christ Church, Oxford. Demonstrator in the Clarendon Laboratory. Formerly J Rotmntmn- n u Vice- President of the Physical Society. Author of The Analytical Theory of Light; 1 * &c. [ J.We. JULIUS WELLHAUSEN, D.D. Juoi.vo T,,*,,, See the biographical article: WELLHAUSEN, JULIUS. \ * 15Ke> Jonann Jacol)- J. W. H. JOHN WESLEY HALES, M.A. Emeritus Professor of English Literature at King's College, London. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and Tutor, of Christ's College, Cambridge. Clark Lecturer in \ Robin Hood (in part). English Literature at Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Shakespeare Essays and Notes ; Folia Litteraria ; &c. I K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. r peeaj. p Editor of the Portfolio of Musical Archaeology. Author of The Instruments of the \ ,, .. ' Orchestra. [ aaCKDUl. L. F. A. LAWRENCE F. ABBOTT. f President of The Outlook Company, New York. \ Roosevelt, Theodore. L. F. V.-H. LEVESON FRANCIS VERNON-HARCOURT, M.A., M.lNST.C.E. (1839-1907). Professor of Civil Engineering at University College, London, 1882-1905. Author j HJVPI. Ensineerin? of Rivers and Canals; Harbours and Docks; Civil Engineering as applied in Con-] Engineering. struction ; &c. [ L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A. r Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar of J Rutile Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor okthe Mineral- } ogtcal Magazine. L. L. S. LIONEL LANCELOT SHADWELL, M.A. J _ Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's Inn. One of H.M. Commissioners in Lunacy. \ Ke8istratlon- M. A. MATTHEW ARNOLD. f Q . , _ See the biographical article: ARNOLD, MATTHEW. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi M. Cr. M. G. M. Ha. M. H. S. M. 0. B. C. M. P.* N. W. T. 0. A. 0. Ba. 0. M.* P. A. A. P. A. K. P. C. M. P. Gi. P. G. K. P. V. R. A. N. R. C. J. R* H* C. FRANCIS MARION CRAWFORD. See the biographical article : CRAWFORD, F. MARION. MOSES CASTER, PH.D. Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. J _ „, . " Vice- President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine J ..... Literature, 1886 and 1891. President, Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-] iumalua: Literature. President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular Literature ; &c. MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S. Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. bridge Natural History; and papers for various scientific journals. Author of " Protozoa," in Cam- fRhizoDoda- •< tera- MARION H. SPIELMANN, F.S.A. Formerly Editor of the Magazine of Art. Member of Fine Art Committee of Inter- Relief; national Exhibitions of Brussels, Paris, Buenos Aires, Rome and the Franco-British J RRnnii«B- Exhibition, London. Author of History of " Punch " ; British Portrait Painting ] to the Opening of the Nineteenth Century; Works of G. F. Watts, R.A.; British "OUblliac, LOUIS Sculpture and Sculptors of To-day; Henriette Ronner; &c. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham University, 1905-1908. LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. Formerly Archivist to the French National Archives. Rhodes (in part) ; Romanus I.-IV. (Eastern Emperors). Auxiliary of the Institute I Retz, Seigneurs and Dukes of; of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences). Author of L'Industrie du sel\ Rouault Joachim. en Frenche-Comte; Francois I et le comte de Bourgogne; &c. I NORTHCOTE WHITRIDGE THOMAS, M.A. Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the Socidte d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and Marriage in A ustralia ; &c. OSMUND AIRY, M.A., LL.D. e •« H.M. Divisional Inspector of Schools and Inspector of Training Colleges, Board of J n ... Author of Louis XIV. and the English Restoration; Charles II.; &c. 1 Russell> Lo™ William. Education. Editor of the Lauderdale Papers ; &c. . OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the -I Russell (Family). Honourable Society of the Baronetage. I OCTAVE MAUS, LL.D. Advocate of the Court of Appeal at Brussels. Director of L'Art Moderne and of I the Libre Esthetique. President of the Association of Belgian writers. Officer of the -s Rops, Felicien. Legion of Honour. Author of Le Thedtre de Bayreuth; Aux Ambassadeurs ; Malta, Constantinople et la Crimee; &c. PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., Doc. JURIS. New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. of the English Constitution. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History*, Rhine (in part). PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. and . Statistics (in part). PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. r Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- J Regeneration of Lost Parts; parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. Author | Reproduction: of Animals. of Outlines of Biology ; &c. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lirr.D. f Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J c Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological j Society. PAUL GEORGE KONODY. fi>.mh«,n^t <•„•„ Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of The Artist. -{ * Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez: Life and Work- &c. ( Rubens (in part) PASQUALE VILLARI. See the biographical article: VILLARI, PASQUALE. J Rimini; Rome: Roman Re- public in the Middle Ages. REYNOLD ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, M.A., Lnr.D. Lecturer in Persian in the University of Cambridge. Sometime Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Professor of Persian at University College, London. J Sabians. Author of Selected Poems from the Divani Shamsi Tabriz; A Literary History of I the Arabs ; &c. { SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L. See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE. REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. Grinfield Lecturer, and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of Merton College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Professor of Biblical Greek, . Trinity College, Dublin. Author of Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life; Book of Jubilees ; &c. Revelation, Book of. Xll INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES R. J. M R. L.* R. N. B. R. R. M. R. S. C. R. W. F. H. S. A. C. stc. S. H. V.* S. N. T. As. T. A. I. T. Ba. T. B. L. T. H.* T. Wo. T. W.-D. W. A. B. C. W. A. P. RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A. r Richmond, Earls and Dukes of; Christ Church, Oxford. Gazette, London. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the St James's - Richmond and Lennox, RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.Z.S., F.p.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum ; The Deer of all Lands ; &c. ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1000; The First Romanovs, 1613-1725: Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460 to 1706 ; &c. ROBERT RANULPH MARF.TT, M.A. Reader in Social Anthropology, Oxford University, and Fellow and Tutor of Exeter College. Formerly Dean and Sub-Rector of Exeter College. Author of " The Threshold of Religion. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A:, D.Lrrr. Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff, and Fellow of Gonville 1 and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. Duchess of; Sacheverell, William. Reindeer; Rhinoceros(j» part}-, Rhytina; River-hog; Rocky Mountain Goat; Rodentia; Roe-buck; Rorqual. Repnin; Reuterholm, Baron; Sadolin, Jorgen. Religion: Primitive Religion; Ritual. r Rome: Ancient History (in • i part); ROBERT WILLIAM FREDERICK HARRISON. . _ . Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Assistant Secretary of the Royal Society, London. | no"dl Iel"> lne< f STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A C Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Rnnlr nf t;*, h,ri\- °° parl) ' * Cambridge. Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Author of Glossary of \ T . "' °° Aramaic Inscriptions; The Law of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes »aDDatn (t* part). on Old Testament History ; Religion of A ncient Palestine ; &c. f Roman Catholic Church (in. \ part). VISCOUNT ST CYRES. See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1st EARL OF. SYDNEY HOWARD VINES, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. Sherardian Professor of Botany, Oxford University, and Fellow of Magdalen i r,.T , D, College. Fellow of the University of London. Hon. Fellow, formerly Fellow and J "el Lecturer, of Christ's College, Cambridge. President of the Linnean Society, 1900— I Sachs, Julius VOD. 1904. Author of A Student's Text-Book of Botany; &c. SIMON NEWCOMB, D.Sc., L.L.D. See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON. Refraction: Astronomical Refraction. Regillus; Regium; Rovigo; THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LiTT. (Oxon.). Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member of .• the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. Author of The Classical Topography I Rusellae; Ruvo; of the Roman Campagna. [ st Bernard Passes (in part). THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. | Sacrilege: English Law. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY. r Member of the Institute of International Law. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Black- ' burn, 1910. THOMAS BELL LIGHTFOOT, M.lNST.C.E., M.INST.MECH.E. Author of Preservation of Foods by Cold; &c. •1 Refrigerating. THOMAS HARRIS, M.D., F.R.C.P. r Formerly Hon. Physician to Manchester Royal Infirmary, and Lecturer on Diseases I Respiratory System: Pathology of the Respiratory Organs at Owens College, Manchester. Author of numerous] (in part). articles on diseases of the respiratory organs. r Rope and Rope-making; THOMAS WOODHOUSE. J gac^jng and Sack Manu- Head of the Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee. 1 facture' Sailcloth WALTER THEODORE WATTS-DUNTON. See the biographical article: WATTS-DUNTON, WALTER THEODORE. REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxtord. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide du Haul Dauphine; The Range of the Todi; Guide to Grindelwald; Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1881 ; &c. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. -: Rossetti, Dante Gabriel. f Referendum and Initiative; Reschen Scheideck; Rhine: Swiss Portion; Rhone; Rorschach; Rosa, Monte; Rovereto; St Bernard Passes (in part). r Rochet: Church of England; Roman Catholic Church (in part); Russia: Government and Ad- *• ministration. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xm W. E. A. A. W. H. F. W. J. H.* W. M.-L. W. M. R. W. P. C. W. P. P. L. W. R. D. W. R. K. W. R. M. W. R. S. WILLIAM EDMUND ARMYTAGE AXON, LL.D. Formerly Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. On Literary Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Member of the Gorsedd, with the bardic name of Manceinion. Author of Annals of Manchester; &c. SIR WILLIAM H. FLOWER, F.R.S. See the biographical article: FLOWER, SIR W. H. WILLIAM JAMES HUGHAN. Past S.G.D. of the Grand Lodge of England. of Freemasonry. 4 Roscoe, William. | Rhinoceros (in part). Author of Origin of the English Rite -I Rosicrucianism. WlLHELM MEYER-LUBKE, PH.D. H of rat of the Austrian Empire. Professor of Romance Philology in the University of Vienna. Author of Grammalik der Romanischen Sprachen; £c. WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI. See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G. WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY. See the biographical article: COURTNEY, BARON. WILLIAM PITT PREBLE LONGFELLOW. Fellow of the American Institute of Architects. Editor of the American Architect. Author of Cyclopaedia of Architecture in Italy, Greece and the Levant; &c. WYNDHAM ROLAND DUNSTAN, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Director of the Imperial Institute, London. Formerly Lecturer on Chemistry in its Relations to Medicine in the University of Oxford. Professor of Chemistry to - the Pharmaceutical Society and Lecturer on Chemistry at St Thomas's Hospital, London. Author of British Cotton Cultivation ; &c. RT. HON. SIR WILLIAM RANN KENNEDY, LL.D. r Lord of Appeal. Hon. Fellow of Pembroke College, Cambridge. Fellow of the ] British Academy. Judge of King's Bench Division of High Court of Justice, 1892-"! Russell Of Klllowen, Lord. 1907. WILLIAM RICHARD MORFILL, M.A. (d. 1910). f Formerly Professor of Russian and the other Slavonic Languages in the University J of Oxford. Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford. Author of Russia; \ Slavonic Literature ; &c. -' Romance Languages. J Ribera, Giuseppe; I Rosa, Salvator. / Rosslyn, Earl of; I Russell, 1st Earl. f Richardson, Henry Hobson. Rubber. Russian Literature. WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D. See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON. I* Reuchlin; « Ruth, Book of (in part)-* [ Sabbath (in part). PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES Reflection of Light. Regensburg. Regent. Reims. Renfrewshire. Rennes. Reporting. Republic. Resorcin. Retainer. Reunion. Reuss. Reynard the Fox. Rhine Province. Rhode Island. Rhodium. Rhubarb. Rice. Richmond (Surrey). Richmond (Va.). Rickets. Riding. Riesengebirge. Rinderpest. Rio de Janeiro. Rio Grande do Sul (State). Riot. Ripon. Roads and Streets. Rochester (Kent). Rochester (N.Y.). Rodney. Rodriguez. Roland, Legend of. Rome (N.Y.). Romulus. Root. Rosaceae. Roscommon, Co. Rose. Roses, Wars of the. Ross and Cromarty. Rostock. Rothschild. Rotterdam. Rouen. Roulette. Roussillon. Roxburghshire. Rubidium. Rubinstein. Rugen. Running. Russo-Japanese War. Rutebeuf. Ruthenium, Rutland. Ryazan. Sacramento (Cal.). Saffron. Saint Albans. Saint Andrews. St Augustine (Fla.)> St Denis. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXIII REFECTORY (med. Lat. refectorium, from reficere, to refresh), the hall of a monastery, convent, &c., where the religious took their chief meals together. There frequently was a sort of ambo, approached by steps, from which to read the legenda sanctorum, &c., during meals. The refectory was generally situated by the side of the S. cloister, so as to be removed from the church but contiguous to the kitchen; sometimes it was divided down the centre into two aisles, as at Fountains Abbey in England, Mont St Michel in France and at Villiers in Belgium, and into three aisles as in St Mary's, York, and the Bernardines, Paris. The refectory of St Martin-des-Champs in Paris is in two aisles, and is now utilized as the library of the Ecole des Arts et Metiers. Its wall pulpit, with an arcaded staircase in the thickness of the wall, is still in perfect preservation. REFEREE, a person to whom anything is referred ; an arbitrator. The court of referees in England was a court to which the House of Commons committed the decision of all questions as to the right of petitioners to be heard in opposition to private bills. As originally constituted the referees consisted of the chairman of ways and means, and other members, the Speaker's counsel and several official referees not members of the House of Commons. In 1903 the appointment of official referees was discontinued. The court now consists of the chairman of ways and means, the deputy chairman and not less than seven other members of the House appointed by the Speaker, and its duty, as defined by a standing order, is to decide upon all petitions against private bills, or against provisional orders or provisional certificates, as to the rights of the petitioners to be heard upon such petitions. In the high court of justice, under the Judicature Act 1873, cases may be sub- mitted to three official referees, for trial, inquiry and report, or assessment of damages. Inquiry and report may be directed in any case, trial only by consent of the parties, or in any matter requiring any prolonged examination of documents or accounts, or any scientific or local investigation which cannot be tried in the ordinary way. REFERENDUM and INITIATIVE, two methods by which the wishes of the general body of electors in a constitutional xxiii. i state may be expressed with regard to proposed legislation. They are developed to the highest extent in Switzerland, and are best exemplified -in the Swiss federal and cantonal constitu- tions. By these two methods the sovereign people in Switzerland (whether in the confederation or in one of its cantons) approve or reject the bills and resolutions agreed upon by the legislative authority (Referendum), or compel that authority to introduce bills on certain specified subjects (Initiative) — in other words, exercise the rights of the people as regards their elected repre- sentatives at times other than general elections. The Referendum means " that which is referred " to the sovereign people, and prevailed (up to 1848) in the federal diet, the members of which were bound by instructions, all matters outside which being taken " ad referendum." A similar system obtained previously in the formerly independent confederations of the Grisons and of the Valais, in the former case not merely as between the Three Leagues, and even the bailiwicks of each within its respective league, but also (so far as regards the upper Engadine) the communes making up a bailiwick, though in the Valais the plan prevailed only as between the seven Zehnten or bailiwicks. The Initiative, on the other hand, is the means by which the sovereign people can compel its elected representatives to take into consideration either some specified object or a draft bill relating thereto, the final result of the deliberations of the legislature being subject by a referendum vote to the approval or rejection of the people. These two institutions therefore enable the sovereign people to control the decisions of the legislature, without having recourse to a dissolution, or waiting for the expiration of its natural term of office. As might have been expected, both had been adopted by different cantons before they found their way into the federal constitution, which naturally has to take account of the sovereign rights of the cantons of which it is composed. Further, they (at any rate the referendum) were employed in the case of con- stitutional matters relating to cantonal constitutions before being applied to all or certain specified laws and resolutions. Finally, the action of both has been distinctly conservative in the case of the confederation, though to a less marked degree in the case of the cantons. REFLECTION OF LIGHT Two forms of the Referendum should be carefully distin- guished: the facultative or optional (brought into play only on the demand of a fixed number of citizens), and the obligatory or compulsory (which obtains in all cases that lie within its sphere as defined in the constitution). The Initiative exists only in the facultative form, being exercised when a certain number of citizens demand it. Both came into common use during the Liberal reaction in Switzerland after the Paris revolution of July 1830. In 1831 St Gall first adopted the " facultative referendum " (then and for some time after called the " Veto "), and its example was followed by several cantons before 1848. The "obligatory referendum " appears first in 1852 and 1854 respectively in the Valais and the Grisons, when the older system was reformed, but in its modern form it was first adopted in 1863 by the canton of rural Basel. The Initiative was first adopted in 1845 by Vaud. Of course the cantons with Landsgemeinden, Uri, Unterwalden, Appenzell and Glarus (where the citizens appear in person) possessed both from time immemorial. Excluding these there were at the end of 1907 9$ cantons, which had the " obligatory referendum " (Aargau, rural Basel, Bern, the Grisons, Schaflhausen, Schwyz, Soleure, Thurgau, the Valais and Zurich), while 7^ cantons possess only the " facultative referendum " (Basel town, Geneva, Lucerne, Neuchatel, St Gall, Ticino, Vaud and Zug). Fribourg alone had neither, save an obligatory referendum (like all the rest) as to the revision of the cantonal constitution. As regards the Initiative, all the cantons have it as to the revision of the cantonal constitution; while all but Fribourg have it also as to bills or legislative projects. In the case both of the facultative referendum and of the Initiative each canton fixes the number of citizens who have a right to exercise this power. The con- stitution of the Swiss confederation lags behind those of the cantons. It is true that both in 1848 (art. 113) and in 1874 (art. 120) it is provided that a vote on the question whether the constitution shall be revised must take place if either house of the federal legislature or 50,000 qualified voters demand it — of course a popular vote (obligatory referendum) must take place on the finally elaborated project of revision. But as regards bills the case is quite different. The " facultative referendum " was not introduced till 1874 (art. 89) and then only as regards all bills and resolutions not being of a pressing nature, 8 cantons or 30,000 qualified voters being entitled to ask for such a popular vote. But the Initiative did not appear in the federal constitution till it was inserted in 1891 (art. 121), and then merely in the case of a partial (not a total) revision of the constitution, if 50,000 qualified voters require it, whether as regards a subject in general or a draft bill, — of course the federal legislature had an Initiative in this matter in 1848 already. The results of the working of these two institutions in federal matters up to the end of 1908 are as follows. Excluding the votes by which the two federal constitutions of 1848 and 1874 were adopted, there have been 30 (10 of them between 1848 and 1874) votes (obligatory referendum) as to amendments of the federal constitution; in 15 cases only (of which only one was before 1874) did the people accept the amendment proposed. In the case of bills there have been 30 votes (very many bills have not been attacked at all), all of course since the facultative referendum was introduced in 1874; in n cases only have the people voted in the affirmative. Finally, with regard to the Initiative, there have been 7 votes, of which two only were in the affirmative. Thus, between 1874 and 1907, of 57 votes 27 only were in the affirmative, while if we include the 10 votes between 1848 and 1874 the figures are respectively 67 and 28, one only having been favourable during that period. The result is to show that the people, voting after mature reflection, are far less radically disposed than has sometimes been imagined. The method of referendum by itself is also in use in some of the states of the American Union (see UNITED STATES) and in Australia, and under the name of plebiscite has been employed in France; but it is best studied in the Swiss con- stitution. M FIG. i. AUTHORITIES. — W. A. B. Coolidge, "The Early History of the Referendum " (article in the English Historical Review tor October 1891); T. Curti, Die schweizerischen Volksrechte, 1848 bis 1900 (Bern, 1900) (Fr. trans, by J. Roniat with additions by the author, Paris, 1905)— -Curti's earlier work, Geschichte d. schiveiz. Volks- gesetzgebung (Bern, 1882), is not entirely superseded by his later one; S. Dcploige, The Referendum in Switzerland, Engl. trans, with additional notes (London, 1898); N. Droz, "The Referendum in Switzerland " (article in the Contemporary Review, March 1895); 1. M. Vincent, Government in Switzerland, chaps, v. and xiv. (New York and London, 1900). See also, for the United States and generally, the American works on the Referendum by E. P. Ober- holtzer (1893 and 1900). (W. A. B. C.) REFLECTION OF LIGHT. When a ray of light in a homo- geneous medium falls upon the bounding surface of another medium, part of it is usually turned back or reflected and part is scattered, the remainder traversing or being absorbed by the second medium. The scattered rays (also termed the irregu- larly or diffusely reflected rays) play an important part in rendering objects visible — in fact, without diffuse reflection non-luminous objects would be invisible; they are occasioned by irregularities in the surface, but are governed by the same law as holds for regular reflection. This law is: the incident and reflected rays make equal angles with the normal to the reflecting surface at the point of incidence, and are coplanar with the normal. This is equivalent to saying that the path of the ray is a minimum.1 In fig. i , MN represents the section of a plane mirror; OR is the in- cident ray, RP the reflected ray, and TR the normal at R. Then the law states that the angle of incidence ORT equals the angle of reflection PRT, and that OR, RT and RP are in the same plane. This natural law is capable of ready experimental proof (a simple one is to take the altitude of a star with a meridian circle, its depression in a horizontal re- flecting surface of mercury and the direction of the nadir), and the most delicate instruments have failed to detect any divergence from it. Its explanation by the Newtonian corpuscular theory is very simple, for we have only to assume that at the point of impact the perpendicular velocity of a corpuscle is reversed, whilst the horizontal velocity is unchanged (the mirror being assumed horizontal). The wave-theory explanation is more complicated, and in the simple form given by Huygens incomplete. The theory as developed by Fresnel shows that regular reflection is due to a small zone in the neighbourhood of the point R (above), there being destructive interference at all other points on the mirror; this theory also accounts for the polarization of the reflected light when incident at a certain angle (see POLARIZATION OF LIGHT). The smoothness or polish of the sur- face largely controls the reflecting power, for, obviously, crests and furrows, if of sufficient magnitude, disturb the phase relations. The permissible deviation from smoothness depends on the wave-length of the light employed: it appears that surfaces smooth to within |th of a wave-length reflect regularly; hence long waves may be regularly reflected by a surface which diffuses short waves. Also the obliquity of the incidence would diminish the effect of any irregularities; this is experi- mentally confirmed by observing the images produced by matt surfaces or by smoked glass at grazing incidence. We now give some elementary constructions of reflected rays, or, what comes to the same thing, of images formed by mirrors. I. If O be a luminous point and OR a ray incident at R on the plane mirror MN (fig. i) to determine the reflected ray and the "image of O. If RP be the reflected ray and RT perpendicular 1 This principle of the minimum path, however, only holds for plane and convex surfaces; with concave surfaces it may be a maximum in certain cases. REFLECTION OF LIGHT to MN, then, by the law of reflection, angle ORT=TRP or ORM = PRN. Hence draw OQ perpendicular to MN, and produce it to S, making QS = OQ; join SR and produce to P. It is easily seen that PR and OR are equally in- clined to RT (or M N ). A point-eye at P would see a point object O at S, i.e. at a distance below the mirror equal to its height above. If the object be a solid, then the images of its cor- ners are formed by taking points at the same distances below as the corners are above the mirror, and joining these points. The eye, however, sees the image per- verted, i.e., in the same relation as the left hand to the right. Fig. 2 shows is viewed in a mirror by a natural FIG. 2. how an extended object eye. O" O:, 0' A B O 0, 0" 0,,, P +2<7. In the same way O forms an image Oi in B such that OOL = 2q; Oi has an image On in A, such that OOn =2^+25; On has an image Om in B, such that OOm = 2p+4g, and so on. Hence there are an infinite number of images at definite distances from the mirrors. This explains the vistas as seen, for example, between two parallel mirrors at the ends of a room. 3. If A, B be two plane mirrors inclined at an angle 8, and inter- secting at C, and O a luminous point between them, determine the position and number of images. Call arc OA = a, OB=/3. The image of O in A, i.e. a', is such that Oa' is perpendicular to CA, and Oa' = 2a. Also Co' = CO; and it is easily seen that all the images lie on a circle of centre C and radius CO. The image a' forms an image a" in B such that Oa" = OB + Ba"=|8+Ba'=/3+OB4-Oa'=2/3+2a = 20. Also a" forms an image a'" in A such that Oa"' = OA+AOBo, i.e. 2n8>ir — a or 2n> (v-al/e. Similarly if p2"+v be the first to fall on ab, we obtain 2n + i> (T — o)/0. Hence in both cases the number of images is the integer next greater than (ir — a)/0. In the same way it can be shown that the number of images of the b series is the integer next greater than (IT— /3)/0. If ir/8 be an integer, then the number ot images of each series is ir/9, for 0/0 and 0/0 are proper fractions. But an image of each series coincides; for if ir/0=2n, we have Oa2n+O62n = 2n0-|-2n0 = 27r i.e. o2" and 62n coincide; and if 7r/0 = 2n-t-i, we have Oo2"+1 + Oi2"~H = 4tt0+2(a+/3) = (4»+2) 0 = 2ir, i.e. a2n+l and fc2n+1 coincide. Hence the number of images, including the luminous point, is 27T/0. This principle is utilized in the kaleidoscope (q.v.), which produces five images by means of its mirrors inclined at 60° (fig. 4). Fig. 5 shows the seven images formed by mirrors inclined at 45°. 4. To determine the reflection at a spherical surface. Let APB (fig. 6) be a section of a concave spherical mirror through its centre O and luminous point U. If a ray, say UP, meet the surface, it will be reflected along PV, which is coplanar with UP and the normal PO at P, and makes the angle VPO = UPO. Hence VO/VP=OU/UP. This expression may be simplified if we assume P to be very close to A, i.e. that the ray UP is very slightly inclined to the axis. Writing A for P, we have VO/AV = OU/AU; and calling AU=w, AV=» and AO = r, this reduces to u~l+v-l = 2r~l. This formula connects the distances of the object and image formed by a spherical concave mirror with the radius of the mirror. Points satisfying this relation are called " conjugate foci," for obviously they are reciprocal, i.e. u and v can be interchanged in the formula. FIG. 4, FIG. 5. If u be infinite, as, for example, if the luminous source be a star, then v~l = 2r-lt i.e. v = &. This value is called the focal length of FIG. 6. the mirror, and the corresponding point, usually denoted by F, is called the " principal focus." This formula requires modifica- tion for a convex mirror. If M be always considered as positive (r may be either positive or negative), r must be regarded as positive with concave mirrors and negative with convex. Similarly the focal length, having the same sign as r, has different signs in the two cases. In this formula all distances are measured from the mirror; but it is sometimes more convenient to measure from the principal focus. If the distances of the object and image from the principal focus be x and y, then u = x+f and v = y+f (remembering that / is positive for concave and negative for convex mirrors). Sub- stituting these values in u~l+v~l =f~l and reducing we obtain xy=fl. Since /" is always positive, x and y must have the same sign, i.e. the object and image must lie on the same side of the principal focus. We now consider the production of the image of a small object placed symmetrically and perpendicular to the axis of a concave (fig. 7) and a convex mirror (fig. 8). Let PQ be the object and A FIG. 7. \M kP c- v^f-f A tt. Q •'.•-" ^*.j Q /N FIG. 8. the vertex of the mirror. Consider the point P. Now a ray through P and parallel to the axis after meeting the mirror at M is reflected through the focus F. The line MF must therefore contain the image of P. Also a ray through P and also through the centre of curva- ture C of the mirror is reflected along the same path ; this also con- tains the image of P. Hence the image is at P, the intersection of the lines MF and PC. Similarly the image of any other point can be found, and the final image deduced. We notice that in fig. 6 the image is inverted and real, and in fig. 7 erect and virtual. The " magnification " or ratio of the size of the image to the object' can be deduced from the figures by elementary geometry ; it equals the ratio of the distances of the image and object from the mirror or from the centre of curvature of the mirror. The positions and characters of the images for objects at varying REFORMATION, THE distances are shown in the table (F is the principal focus and C the centre of curvature of the mirror MA). CONCAVE MIRROR Position of Object. Position of Image. Character of Image. 00 Between » and C C Between C and F Between F and A A F Between F and C c Between C and » Between A and — °° A Real. Real,inverted,diminished „ „ same size „ „ magnified Virtual, erect, magnified Erect, same size CONVEX MIRROR Position of Object. Position of Image. Character of Image. 00 Between » and A A F Between F and A A Virtual Virtual, erect, diminished Erect, same size The above discussion of spherical mirrors assumes that the mirror has such a small aperture that the reflected rays from any point unite in a point. This, however, no longer holds when the mirror has a wide aperture, and in general the reflected rays envelop a caustic (q.v., see also ABERRATION). The only mirror which can sharply reproduce an object-point as an image-point has for its section an ellipse, which is so placed that the object and image are at its foci. This follows from a property of the curve, viz. the sum of the focal distances is constant, and that the focal vectores are equally inclined to the normal at the point. More important than the elliptical mirror, however, is the parabolic, which has the pro- perty of converting rays parallel to the axis into a pencil through its focus; or, inversely, rays from a source placed at the focus are con- verted into a parallel beam; hence the use of this mirror in search- lights and similar devices. REFORMATION, THE. The Reformation, as commonly understood, means the religious and political revolution of the 1 6th century, of which the immediate result was the partial dis- ruption of the Western Catholic Church and the establishment of various national and territorial churches. These agreed in repudiating certain of the doctrines, rites and practices of the medieval Church, especially the sacrifice of the Mass and the headship of the bishop of Rome, and, whatever their official designations, came generally to be known as " Pro- testant." In some cases they introduced new systems of ecclesiastical organization, and in all they sought to justify their innovations by an appeal from the Church's tradition to the Scriptures. The conflicts between Catholics and Pro- testants speedily merged into the chronic political rivalries, domestic and foreign, which distracted the European states; and religious considerations played a very important part in diplomacy and war for at least a century and a half, from the diet of Augsburg in 1530 to the English revolution and the league of Augsburg, 1688-89. The terms " Reformation " and " Protestantism " are inherited by the modern historian; they are not of his devising, and come to him laden with re- miniscences of all the exalted enthusiasms and bitter anti- pathies engendered by a period of fervid religious dissension. The unmeasured invective of Luther and Aleander has not ceased to re-echo, and the old issues are by no means dead. The heat of controversy is, however, abating, and during the past thirty or forty years both Catholic and Protestant The Re- investigators have been vying with one another in formation adding to our knowledge and in rectifying old mis- c°us**eiya ta^es! while an ever-increasing number of writers Religious pledged to neither party are aiding in developing an Revoiu- idea of the scope and nature of the Reformation which Hon. differs radically from the traditional one. We now appreciate too thoroughly the intricacy of the medieval Church; its vast range of activity, secular as well as religious; the inextricable interweaving of the civil and ecclesiastical govern- ments; the slow and painful process of their divorce as the old ideas of the proper functions of the two institutions have changed in both Protestant and Catholic lands: we perceive all"-£oo clearly the limitations of the reformers, their distrust of reason and criticism — in short, we know too much about medieval institutions and the process of their disintegration longer to see in the Reformation an abrupt break in the general history of Europe. No one will, of course, question the importance of the schism which created the distinction between Protestants and Catholics, but it must always be remembered that the religious questions at issue comprised a relatively small part of the whole compass of human aspirations and conduct, even to those to whom religion was especially vital, while a large majority of the leaders in literature, art, science and public affairs went their way seemingly almost wholly unaffected by theological problems. That the religious elements in the Reformation have been greatly overestimated from a modern point of view can hardly be questioned, and one of the most distinguished students of Church history has ventured the assertion that " The motives, both remote and proximate, which led to the Lutheran revolt were largely secular rather than spiritual." " We may," continues Mr H. C. Lea, " dismiss the religious changes incident to the Reformation with the remark that they were not the object sought, but the means for attaining the object. The existing ecclesiastical system was the practical evolution of dogma, and the overthrow of dogma was the only way to obtain permanent reh'ef from the intolerable abuses of that system " (Cambridge Modern History, i. 653). It would perhaps be nearer the truth to say that the secular and spiritual interests inter- mingled and so permeated one another that it is almost im- possible to distinguish them clearly even in thought, while in practice they were so bewilderingly confused that they were never separated, and were constantly mistaken for one another. The first step in clarifying the situation is to come to a full realization that the medieval Church was essentially an inter- national state, and that the character of the Protestant secession from it was largely determined by this fact. As Maitland suggests: " We could frame no ac- Ofthe ceptable definition of a State which would not com- medieval prehend the Church. What has it not that a State £*"£* should have ? It has laws, law givers, law courts, state. lawyers. It uses physical force to compel men to obey the laws. It keeps prisons. In the i3th century, though with squeamish phrases, it pronounced sentence of death. It is no voluntary society; if people are not born into it they are baptized into it when they cannot help them- selves. If they attempt to leave they are guilty of crimen laesae majestatis, and are likely to be burned. It is supported by involuntary contributions, by tithe and tax " (Canon Law in the Church of England, p. 100). The Church was not only organized like a modern bureaucracy, but performed many of the functions of a modern State. It dominated the intellectual and profoundly affected the social interests of western Europe. Its economic influence was multiform and incalculable, owing to its vast property, its system of taxation and its encourage- ment of monasticism. When Luther made his first great appeal to the German people in his Address to the German Nobility, he scarcely adverts to religious matters at all. He deals, on the contrary, almost exclusively with the social, financial, educational, industrial and general moral problems of the day. If Luther, who above all others had the religious issue ever before him, attacks the Church as a source of worldly disorder, it is not surprising that his contemporary Ulrich von Hutten should take a purely secular view of the issues involved. Moreover, in the fascinating collection of popular satires and ephemeral pamphlets made by Schade, one is constantly im- pressed with the absence of religious fervour, and the highly secular nature of the matters discussed. The same may be said of the various Gravamina, or lists of grievances against the papacy drafted from time to time by German diets. But not only is the character of the Reformation differently conceived from whaUit once was; our notions of the process of change are being greatly altered. Formerly, Historic writers accounted for the Lutheran movement by so coatiau- magnifying the horrors of the pre-existing regime ity of the that it appeared intolerable, and its abolition con- R«tormfm sequently inevitable. Protestant writers once con- tented themselves with a brief caricature of the Church, REFORMATION, THE a superficial account of the traffic in indulgences, and a rough and ready assumption, which even Kostlin makes, that the darkness was greatest just before the dawn. Unfortunately this crude solution of the problem proved too much; for conditions were no worse immediately before the revolt than they had been for centuries, and German complaints of papal tyranny go back to Hildegard of Bingen and Walther von der Vogelweide, who antedated Luther by more than three centuries. So a new theory is logically demanded to explain why these conditions, which were chronic, failed to produce a change long before it actually occurred. Singularly enough it is the modern Catholic scholars, Johannes Janssen above all, who, in their efforts further to discredit the Protestant revolt by rehabilitating the institutions which the reformers attacked, have done most to explain the success of the Reformation. A humble, patient Bohemian priest, Hasak, set to work toward half a century ago to bring together the devotional works published during the seventy years immediately succeeding the invention of printing. Every one knows that one at least of these older books, The German Theology, was a great favourite of Luther's; but there are many more in Hasak's collection which breathe the same spirit of piety and spiritual emulation. Building upon the founda- tions laid by Hasak and other Catholic writers who have been too much neglected by Protestant historians, Janssen pro- duced a monumental work in defence of the German Church before Luther's defection. He exhibits the great achievements of the latter part of the i$th and the early portion of the i6th centuries; the art and literature, the material prosperity of the towns and the fostering of the spiritual life of the people. It may well be that his picture is too bright, and that in his obvious anxiety to prove the needlessness of an ecclesiastical revolution he has gone to the opposite extreme from the Pro- testants. Yet this rehabilitation of pre-Reformation Germany cannot but make a strong appeal to the unbiased historical student who looks to a conscientious study of the antecedents of the revolt as furnishing the true key to the movement. Outwardly the Reformation would seem to have begun when, on the loth of December 1520, a professor in the university Revolt °^ Wittenberg invited all the friends of evangelical of the truth among his students to assemble outside the various wall at the ninth hour to witness a pious spectacle — B"vera-a the burning of the " godless book of the papal meats decrees." He committed to the flames the whole from the body of the canon law, together with an edict of papal the head of the Church which had recently been "" y' issued against his teachings. In this manner Martin Luther, with the hearty sympathy of a considerable number of his countrymen, publicly proclaimed and illustrated his repudiation of the papal government under which western Europe had lived for centuries. Within a genera- tion after this event the states of north Germany and Scandinavia, England, Scotland, the Dutch Netherlands and portions of Switzerland, had each in its particular manner permanently seceded from the papal monarchy. France, after a long period of uncertainty and disorder, remained faithful to the bishop of Rome. Poland, after a defection of years, was ultimately recovered for the papacy by the zeal and devo- tion of the Jesuit missionaries. In the Habsburg hereditary dominions the traditional policy and Catholic fervour of the ruling house resulted, after a long struggle, in the restoration of the supremacy of Rome; while in Hungary the national spirit of independence kept Calvinism alive to divide the religious allegiance of the people. In Italy and Spain, on the other hand, the rulers, who continued loyal to the pope, found little difficulty in suppressing any tendencies of revolt on the part of the few converts to the new doctrines. Individuals, often large groups, and even whole districts, had indeed earlier rejected some portions of the Roman Catholic faith, or refused obedience to the ecclesiastical government; but previously to the burning of the canon law by Luther no prince had openly and permanently cast off his allegiance to the international ecclesiastical state of which the bishop of Rome was head. Now, a prince or legislative assembly that accepted the doctrine of Luther, that the temporal power had been " ordained by God for the chastisement of the wicked and the protection of the good " and must be permitted to exercise its functions " un- hampered throughout the whole Christian body, without respect to persons, whether it strikes popes, bishops, priests, monks, nuns, or whoever else " — such a government could proceed to ratify such modifications of the Christian faith as appealed to it in a particular religious confession; it could order its subject to conform to the innovations, and could expel, persecute or tolerate dissenters, as seemed good to it. A " reformed " prince could seize the property of the monasteries, and appro- priate such ecclesiastical foundations as he desired. He could make rules for the selection of the clergy, disregarding the ancient canons of the Church and the claims of the pope to the right of ratification. He could cut off entirely all forms of papal taxation and put an end to papal jurisdiction. The personnel, revenue, jurisdiction, ritual, even the faith of the Church, were in this way placed under the complete control of the territorial governments. This is the central and sig- nificant fact of the so-called Reformation. Wholly novel and distinctive it is not, for the rulers of Catholic countries, like Spain and France, and of England (before the publication of the Act of Supremacy) could and did limit the pope's claims to unlimited jurisdiction, patronage and taxation, and they introduced the placet forbidding the publication within their realms of papal edicts, decisions and orders, without the express sanction of the government — in short, in many ways tended to approach the conditions in Protestant lands. The Reforma- tion was thus essentially a stage in the disengaging of the modern state from that medieval, international ecclesiastical state which had its beginning in the ecclesia of the Acts of the Apostles. An appreciation of the issues of the Reformation — or Protestant revolt, as it might be more exactly called — depends therefore upon an understanding of the development of the papal monarchy, the nature of its claims, the relations it established with the civil powers, the abuses which developed in it and the attempts to rectify them, the sources of friction between the Church and the government, and finally the process by which certain of the European states threw off their allegiance to the Christian commonwealth, of which they had so long formed a part. It is surprising to observe how early the Christian Church assumed the form of a state, and how speedily upon entering into its momentous alliance with the Roman imperial Character government under Constantino it acquired the chief °fthe privileges and prerogatives it was so long to retain. Monarchy In the twelfth book of the Theodosian Code we see and its the foundations of the medieval Church already laid; claims. for it was the 4th, not the I3th century that established the principle that defection from the Church was a crime in the eyes of the State, and raised the clergy to a privileged class, exempted from the ordinary taxes, permitted under restrictions to try its own members and to administer the wealth which flowed into its coffers from the gifts of the faithful. The bishop of Rome, who had from the first probably enjoyed a leading position in the Church as " the successor of the two most glorious of the apostles," elaborated his claims to be the divinely appointed head of the ecclesiastical organization. Siricius (384-389), Leo the Great (440-461), and Gelasius I. (492-496) left little for their successors to add to the arguments in favour of the papal supremacy. In short, if we recall the characteristics of the Church in the West from the times of Con- stantine to those of Theodoric — its reliance upon the civil power for favours and protection, combined with its assumption of a natural superiority over the civil power and its innate tendency to monarchical unity — it becomes clear that Gregory VII. in his effort in the latter half of the nth century to establish the papacy as the great central power of western Europe was in the main only reaffirming and developing old claims in a new world. His brief statement of the papal powers as he REFORMATION, THE conceived them is found in his Diclatus. The bishop of Rome, who enjoys a unique title, that of " pope," may annul the decrees of all other powers, since he judges all but is judged by none. He may depose emperors and absolve the subjects of the unjust from their allegiance. Gregory's position was almost inexpugnable at a time when it was conceded by practically all that spiritual concerns were incalculably more momentous than secular, that the Church was rightly one and indivisible, with one divinely revealed faith and a system of sacraments abso- lutely essential to salvation.. No one called in question the claim of the clergy to control completely all " spiritual " matters. Moreover, the mightiest secular ruler was but a poor sinner dependent for his eternal welfare en the Church and its head, the pope, who in this way necessarily exercised an indirect control over the civil government, which even the emperor Henry IV. and William the Conqueror would not have been disposed to deny. They would also have conceded the pope the right to play the role of a secular ruler in his own lands, as did the German bishops, and to dispose of such fiefs as reverted to him. This class of prerogatives, as well as the right which the pope claimed to ratify the election of the emperor, need not detain us, although they doubtless served in the long run to weaken the papal power. But the pope laid claim to a direct power over the civil governments. Nicholas II. (1058-1061) declared that Jesus had conferred on Peter the control (jura) of an earthly as well as of a heavenly empire; and this phrase was embodied in the canon law. Innocent III., a century and a half later, taught that James the brother of the Lord left to Peter not only the government of the whole Church, but that of the whole world (totum seculum gubernandum) .' So the power of the pope no longer rested upon his headship of the Church or his authority as a secular prince, but on a far more comprehensive claim to universal dominion. There was no reason why the bishop of Rome should justify such acts as Innocent himself performed in deposing King John of England and later in annulling Magna Carta; or Gregory IV. when he struck out fourteen articles from the Sachsenspiegel; or Nicholas V. when he invested Portugal with the right to sub- jugate all peoples on the Atlantic coast; or Julius II. when he threatened to transfer the kingdom of France to England; or the conduct of those later pontiffs who condemned the treaties of Westphalia, the Austrian constitution of 1867 and the establishment of the kingdom of Italy. The theory and practice of papal absolutism was successfully promulgated by Gratian in his Decrelum, completed at Bologna about 1142. This was supplemented by later collections composed mainly of papal decretals. (See CANON LAW and DECRETALS, FALSE.) As every fully equipped university had its faculty of canon law in which the Corpus juris canonici was studied, Rashdall is hardly guilty of exaggeration when he says: " By means of the happy thought of the Bolognese monk the popes were enabled to convert the new-born universities — the offspring of that intellectual new birth of Europe which might have been so formidable an enemy to the papal pretensions — into so many engines for the propagation of Ultramontane ideas." Thomas Aquinas was the first theologian to describe the Church as a divinely organized absolute monarchy, whose head con- centrated in his person the entire authority of the Church, and was the source of all the ecclesiastical law (conditor juris), issuing the decrees of general councils in his own name, and claiming the right to revoke or modify the decrees of former councils — indeed, to make exceptions or to set aside altogether anything which did not rest upon the dictates of divine or natural law. In practice the whole of western Europe was subject to the jurisdiction of one tribunal of last resort, the Roman Curia. The pope claimed the right to tax church property throughout Christendom. He was able to exact an oath of fidelity from the archbishops, named many of the bishops, and asserted the right to transfer and dispose them. The organs of this vast monarchy were the papal Curia, which first appears distinctly in the nth century (see CURIA ROMAN A), 'See further, Innocent III. and the legates, who visited the courts of Europe as haughty representatives of the central government of Christendom. It should always be remembered that the law of the Church was regarded by all lawyers in the later middle ages as the law common to all Europe (jus commune). The laws of Relations the Carolingian empire provided that one excom- ol the municated by the Church who did not make his peace ^^aT^nd within a year and a day should be outlawed, and this civil gov- general principle was not lost sight of. It was a capital eminent*. offence in the eyes of the State to disagree with the teachings of the Church, and these, it must be remembered, included a recognition of the papal supremacy. The civil authorities burnt an obstinate heretic, condemned by the Church, without a thought of a new trial. The emperor Frederick II. 's edicts and the so-called iloklissements of St Louis provide that the civil officers should search out suspected heretics and deliver them to the ecclesiastical judges. The civil government recognized monastic vows by regarding a professed monk as civilly dead and by pursuing him and returning him to his monastery if he violated his pledges of obedience and ran away. The State recognized the ecclesiastical tribunals and accorded them a wide jurisdiction that we should now deem essentially secular in its nature. The State also admitted that large classes of its citizens — the clergy, students, crusaders, widows and the miserable and helpless in general — were justiceable only by Church tribunals. By the middle of the i3th century many lawyers took the degree of doctor of both laws (J.U.D.), civil and canon, and practised both. As is well known, temporal rulers constantly selected clergymen as their most trusted advisers. The existence of this theocratic international state was of course conditioned by the weakness of the civil govern- ment. So long as feudal monarchy continued, the Church supplied to some extent the deficiencies of the turbulent and ignorant princes by endeavouring to maintain order, administer justice, protect the weak and encourage learning. So soon as the modern national state began to gain strength, the issue between secular rulers and the bishops of Rome took a new form. The clergy naturally stoutly defended the powers which they had long enjoyed and believed to be rightly theirs. On the other hand, the State, which could count upon the support of an ever-increasing number of prosperous and loyal subjects, sought to protect its own interests and showed itself less and less inclined to tolerate the extreme claims of the pope. Moreover, owing to the spread of education, the king was no longer obliged to rely mainly upon the assistance of the clergy in conducting his government. The chief sources of friction between Church and State were four in number. First, the growth of the practice of " reserva- tion " and " provision," by which the popes assumed the right to appoint their own nominees to vacant sees and other benefices, in defiance of the claims of the crown, the chapters and private patrons. In the case of wealthy bishoprics or abbacies this involved a serious menace to the secular authority. Both pope and king were naturally anxious to place their own friends and supporters in these influential positions. The pope, moreover, had come to depend to a considerable extent for his revenue upon the payments made by his nominees, which represented a corresponding drain on the resources of the secular states. Secondly, there was the great question, how far the lands and other property of the clergy should be subject to taxation. Was this vast amount of property to increase indefinitely without contribution to the maintenance of the secular government? A decretal of Innocent III. permitted the clergy to make voluntary contributions to the king when there was urgent necessity, and the resources of the laity had proved inadequate. But the pope maintained that, except in the most critical cases, his consent must be obtained for such grants. Thirdly, there was the inevitable jealousy between the secular and ecclesiastical courts and the serious problem of the exact extent of the original and appellate jurisdiction of the Roman Curia. Fourthly, and lastly, there was the most fundamental difficulty of all, the extent to which the pope, as the universally acknowledged head REFORMATION, THE of the Church, was justified in interfering in the internal affairs of particular states. Unfortunately, most matters could be viewed from both a secular and religious standpoint; and even in purely secular affairs the claims of the pope to at least indirect control were practically unlimited. The specific nature of the abuses which flourished in the papal monarchy, the unsuccessful attempts to remedy them, and the measures taken by the chief European states to protect themselves will become apparent as we hastily review the principal events of the I4th and isth centuries. As one traces the vicissitudes of the papacy during the two centuries from Boniface VIII. to Leo X. one cannot fail to be The impressed with the almost incredible strength of the papacy la ecclesiastical state which had been organized and the 14th fortified by Gregory VII., Alexander III., Innocent III. iry' and Gregory IX. In spite of the perpetuation of all the old abuses and the continual appearance of new devices for increasing the papal revenue; in spite of the jealousy of kings and princes, the attacks of legists and the preaching of the heretics; in spite of seventy years of exile from the holy city, forty years of distract- ing schism and discord, and thirty years of conflict with stately cecumenical councils deliberating in the name of the Holy Spirit and intent upon permanently limiting the papal prerogatives; in spite of the unworthy conduct of some of those who ascended the papal throne, their flagrant political ambitions, and their greed; in spite of the spread of knowledge, old and new, the development of historical criticism, and philosophical speculation; in spite, in short, of every danger which could threaten the papal monarchy, it was still intact when Leo X. died in 1521. Nevertheless, permanent if partial dissolution was at hand, for no one of the perils which the popes had seemingly so successfully overcome had failed to weaken the constitution of their empire; and it is impossible to comprehend its comparatively sudden disintegration without reckoning with the varied hostile forces which were accumulating and com- bining strength during the I4th and i5th centuries. The first serious conflict that arose between the developing modern state and the papacy centred about the pope's claim that the property of the clergy was normally exempt from royal taxation. Boniface VIII. was forced to permit Edward I. and Philip the Fair to continue to demand and receive subsidies granted by the clergy of their realms. Shortly after the bitter humiliation of Boniface by the French government and his death in 1303, the bishop of Bordeaux was elected pope as Clement V. (1305). He preferred to remain in France, and as the Italian cardinals died they were replaced by Frenchmen. The papal court was presently established at Avignon, on the confines of France, where it remained until 1377. While the successors of Clement V. were not so completely under the control of the French kings as has often been alleged, the very proximity of the curia to France served inevitably to intensify national jealousies. The claims of John XXII. (1316-1334) to control the election of the emperor called forth the first fundamental and critical attack on the papal monarchy, by Marsiglio of Padua, who declared in his Defensor pads (1324) that the assumed supremacy of the bishop of Rome was without basis, since it was very doubtful if Peter was ever in Rome, and in any case there was no evidence that he had transmitted any exceptional prerogatives to succeeding bishops. But Marsiglio's logical and elaborate justification for a revolt against the medieval Church produced no perceptible effects. The removal of the papal court from Rome to Avignon, however, not only reduced its prestige but increased the pope's chronic financial embarrassments, by cutting off the income from his own dominions, which he could no longer control, while the unsuccessful wars waged by John XXII., the palace building and the notorious luxury of some of his successors, served enormously to augment the expenses. Various devices were resorted to, old and new, to fill the treasury. The fees of the Curia were raised for the numberless favours, dispensations, absolutions, and exemptions of all kinds which were sought by clerics and laymen. The right claimed by the pope to fill benefices of all kinds was extended, and the amount contributed to the pope by his nominees amounted to from a third to a half of the first year's revenue (see ANNATES). Boni- face VIII. had discovered a rich source of revenue in the jubilee, and in the jubilee indulgences extended to those who could not come to Rome. Clement VI. reduced the period between these lucrative occasions from one hundred to fifty years, and Urban VI. determined in 1389 that they should recur at least once in a generation (every thirty-three years). Church offices, high and low, were regarded as investments from which the pope had his commission. England showed itself better able than other countries to defend itself against the papal control of church preferment. From 1343 onward, statutes were passed by parliament England forbidding any one to accept a papal provision, and and the cutting off all appeals to the papal curia or ecclesias- papacy la tical courts in cases involving benefices. Neverthe- ' less, as a statute of 1379 complains, benefices continued to be given " to divers people of another language and of strange lands and nations, and sometimes to actual enemies of the king and of his realm, which never made residence in this same, nor cannot, may not, nor will not in any wise bear and perform the charges of the same benefice in hearing confessions, preaching or teaching the people." When, in 1365, Innocent VI. demanded that the arrears of the tribute promised by King John to the pope should be paid up, parliament abrogated the whole contract on the ground that John had no right to enter into it. A species of anti-clerical movement, which found an unworthy leader in John of Gaunt, developed at this time. The Good Parliament of 1376 declared that, in spite of the laws restricting papal pro- visions, the popes at Avignon received five times as much revenue from England as the English kings themselves. Secularization was mentioned in parliament. Wycliffe began his public career in 1366 by proving that England was not bound to pay tribute to the pope. Twelve years later he was, like Marsiglio, attacking the very foundations of the papacy itself, as lacking all scriptural sanction. He denounced the papal government as utterly degraded, and urged that the vast property of the Church, which he held to be the chief cause of its degradation, should be secularized and that the clergy should consist of " poor priests," supported only by tithes and alms. They should preach the gospel and encourage the people to seek the truth in the Scriptures themselves, of which a translation into English was completed in 1382. During the later years of his life he attacked the doctrine of transubstantiation, and all the most popular institutions of the Church — indulgences, pilgrimages, invocation of the saints, relics, celibacy of the clergy, auricular confession, &c. His opinions were spread abroad by the hundreds of sermons and popular pamphlets written in English for the people (see WYCLITFE). For some years after Wycliffe's death his followers, the Lollards, continued to carry on his work; but they roused the effective opposition of the conservative clergy, and were subjected to a persecution which put an end to their public agitation. They rapidly disappeared and, except in Bohemia, Wycliffe's teachings left no clearly traceable impressions. Yet the discussions he aroused, the attacks he made upon the institutions of the medieval Church, and especially the position he assigned to the Scriptures as the exclusive source of revealed truth, serve to make the develop- ment of Protestantism under Henry VIII. more explicable than it would otherwise be. Wycliffe's later attacks upon the papacy had been given point by the return of the popes to Rome in 1377 and the opening of the Great Schism which was to endure Ttle Qreai for forty years. There had been many anti-popes in schism the past, but never before had there been such pro- (1377- longed and genuine doubt as to which of two lines ' of popes was legitimate, since in this case each was supported by a college of cardinals, the one at Rome, the other at Avignon. Italy, except Naples, took the side of the Italian pope; France, of the Avignon pope; England, in its hostility to France, 8 REFORMATION, THE sided with Urban VI. in Rome, Scotland with Clement VII., his rival; Flanders followed England; Urban secured Germany, Hungary and the northern kingdoms; while Spain, after re- maining neutral for a time, went over to Clement. Western Christendom had now two papal courts to support. The schism extended down to the bishoprics, and even to the monasteries and parishes, where partisans of the rival popes struggled to obtain possession of sees and benefices. The urgent necessity for healing the schism, the difficulty of uniting the colleges of cardinals, and the prolonged and futile negotiations carried on between the rival popes inevitably raised the whole question of the papal supremacy, and led to the search for a still higher ecclesiastical authority, which, when the normal system of choosing the head of the Church broke down, might re-establish that ecclesiastical unity to which all Europe as yet clung. The idea of the supreme power on earth of a general council of Christendom, deliberating in the name of the Holy Spirit, convoked, if necessary, independently of the popes, was de- fended by many, and advocated by the university of Paris. The futile council of Pisa in 1409, however, only served to increase to three the number of rival representatives of God on earth. The considerable pamphlet literature of the time substantiates the conclusion of an eminent modern Catholic historian, Ludwig Pastor, who declares that the crisis through which the church passed in this terrible period of the schism was the most serious in all its history. It was at just this period, when the rival popes were engaged in a life-and-death struggle, that heretical movements appeared in England, France, Italy, Germany, and especially in Bohemia, which threatened the whole ecclesiastical order. The council of Constance assembled in 1414 under auspices hopeful not only for the extinction of the schism but for the The general reform of the Church. Its members showed councils no patience with doctrinal innovations, even such of Con- moderate ones as John Huss represented. They turnec^ him over to the secular arm for execution, although they did not thereby succeed in check- ing the growth of heresy in Bohemia (see Huss). The healing of the schism proved no very difficult matter; but the council hoped not only to restore unity and suppress heresy, but to re-establish general councils as a regular element in the legislation of the Church. The decree Sacrosancla (April 1415) proclaimed that a general council assembled in the Holy Spirit and representing the Catholic Church militant had its power immediately from Christ, and was supreme over every one in the Church, not excluding the pope, in all matters pertaining to the faith and reformation of the Church of God in head and members. The decree Frequens (October 1417) provided for the regular convocation of councils in the future. As to ecclesiastical abuses the council could do very little, and finally satisfied itself with making out a list of those which the new pope was required to remedy in co-operation with the deputies chosen by the council. The list serves as an excellent summary of the evils of the papal monarchy as recognized by the unim- peachably orthodox. It included: the number, character and nationality of the cardinals, the abuse of the " reserva- tions " made by the apostolic see, the annates, the collation to benefices, expectative favours, cases to be brought before the papal Curia (including appeals), functions of the papal chancery and penitentiary, benefices in commendam, con- firmation of elections, income during vacancies, indulgences, tenths, for what reasons and how is a pope to be corrected or deposed. The pope and the representatives of the council made no serious effort to remedy the abuses suggested under these several captions; but the idea of the superiority of a council over the pope, and the right of those who felt aggrieved by papal decisions to appeal to a future council, remained a serious menace to the theory of papal absolutism. The decree Frequens was not wholly neglected; though the next council, at Siena, came to naught, the council at Basel, whose chief business was to put an end to the terrible religious war that had been raging between the Bohemians and Germans, was destined to cause Eugenius IV. much anxiety. It reaffirmed the decree Sacrosancla, and refused to recognize the validity of a bull Eugenius issued in December 1431 dissolving it. Two years later political reverses forced the pope to sanction the existence of the council, which not only concluded a treaty with the Bohemian heretics but abolished the papal fees for appointments, confirmation and consecration — above all, the annates — and greatly reduced papal reservations; it issued indulgences, imposed tenths, and established rules for the government of the papal states. France, however, withdrew its support from the council, and in 1438, under purely national auspices, by the famous Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, ad- justed the relations of the Gallican Church to the papacy; and Eugenius soon found himself in a position to repudiate the council and summoned a new one to assemble in 1438 at Ferrara under his control to take up the important question of the pending union with the Greek Church. The higher clergy deserted the council of Basel, and left matters in the hands of the lower clergy, who chose an anti-pope; but the rump council gradually lost credit and its lingering members were finally dispersed. The various nations were left to make terms with a reviving papacy. England had already taken measures to check the papal claims. France in the Pragmatic Sanction reformulated the claim of the councils to be superior to the pope, as well as the decision of the council of Basel in regard to elections, annates and other dues, limitations on ecclesi- astical jurisdiction, and appeals to the pope. While the canonical elections were re-established, the prerogatives of the crown were greatly increased, as in England. In short, the national ecclesiastical independence of the French Church was established. The German diet of Regensburg (1439) ratified in the main the decrees of the council of Basel, which clearly gratified the electors, princes and prelates; and Germany for the first time joined the ranks of the countries which subjected the decrees of the highest ecclesiastical instance to the placet or approval of the civil authorities. But there was no strong power, as in England and France, to attend to the execution of the provisions. In 1448 Eugenius's successor, Nicholas V., concluded a con- cordat with the emperor Frederick III. as representative of the German nation. This confined itself to papal appointments and the annates. In practice it restored the former range of papal reservations, and extended papacy la the papal right of appointment to all benefices (except ^j^f' h the higher offices in cathedrals and collegiate churches) which fell vacant during the odd months. It also accorded him the right to confirm all newly elected prelates and to receive the annates. Nothing was said in the concordat of a great part of the chief subjects of complaint. This gave the princes an excuse for the theory that the decrees of Constance and Basel were still in force, limiting the papal prerogatives in all respects not noticed in the concordat. It was Germany which gave the restored papacy the greatest amount of anxiety during the generation following the dissolution of the council of Basel. In the " recesses " or formal statements issued at the con- clusion of the sessions of the diet one can follow the trend of opinion among the German princes, secular and ecclesiastical. The pope is constantly accused of violating the concordat, and constant demands are made for a general council, or at least a national one, which should undertake to remedy the abuses. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks afforded a new excuse for papal taxation. In 1453 a crusading bull was issued imposing a tenth on all benefices of the earth to equip an expedition against the infidel. The diet held at Frankfort in 1456 recalled the fac£ that the council of Constance had for- bjdden the pope to impose tenths without the consent of the clergy in the region affected, and that it was clear that he proposed to " pull the German sheep's fleece over its ears." A German correspondent of Aeneas Sylvius assures him in 1457 that " thousands of tricks are devised by the Roman see which enables it to extract the money from our pockets very REFORMATION, THE neatly, as if we were mere barbarians. Our nation, once so famous, is a slave now, who must pay tribute, and has lain in the dust these many years bemoaning her fate." Aeneas Sylvius issued, immediately after his accession to the papacy as Pius II. the bull Execrabilis forbidding all appeals to a future council. This seemed to Germany to cut off its last hope. It found a spokesman in the vigorous Gregory of Heimburg, who accused the pope of issuing the bull so that he and his cardinals might conveniently pillage Germany unhampered by the threat of a council. " By forbidding appeals to a council the pope treats us like slaves, and wishes to take for his own pleasures all that we and our ancestors have accumulated by honest labour. He calls me a chatterer, although he himself is more talkative than a magpie." Heimburg's denunciations of the pope were widely circulated, and in spite of the major excom- munication he was taken into the service of the archbishop of Mainz and was his representative at the diet of Nuremberg in 1462. It is thus clear that motives which might ultimately lead to the withdrawal of a certain number of German princes from the papal ecclesiastical state were accumulat- ing and intensifying during the latter half of the isth century. It is impossible to review here the complicated political history ot the opening years of the i6th century. The Con- names of Charles VIII. and Louis XII. of France, oi ditions la Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, of Henry VII. and ai™e"y Henrv VIIL of England, of Maximilian the German "opening ot king, of Popes Alexander VI., Julius II. and Leo X., theioia stand for better organized civil governments, with century. growing powerful despotic heads; for a perfectly worldly papacy absorbed in the interests of an Italian prin- cipality, engaged in constant political negotiations with the European powers which are beginning to regard Italy as their chief field of rivalry, and are using its little states as convenient counters in their game of diplomacy and war. It was in Ger- many, however, seemingly the weakest and least aggressive of the European states, that the first permanent and successful revolts against the papal monarchy occurred. Nothing came of the lists of German gravamina, or of the demands for a council, so long as the incompetent Frederick III. continued to reign. His successor, Maximilian, who was elected emperor in 1493, was mainly preoccupied with his wars and attempts to reform the constitution of the empire; but the diet gave some attention to ecclesiastical reform. For instance, in 1501 it took measures to prevent money raised by the grantirig of a papal indulgence from leaving the country. After the disruption of the league of Cambray, Maximilian, like Louis XII., was thrown into a violent anti-curial reaction, and in 1510 he sent to the well-known humanist, Joseph Wimpheling, a copy of the French Pragmatic Sanction, asking his advice and stating that he had determined to free Germany from the yoke of the Curia and prevent the great sums of money from going to Rome. Wimpheling in his reply rehearsed the old grievances and complained that the contributions made to the pope by the archbishops on receiving the pallium was a great burden on the people. He stated that that of the' archbishop of Mainz had been raised from ten to twenty-five thousand gulden, and that there had been seven vacancies within a generation, and consequently the subjects of the elector had been forced to pay that amount seven times. But Wimpheling had only some timid suggestions to make, and, since Maximilian was once more on happy terms with the pope, political considerations served to cool completely his momentary ardour for ecclesiastical reform. In 1514 the archbishopric of Mainz fell vacant again, and Albert of Brandenburg, already archbishop of Magdeburg and administrator of Halberstadt, longing to add it to his possessions, was elected. After some scandalous negotiations with Leo X. it was arranged that Albert should pay 14,000 ducats for the papal confirmation and 10,000 as a " composition " for permission to continue to hold, against the rules of the Church, his two former archbishoprics. Moreover, in order to permit him to pay the sums, he was to have half the proceeds in his provinces from an indulgence granted to forward the rebuilding of St Peter's. A Dominican monk, Johann Tetzel, was selected to proclaim the indulgence (together with certain supplementary graces) in the three provinces of the elector. This suggestion came from the curia, not the elector, whose representatives could not suppress the fear that the plan would arouse opposition and perhaps worse. Tetzel's preaching and the exaggerated claims that he was re- ported to be making for the indulgences attracted the attention of an Augustinian friar, Martin Luther, who had for some years been lecturing on theology at the university of Wittenberg. He found it impossible to reconcile Tetzel's views of indulgences with his own fundamental theory ol salvation. He accordingly hastily drafted ninety-five propositions relating to indulgences, and posted an invitation to those who wished to attend a disputation in Wittenberg on the matter, under his presidency. He points out the equivocal character of the word poenitentia, which meant both "penance" and "penitence": he declared that " true contrition seeks punishment, while the ampleness of pardons relaxes it and causes men to hate it." Christians ought to be taught that he who gives to a poor man or lends to the needy does better than if he bought pardons. He concludes with certain " keen questionings of the laity," as, Why does not the pope empty purgatory forthwith for charity's sake, instead of cautiously for money ? Why does he not, since he is rich as Croesus, build St Peter's with his own money instead of taking that of poor believers ? It was probably these closing reflections which led to the translation of the theses from Latin into German, and their surprising circulation. It must not be assumed that Luther's ninety-five theses produced any con- siderable direct results. They awakened the author himself to a consciousness that his doctrines were after all incompatible with some of the Church's teachings, and led him to consider the nature of the papal power which issued the indulgence. Two or three years elapsed betore Luther began to be generally known and to exercise a perceptible influence upon aftairs. In July 1518 a diet assembled in Augsburg to consider the new danger from the Turks, who were making rapid conquests under Sultan Selim I. The pope's representative, fhe diet ot Cardinal Cajetan, made it clear that the only safety Augsburg lay in the collection of a tenth from the clergy °iisi8. and a twentieth from laymen; but the diet appointed a committee to consider the matter and explain why they pro- posed to refuse the pope's demands. Protests urging the diet not to weaken came in from all sides. There was an especially bitter denunciation of the Curia by some unknown writer. He claims that " the pope bids his collectors go into the whole world, saying, ' He that believeth, and payeth the tenths, shall be saved.' But it is not necessary to stand in such fear of the thunder of Christ's vicar, but rather to fear Christ Himself, for it is the Florentine's business, not Christ's, that is at issue." The report of the committee of the diet was completed on the 27th of August 1518. It reviews all the abuses, declares that the German people are the victims of war, devastation and dearth, and that the common man is beginning to comment on the vast amount of wealth that is collected for expeditions against the Turk through indulgences or otherwise, and yet no expedition takes place. This is the first recognition in the official gravamina of the importance of the people. Shortly after the committee submitted its report the clergy of Liege presented a memorial which, as the ambassador from Frankfort observed, set forth in the best Latin all the various forms of rascality of which the curlizanen (i.e. curiales, officials of the curia) were guilty. From this time on three new streams begin to reinforce the rather feeble current of official efforts for reform. The common man, to whom the diet of Augsburg alludes, had long been raising his voice against the "parsons" (Pfaffen); the men of letters, Brand, Erasmus, Reuchlin, and above all Ulrich von Hutten, contributed, each in their way, to discredit the Roman Curia; and lastly, a new type of theology, repre- sented chiefly by Martin Luther, threatened to sweep away the very foundations of the papal monarchy. 10 REFORMATION, THE The growing discontent of the poor people, whether in country or town, is clearly traceable in Germany during the isth century, and revolutionary agitation was chronic in southern "fth"ty Germany at least during the first two decades of the masses 1 6th. The clergy were satirized and denounced in to the popular pamphlets and songs. The tithe was an CQc7man oppressive form of taxation, as were the various fees demanded for the performance of the sacraments. The so-called " Reformation of Sigismund," drawn up in 1438, had demanded that the celibacy of the clergy should be abandoned and their excessive wealth reduced. " It is a shame which cries to heaven, this oppression by tithes, dues, penalties, excommunication, and tolls of the peasant, on whose labour all men depend for their existence." In 1476 a poor young shepherd drew thousands to Nicklashausen to hear him denounce the emperor as a rascal and the pope as a worthless fellow, and urge the division of the Church's property among the members of the community. The " parsons " must be killed, and the lords reduced to earn their bread by daily labour. An apoca- lyptic pamphlet of 1508 shows on its cover the Church upside down, with the peasant performing the services, while the priest guides the plough outside and a monk drives the horses. Doubtless the free peasants of Switzerland contributed to stimulate disorder and discontent, especially in southern Germany. The conspiracies were repeatedly betrayed and the guilty parties terribly punished. That discovered in 1517 made a deep impression on the authorities by reason of its vast extent, and doubtless led the diet of Augsburg to allude to the danger which lay in the refusal of the common man to pay the ecclesiastical taxes. " It was into this mass of seething discontent that the spark of religious protest fell — the one thing needed to fire the train and kindle the social conflagration. This was the society to which Luther spoke, and its discontent was the sounding board which made his words reverberate." ' On turning from the attitude of the peasants and poorer townspeople to that of the scholars, we find in their writings Attitude a good deal of harsh criticism of the scholastic theology, of the satirical allusions to the friars, and, in Germany, sharp human- denunciations of the practices of the Curia. But there lsts' are many reasons for believing that the older estimate of the influence of the so-called Renaissance, or " new learning," in promoting the Protestant revolt was an exaggerated one. The class of humanists which had grown up in Italy during the 1 5th century, and whose influence had been spreading into Germany, France and England during the generation immedi- ately preceding the opening of the Protestant revolt, repre- sented every phase of religious feeling from mystic piety to cynical indifference, but there were very few anti-clericals among them. The revival of Greek from the time of Chryso- loras onward, instead of begetting a Hellenistic spirit, trans- ported the more serious-minded to the nebulous shores of Neo- Platonism, while the less devout became absorbed in scholarly or literary ambitions, translations, elegantly phrased letters, clever epigrams or indiscriminate invective. It is true that Lorenzo Valla (d. 1457) showed the Donation of Constantine to be a forgery, denied that Dionysius the Areopagite wrote the works ascribed to him, and refuted the commonly accepted notion that each of the apostles had contributed a sentence to the Apostles' Creed. But such attacks were rare and isolated and were not intended to effect a breach in the solid ramparts of the medieval Church, but rather to exhibit the ingenuity of the critic. In the libraries collected under humanistic influences the patristic writers, both Latin and Greek, and the scholastic doctors are conspicuous. Then most of the humanists were clerics, and in Italy they enjoyed the patronage of the popes. They not unnaturally showed a tolerant spirit on the whole toward existing institutions, including the ecclesiastical abuses, and, in general, cared little how long the vulgar herd was left in the superstitious darkness which befitted their estate, so long as the superior man was permitted to hold discreetly any views he pleased. Of this attitude Mutian (1471-1526), 1 Lindsay. the German humanist who perhaps approached most nearly the Italian type, furnishes a good illustration. He believed that Christianity had existed from all eternity, and that the Greeks and Romans, sharing in God's truth, would share also in the celestial joys. Forms and ceremonies should only be judged as they promoted the great object of life, a clean heart and a right spirit, love to God and one's neighbour. He defined faith as commonly understood to mean " not the conformity of what we say with fact, but an opinion upon divine things founded upon credulity which seeks after profit." " With the cross," he declares, " we put our foes to flight, we extort money, we consecrate God, we shake hell, we work miracles." These reflections were, however, for his intimate friends, and like him, his much greater contemporary, Erasmus, abhorred anything suggesting open revolt or revolution. The Erasmus extraordinary popularity of Erasmus is a sufficient (.1464* indication that his attitude of mind was viewed with IS36t- sympathy by the learned, whether in France, England, Germany, Spain or Italy. »He was a firm believer in the efficacy of culture. He maintained that old prejudices would disappear with the progress of knowledge, and that superstition and mechanical devices of salvation would be insensibly abandoned. The laity should read their New Testament, and would in this way come to feel the true significance of Christ's life and teachings, which, rather than the Church, formed the centre of Erasmus's religion. The dissidence of dissent, however, filled him with uneasiness, and he abhorred Luther's denial of free will and his exaggerated notion of man's utter depravity; in short, he did nothing whatever to promote the Protestant revolt, except so far as his frank denuncia- tion and his witty arraignment of clerical and monastic weaknesses and soulless ceremonial, especially in his Praise of Folly and Col- loquies, contributed to bring the faults of the Church into strong relief, and in so far as his edition of the New Testament furnished a simple escape from innumerable theological complications. A peculiar literary feud in Germany served, about 1515, to throw into sharp contrast the humanistic party, which had been gradually developing during the previous fifty years, and the conservative, monkish, scholastic group, who found their leader among the Dominicans of the university of Cologne. Johann Reuchlin, a well-known scholar, who had been charged by the Dominicans with heresy, not only received the support of the newer type of scholars, who wrote him encouraging letters which he published under the title Epistolae darorum •airorum, but this collection suggested to Crotus Rubianus and Ulrich von Hutten one of the most successful satires of the ages, the Epistolae obscurorum virorum. As Creighton well said, the chief importance of the " Letters of Obscure Men " lay in its success in popularizing the conception of a stupid party which was opposed to the party of progress. At the same time that the Neo-Platonists, like Ficino and Pico de la Mirandola, and the pantheists, whose God was little more than a reverential conception of the universe at large, and the purely worldly humanists, like Celtes and Bebel, were widely diverging each by his own particular path from the ecclesiastical Weltanschauung of the middle ages, Ulrich von Hutten was busy attacking the Curia in his witty Dialogues, in the name of German patriotism. He, at least, among the well-known scholars eagerly espoused Luther's cause, as he understood it. A few of the humanists became Protestants — Melanchthon, Bucer, Oecolampadius and others — but the great majority of them, even if attracted for the moment by Luther's denunciation of scholasticism, speedily repudiated the movement. In Socinianism (see below) we have perhaps the only instance of humanistic antecedents leading to the formation of a religious sect. A new type of theology made its appearance at the opening of the i6th century ,s in sharp contrast with the Aristotelian scholasticism of the Thomists and Scotists. This was The new due to the renewed enthusiasm for, and appreciation of, theology St Paul with which Erasmus sympathized, and which found an able exponent in England in John Colet and in France in Lefevre of Etaples (Faber Stapulensis). Luther was reaching somewhat similar views at the same time, REFORMATION, THE ii although in a strikingly different manner and with far more momentous results for the western world. Martin Luther was beyond doubt the most important single figure in the Protestant revolt. His influence was indeed by no means so decisive and so pervasive as has commonly been supposed, and his attacks on the evils in the Church were no bolder or more comprehensive than those of Marsiglio and Wycliffe, or of several among his con- temporaries who owed nothing to his example. Had the German princes not found it to their interests to enforce his principles, he might never have been more than the leader of an obscure mystic sect. He was, moreover, no statesman. He was recklessly impetuous in his temperament, coarse and grossly superstitious according to modern standards. Yet in spite of all these allowances he remains one of the great heroes of all history. Few come in contact with his writings without feeling his deep spiritual nature and an absolute genuineness and marvellous individuality which seem never to sink into mere routine or affectation. In his more important works almost every sentence is alive with that autochthonic quality which makes it unmistakably his. His fundamental religious con- ception was his own hard-found answer to his own agonized question as to the nature and assurance of salvation. Even if others before him had reached the conviction that the Vulgate's word justitia in Romans i. 16-17 meant "righteousness" rather than " justice " in a juridical sense, Luther exhibited supreme religious genius in his interpretation of " God's righteousness " (Gerechligkeif) as over against the " good works " of man, and in the overwhelming importance he attached to the promise that the just shall live by faith. It was his anxiety to remove everything that obscured this central idea which led him to revolt against the ancient Church, and this conception of faith served, when he became leader of the German Protestants, as a touchstone to test the expediency of every innovation. But only gradually did he come to realize that his source of spiritual consolation might undermine altogether the artfully constructed fabric of the medieval Church. As late as 1516 he declared that the life of a monk was never a more enviable one than at that day. He had, however, already begun to look sourly upon Aristotle and the current scholastic theology, which he believed hid the simple truth of the gospel and the desperate state of mankind, who were taught a vain reliance upon outward works and ceremonies, when the only safety lay in throwing oneself on God's mercy. He was suddenly forced to take up the consideration of some of the most fundamental points in the orthodox theology by the appearance of Tetzel in 1517. In his hastily drafted Ninety-five Theses he sought to limit the potency of indulgences, and so indirectly raised the question as to the power of the pope. He was astonished to observe the wide circulation of the theses both in the Latin and German versions. They soon reached Rome, and a Dominican monk, Prierius, wrote a reply in defence of the papal power, in an insolent tone which first served to rouse Luther's suspicion of the theology of the papal Curia. He was summoned to Rome, but, out of consideration for his patron, the important elector of Saxony, he was permitted to appear before the papal legate during the diet of Augsburg in 1518. He boldly contradicted the legate's theological statements, refused to revoke anything and appealed to a future council. On returning to Wittenberg, he turned to the canon law, and was shocked to find it so completely at variance with his notions of Christianity. He reached the conclusion that the papacy was but four hundred years old. Yet, although of human origin, it was established by common consent and with God's sanction, so that no one might withdraw his obedience without offence. It was not, however, until 1520 that Luther became in a sense the leader of the German people by issuing his three great pamphlets, all of which were published in German as well as in Latin — his Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, his Babylonish Captivity of the Church, and his Freedom of the Christian. In the first he urged that, since the Church had failed to reform itself, the secular government should come to the rescue. " The Romanists have with great dexterity built themselves about with three walls, which have hitherto protected them against reform; and thereby is Christianity fearfully fallen. In the first place, when the temporal power has pressed them hard, they have affirmed and maintained that the temporal power has no jurisdiction over them — that, on the contrary, the spiritual is above the temporal. Secondly, when it was proposed to admonish them from the Holy Scriptures they said, ' It beseems no one but the pope to interpret the Scriptures,' and, thirdly, when they were threatened with a council, they invented the idea that no one but the pope can call a council. Thus they have secretly stolen our three rods that they may go unpunished, and have entrenched themselves safely behind these three walls in order to carry on all the rascality and wickedness that we now see." He declares that the distinction between the " spiritual estate," composed of pope, bishops, priests and monks, as over against the " temporal estate " composed of princes, lords, artisans and peasants, is a very fine hypocritical invention of which no one should be afraid. " A cobbler, a smith, a peasant, every man has his own calling and duty, just like the conse- crated priests and bishops, and every one in his calling or office must help and serve the rest, so that all may work together for the common good." After overthrowing the other two walls, Luther invites the attention of the German rulers to the old theme of the pomp of the pope and cardinals, for which the Germans must pay. " What the Romanists really mean to do, the ' drunken Germans ' are not to see until they have lost everything. ... If we rightly hang thieves a'nd behead robbers, why do we leave the greed of Rome unpunished ? for Rome is the greatest thief and robber that has ever appeared on earth, or ever will; and all in the holy names of the Church and St Peter." After proving that the secular rulers were free and in duty bound to correct the evils of the Church, Luther sketches a plan for preventing money from going to Italy, for reducing the number of idle, begging monks, harmful pilgrimages and excessive holidays. Luxury and drinking were to be sup- pressed, the universities, especially the divinity schools, re- organized, &c. Apart from fundamental rejection of the papal supremacy, there was little novel in Luther's appeal. It had all been said before in the various protests of which we have spoken, and very recently by Ulrich von Hutten in his Dialogues, but no one had put the case so strongly, or so clearly, before. In addressing the German nobility Luther had refrained from taking up theological or religious doctrines; but in Sep- tember 1520 he attacked the whole sacramental system ot the medieval Church in his Babylonish Captivity of the Church. Many reformers, like Glapion, the Franciscan confessor of Charles V., who had read the Address with equanimity if not approval, were shocked by Luther's audacity in rejecting the prevailing fundamental religious conceptions. Luther says: " I must begin by denying that there are seven sacraments, and must lay down for the time being that there are only three — baptism, penance and the bread, and that by the court of Rome all these have been brought into miserable bondage, and the Church despoiled of her liberty." It is, however, in the Freedom of the Christian that the essence of Luther's religion is to be found. Man cannot save himself, but is saved then and there so soon as he believes God's promises, and to doubt these is the supreme crime. So salvation was to him not a painful progress toward a goal to be reached by the sacraments and by right conduct, but a stale in which man found himself so soon as he despaired absolutely of his own efforts, and threw himself on God's assurances. Man's utter incapacity to do anything to please God, and his utter personal dependence on God's grace seemed to render the whole system of the Church well-nigh gratuitous even if it were purged of all the " sophistry " which to Luther seemed to bury out of sight all that was essential in religion. Luther's gospel was one of love and confidence, not of fear and trembling, and came as an overwhelming revelation to those who understood and accepted it. The old question of Church reform inevitably reappeared 12 REFORMATION, THE when the young emperor Charles V. opened his first imperial diet at Worms early in 1521, and a committee of German princes drafted a list of gravamina, longer and bitterer than The edict any preceding one. While the resolute papal nuncio of Worm*, Aleander was indefatigable in his efforts to induce the ts21' diet to condemn Luther's teachings, his curious and instructive despatches to the Roman Curia complain constantly of the ill-treatment and insults he encountered, of the readiness of the printers to issue innumerable copies of Luther's pamphlets and of their reluctance to print anything in the pope's favour. Charles apparently made up his mind immediately and once for all. He approved the gravamina, for he believed a thorough reform of the Church essential. This reform he thought should be carried out by a council, even against the pope's will; and he was destined to engage in many fruitless negotiations to this end before the council of Trent at last assembled a score of years later. But he had no patience with a single monk who, led astray by his private judgment, set himself against the faith held by all Christians for a thousand years. " What my fore- fathers established at the council of Constance and other councils it is my privilege to maintain," he exclaims. Although, to Aleander's chagrin, the emperor consented to summon Luther to Worms, where he received a species of ovation, Charles readily approved the edict drafted by the papal nuncio, in which Luther is accused of having " brought together all previous heresies in one stinking mass," rejecting all law, teaching a life wholly brutish, and urging the lay people to bathe their hands in the blood of priests. He and his adherents were outlawed; no one was to print, sell or read any of his writings, " since they are foul, harmful, suspected, and come from a notorious and stiff-necked heretic." The edict of Worms was entirely in harmony with the laws of Western Christendom, and there were few among the governing classes in Germany at that time who really understood or approved Luther's fundamental ideas; nevertheless — if we except the elector of Brandenburg, George of Saxony, the dukes of Bavaria, and Charles V.'s brother Ferdinand — the princes, including the ecclesiastical rulers and the towns, commonly neglected to publish the edict, much less to enforce it. They were glad to leave Luther unmolested in order to spite the " Curtizanen," as the adherents of the papal Curia were called. The emperor was forced to leave Germany immediately after the diet had dissolved, and was prevented by a succession of wars from returning for nearly ten years. The governing council, which had been organized to represent him in Germany, fell rapidly into disrepute, and exercised no restraining influence on those princes who might desire to act on Luther's theory that the civil government was supreme in matters of Church reform. The records of printing indicate that religious, social and economic betterment was the subject of an ever-increasing number of pamphlets. The range of opinion was wide. Men like Thomas Murner, for instance, heartily denounced " the great Lutheran fool," but at the same time bitterly attacked monks and priests, and popular- ized the conception of the simple man with the hoe (Karsthans). Hans Sachs, on the other hand, sang the praises of the " Wittenberg Nightingale," and a considerable number of prominent men of letters accepted Luther as their guide — Zell and Bucer, in Strassburg, Eberlin in Ulm, Oecolampadius in Augsburg, Osiander and others in Nuremberg, Pellicanus in Nordlingen. Moreover, there gradually developed a group of radicals who were convinced that Luther had not the courage of his convictions. They proposed to abolish the " idolatry " of the Mass and all other outward signs of what they deemed the old superstitions. Luther's colleague at Wittenberg, Carlstadt (q.v.), began denouncing the monastic life, the celi- bacy of the clergy, the veneration of images; and before the end of 1521 we find the first characteristic outward symptoms of Protestantism. Luther had meanwhile been concealed by his friends in the Wartburg, near Eisenach, where he busied himself with a new German translation of the New Testament, to be followed in a few years by the Old Testament. The Wide diverg- ence of opinion In Germany. Bible had long been available in the language of the people, and there are indications that the numerous early editions of the Scriptures were widely read. Luther, however, possessed resources of style which served to render his version far superior to the older one, and to give it an important place in the develop- ment of German literature, as well as in the history of the Protestant churches. During his absence two priests from parishes near Wittenberg married; while several monks, throwing aside their cowls, left their cloisters. Melanchthon, who was for a moment carried away by the movement, partook, with several of his students, of the communion under both kinds, and on Christmas Eve a crowd invaded the church of All Saints, broke the lamps, threatened the priests and made sport of the venerable ritual. Next day, Carlstadt, who had laid aside his clerical robes, dispensed the Lord's Supper in the " evangelical fashion." At this time three prophets arrived from Zwickau, eager to hasten the movement of emancipation. They were weavers who had been associated with Thomas Miinzer, and like him looked forward to a very radical reform of society. They rejected infant baptism, and were among the forerunners of the Anabaptists. In January 1522, Carlstadt induced the authorities of Witten- berg to publish the first evangelical church ordinance. The revenues from ecclesiastical foundations, as well as those from the industrial gilds, were to be placed in a testant ' common chest, to be in charge of the townsmen and the Revolt magistrates. The priests were to receive fixed salaries; begins in begging, even by monks and poor students, was pro- ^22"^' hibited; the poor, including the monks, were to be supported from the common chest. The service of the Mass was modified, and the laity were to receive the elements in both kinds. Reminders of the old religious usages were to be done away with, and fast days were to be no longer observed. These measures, and the excitement which followed the arrival of the radicals from Zwickau, led Luther to return to Wittenberg in March 1522, where he preached a series of sermons attacking the impatience of the radical party, and setting forth clearly his own views of what the progress of the Reformation should be. " The Word created heaven and earth and all things; the same Word will also create now, and not we poor sinners. Faith must be unconstrained and must be accepted without compulsion. To marry, to do away with images, to become monks and nuns, or for monks and nuns to leave their convent, to eat meat on Friday or not to eat it, and other like things — all these are open questions, and should not be forbidden by any man .... What we want is the heart, and to win that we must preach the gospel. Then the Word will drop into one heart to-day and to-morrow into another, and so will work that each will forsake the Mass." Luther succeeded in quieting the people both in Wittenberg and the neighbour- ing towns, and in preventing the excesses which had threatened to discredit the whole movement. In January 1522, Leo X. had been succeeded by a new pope, Adrian VI., a devout Dominican theologian, bent on reforming the Church, in which, as he injudiciously Adrian VI. confessed through his legate to the diet at Nuremberg, IS22- the Roman Curia had perhaps been the chief source 1S23' of " that corruption which had spread from the head to the members." The Lutheran heresy he held to be God's terrible judgment on the sins of the clergy. The diet refused to accede to the pope's demand that the edict of Worms should be enforced, and recommended that a Christian council should be summoned in January, to include not only ecclesiastics but laymen, who should be permitted freely to express their opinions. While the^ diet approved the list of abuses drawn up at Worms, it ordered that Luther's books should no longer be published, and that Luther himself should hold his peace, while learned men were to admonish the erring preachers. The decisions of this diet are noteworthy, since they probably give a very fair idea of the prevailing opinion of the ruling classes in Germany. They refused to regard Luther as in any way their leader, or even to recognize him as a discreet REFORMATION, THE " person. On the other hand, they did not wish to take the risk of radical measures against the new doctrines, and were glad of an excuse for refusing the demands of the pope. Adrian soon died, worn out by his futile attempts to correct the abuses at home, and was followed by Clement VII., a Medici, less gifted but not less worldly in his instincts than LeoX. Clement sent one of his ablest Italian diplomatists, Cam- peggio, to negotiate with the diet which met at Spires in 1524. He induced the diet to promise to execute the edict of Worms as far as that should be possible; but it was then- generally understood that it was impossible. The iigious diet renewed the demand for a general council to meet deft be- jn a (jerman town to settle the affairs of the Church German 'n Germany, and even proposed the convocation of states of a national council at Spires in November, to effect the north a temporary adjustment. In this precarious situation Campeggio, realizing the hopelessness of his attempt to induce all the members of the diet to co-operate with him in re-establishing the pope's control, called together at Regensburg a certain number of rulers whom he believed to be rather more favourably disposed toward the pope than their fellows. These included Ferdinand, duke of Austria, the two dukes of Bavaria, the archbishops of Salzburg and Trent, the bishops of Bamberg, Spires, Strassburg and others. He induced these to unite in opposing the Lutheran heresy on condition that the pope would issue a decree providing for some of the .most needed reforms. There was to be no more financial oppres- sion on the part of the clergy, and no unseemly payments for performing the church services. Abuses arising from the granting of indulgences were to be remedied, and the excessive number of church holidays, which seriously interfered with the industrial welfare of Germany, was to be reduced. The states in the Catholic League were permitted to retain for their own uses about one-fifth of the ecclesiastical revenue; the clergy was to be subjected to careful discipline; and only authorized preachers were to be tolerated, who based their teachings on the works of the four Latin Church fathers. Thus the agree- ment of Regensburg is of great moment in the development of the Protestant revolt in Germany. For Austria, Bavaria and the great ecclesiastical states in the south definitely sided with the pope against Luther's heresies, and to this day they still remain Roman Catholic. In the north, on the other hand, it became more and more apparent that the princes were drift- ing away from the Roman Catholic Church. Moreover, it should be noted that Campeggio's diplomacy was really the beginning of an effective betterment of the old Church, such as had been discussed for two or three centuries. He met the long-standing and general demand for reform without a revolu- tion in doctrines or institutions. A new edition of the German Bible was issued with the view of meeting the needs of Catholics, a new religious literature grew up designed to sub- stantiate the beliefs sanctioned by the Roman Church and to carry out the movement begun long before toward spiritual- izing its institutions and rites. In 1525 the conservative party, which had from the first feared that Luther's teaching would result in sedition, received The a new and terrible proof, as it seemed to them, of the Peasant noxious influence of the evangelical preachers. The Revolt, peasant movements alluded to above, which had caused B2S' so much anxiety at the diet of Augsburg in 1518, cul- minated in the fearful Peasant Revolt in which the common man, both in country and town, rose in the name of " God's justice " to avenge long-standing wrongs and establish his rights. Luther was by no means directly responsible for the civil war which followed, but he had certainly contributed to stir up the ancient discontent. He had asserted that, owing to the habit of foreclosing small mortgages, " any one with a hundred gulden could gobble up a peasant a year." The German feudal lords he pronounced hangmen, who knew only how to swindle the poor man — " such fellows were formerly called scoundrels, but now we must call them ' Christians and 13 revered princes.'" Yet in spite of this harsh talk about princes, Luther relied upon them to forward the reforms in which he was interested, and he justly claimed that he had greatly increased their powers by reducing the authority of the pope and subjecting the clergy in all things to the civil government. The best known statement of the peasants' grievances is to be found in the famous " Twelve Articles " drawn up in 1524. They certainly showed the unmistakable influence of the evangelical teaching. The peasants demanded that the gospel should be taught them as a guide in life, and that each community should be permitted to choose its pastor and depose him if he conducted himself improperly. " The pastor thus chosen should teach us the gospel pure and simple, without any addition, doctrine or ordinance of man." The old tithe on grain shall continue to be paid, since that is established by the Old Testament. It will serve to support the pastor, and what is left over shall be given to the poor. Serfdom is against God's word, "since Christ has delivered and redeemed us all without exception, by the shedding of his precious blood, the lowly as well as the great." Protests follow against hunting and fishing rights, restrictions on wood-cutting, and ex- cessive demands made on peasants. " In the twelfth place," the declaration characteristically concluded, " it is our con- clusion and final resolution that if one or more of the articles here set forth should not be in agreement with the word of God, as we think they are, such articles will we willingly retract if it be proved by a clear explanation of Scripture really to be against the word of God." More radical demands came from the working classes in the towns. The articles of Heilbronn demanded that the property of the Church should be con- fiscated and used for the community; clergy and nobility alike were to be deprived of all their privileges, so that they could no longer oppress the poor man. The more violent leaders, like Miinzer, renewed the old cry that the parsons must be slain. Hundreds of castles and monasteries were destroyed by the frantic peasantry, and some of the nobles were murdered with shocking cruelty. Luther, who believed that the peasants were trying to cloak their dreadful sins with excuses from the gospel, exhorted the government to put down the in- surrection. " Have no pity on the poor folk; stab, smite, throttle, who can!" To him the peasants' attempt to abolish serfdom was wholly unchristian, since it was a divinely sanctioned institution, and if they succeeded they would " make God a liar." The German rulers took Luther's advice with terrible literalness, and avenged themselves upon the peasants, whose lot was apparently worse afterwards than before. The terror inspired by the Peasant War led to a new alliance, the League of Dessau, formed by some of the leading rulers of central and northern Germany, to stamp out the Apaear- " accursed Lutheran sect." This included Luther's old ance Of enemy, Duke George of Saxony, the electors of Bran- "" evaa- denburg and Mainz, and two princes of Brunswick. The rumour that the emperor was planning to return to Germany in order to root out the growing heresy, led a few princes who had openly favoured Luther to unite also. Among these the chief were the new elector of Saxony, John (who, unlike his brother, Frederick the Wise, had openly espoused the new doctrines), and the energetic Philip, landgrave of Hesse. The emperor did not return, and since there was no one to settle the religious question in Germany, the diet of Spires (1526) determined that, pending the meeting of the proposed general council, each prince, and each knight and town owing immediate allegiance to the emperor, should decide individually what particular form of religion should prevail within the limits of their territories. Each prince was "so to live, reign and conduct himself as he would be willing to answer before God and His Imperial Majesty." While the evangelical party still hoped that some form of religion might be agreed upon which would prevent the disruption of the Church, the conservatives were confident that the heretics REFORMATION, THE would soon be suppressed, as they had so often been in the past. The situation tended to become more, rather than less, complicated, and there was every variety of reformer and every degree of conservatism, for there were no standards for those who had rejected the papal supremacy, and even those who continued to accept it differed widely. For example, George of Saxony viewed Aleander, the pope's nuncio, with almost as much suspicion as he did Luther himself. The religious ideas in South Germany were affected by the de- velopment of a reform party in Switzerland, under the influence Zwia II °^ Zwingli, who claimed that at Einsiedeln, near the and the 'a^e of Zurich, he had begun to preach the gospel of Reforms- Christ in the year 1516 " before any one in my locality tit, n in had so much as heard the name of Luther." Three land." years later he becamepreacherinthecathedralof Zurich. Here he began to denounce the abuses in the Church, as well as the traffic in mercenaries which had so long been a blot upon his country's honour. From the first he combined religious and political reform. In 1523 he prepared a complete statement of his beliefs, in the form of sixty-seven theses. He maintained that Christ was the only high priest and that the gospel did not gain its sanction from the authority of the Church. He denied the existence of purgatory, and rejected those practices of the Church which Luther had already set aside. Since no one presented himself to refute him, the town council ratified his conclusions, so that the city of Zurich prac- tically withdrew from the Roman Catholic Church. Next year the Mass, processions and the images of saints were abolished. The shrines were opened and the relics burned. Some other towns, including Bern, followed Zurich's example, but the Forest cantons refused to accept the innovations. In 1525 a religious and political league was arranged between Zurich and Constance, which in the following year was joined by St Gallen, Biel, Miihlhausen, Basel and Strassburg. Philip of Hesse was attracted by Zwingli's energy, and was eager that the northern reformers should be brought into closer relations with the south. But the league arranged by Zwingli was directed against the house of Habsburg, and Luther did not deem it right to oppose a prince by force of arms. Moreover, he did not believe that Zwingli, who con- i.uthcr. ceived the eucharist to be merely symbolical in its ™e character, " held the whole truth of God." Never- ' Articles! theless, Philip of Hesse finally arranged a religious conference in the castle of Marburg (1529) where Zwingli and Luther met. They were able to agree on fourteen out of the fifteen " Marburg Articles," which stated the chief points in the Christian faith as they were accepted by both. A fundamental difference as to the doctrine of the eucharist, however, stood in the way of the real union. The diet of Spires (1529) had received a letter from the emperor directing it to look to the enforcement of the edict of The diet Worms against the heretics. No one was to preach of Spires, against the Mass, and no one was to be prevented from 1529, ana attending it freely. This meant that the evangelical 'testants'" Prmces would be forced to restore the most character- istic Catholic rite. As they formed only a minority in the diet, they could only draw up a protest, which was signed by John Frederick of Saxony, Philip of Hesse, and fourteen of the three towns, including Strassburg, Nuremberg and Ulm. In this they claimed that the majority had no right to abrogate the stipulations of the former diet of Spires, which permitted each prince to determine religious matters provisionally for him- self, for all had unanimously pledged themselves to observe that agreement. They therefore appealed to the emperor and to a future council against the tyranny of the majority. Those who signed this appeal were called Protestants, a name which came to be generally applied to those who rejected the supremacy of the pope, the Roman Catholic conceptions of the clergy and of the Mass, and discarded sundry practices of the older Church, without, however, repudiating the Catholic creeds. Zwingli During the period which had elapsed since the diet of Worms, the emperor had resided in Spain, busy with a series of wars, waged mainly with the king of France.1 In 1 530 the The dlet emperor found himself in a position to visit Germany and con- once more, and summoned the diet to meet at Augsburg, fessloa of with the hope of settling the religious differences and Auxsl""T[. bringing about harmonious action against the Turk. The Protestants were requested to submit a statement of their opinions, and on June 25th the " Augsburg Confession " was read to the diet. This was signed by the elector of Saxony and his son and successor, John Frederick, by George, margrave of Brandenburg, two dukes of Liineburg, Philip of Hesse and Wolfgang of Anhalt, and by the representatives of Nuremberg and Reutlingen. The confession was drafted by Melanchthon, who sought consistently to minimize the breach which separated the Lutherans from the old Church. In the first part of the confession the Protestants seek to prove that there is nothing in their doctrines at variance with those of the universal Church " or even of the Roman Church so far as that appears in the writings of the Fathers." They made it clear that they still held a great part of the beliefs of the medieval Church, especially as represented in Augustine's writings, and repudiated the radical notions of the Anabaptists and of Zwingli. In the second part, those practices of the Church are enumerated which the evangelical party rejected; the celibacy of the clergy, the Mass, as previously understood, auricular confession, and monastic vows, the objections to which are stated with much vigour. " Christian perfection is this: to fear God sincerely, to trust* assuredly that we have, for Christ's sake, a gracious and merciful God; to ask and look with confidence for help from him in all our affairs, accordingly to our calling, and outwardly to do good works diligently, and to attend to our vocation. In these things doth true perfection and a true worship of God consist. It doth not consist in going about begging, or in wearing a black or a grey cowl." The Protestant princes declared that they had no intention of depriving the bishops of their jurisdiction, but this one thing only is requested of them, " that they would suffer the gospel to be purely taught, and would relax a few observances in which we cannot adhere without sin." The confession was turned over to a committee of conserva- tive theologians, including Eck, Faber and Cochlaeus. Their refutation of the Protestant positions seemed needlessly Course ol sharp to the emperor, and five drafts were made of it. events in Charles finally reluctantly accepted it, although he Germany, would gladly have had it milder, for it made reconcilia- tion hopeless. The majority of the diet approved a recess, allowing the Protestants a brief period of immunity until the isth of April 1531, after which they were to be put down by force. Meanwhile, they were to make no further innovations, they were not to molest the conservatives, and were to aid the emperor in suppressing the doctrines of Zwingli and of the Anabaptists. The Lutheran princes protested, together with fourteen cities, and left the diet. The diet thereupon decided that the edict of Worms should at last be enforced. All Church property was to be restored, and, perhaps most important of all, the jurisdiction of the Imperial court (Reichskammergcricht), which was naturally Catholic in its sympathies, was extended to appeals involving the seizure of ecclesiastical benefices, contempt of episcopal decisions and other matters deeply affect- ing the Protestants. In November the Protestants formed the Schmalkaldic League, which, after the death of Zwingli, in 1531, was joined by a number of the South German towns. The period of immunity assigned to the Protestants passed by; but they were left unmolested, for the emperor was involved in many difficulties, and the Turks were threatening Vienna. Consequently, at the diet of Nuremberg (1532) a recess was drafted indefinitely extending the religious truce and quashing such cases in the Reichskammergericht as involved Protestant 1 In 1527 the pope's capital was sacked by Charles's army. This was, of course, but an incident in the purely political relations of the European powers with the pope, and really has no bearing upon the progress of the Protestant revolt. REFORMATION, THE innovations. The conservatives refused to ratify the recess, which was not published, but the Protestant states declared that they would accept the emperor's word of honour, and furnished him with troops for repelling the Mahommedans. The fact that the conservative princes, especially the dukes of Bavaria, were opposed to any strengthening of the emperor's power, and were in some cases hereditary enemies of the house of, Habsburg, served to protect the Protestant princes. In 1534 the Schmalkaldic League succeeded in restoring the banished duke of Wiirttemberg, who declared himself in favour of the Lutheran reformation, and thus added another to the list of German Protestant states. In 1 539 George of Saxony died, and was succeeded by his brother Henry, who also accepted the new faith, and in the same year the new elector of Brandenburg became a Protestant. Indeed, there was reason to believe at this time that the archbishops of Mainz, Trier and Cologne, as well as some other bishops, were planning the secularization of their principalities. To the north, Lutheran influence had spread into Denmark; Sweden and Norway were also brought within its sphere. Denmark, Christian II. of Denmark, a nephew of the elector of an™"* Saxony, came to the throne in 1513, bent on bringing Sweden Sweden and Norway, over which he nominally ruled in become accordance with the terms of the Union of Kalmar Protest- (1397), completely under his control. In order to do aat' this it was necessary to reduce the power of the nobility and clergy, privileged classes exempt from taxation and rivals of the royal power. Denmark had suffered from all the abuses of papal provisions, and the nuncio of Leo X. had been forced in 1518 to flee from the king's wrath. Christian II. set up a supreme court for ecclesiastical matters, and seemed about to adopt a policy similar to that later pursued by Henry VIII. of England, when his work was broken off by a revolt which compelled him to leave the country. Lutheranism continued to make rapid progress, and Christian's successor permitted the clergy to marry, appropriated the annates and protected the Lutherans. Finally Christian III., an ardent Lutheran, ascended the throne in 1536; with the sanction of the diet he Severed, in 1537, all connexion with the pope, introducing the Lutheran system of Church government and accepting the Augsburg Confession.1 Norway was included in the changes, but Sweden had won its independence of Denmark, under Gustavus Vasa, who, in 1523, was proclaimed king. He used the Lutheran theories as an excuse for overthrowing the ecclesi- astical aristocracy, which had been insolently powerful in Sweden. In 1527, supported by the diet, he carried his measures for secularizing such portion's of the Church property as he thought fit, and for subjecting the Church to the royal power (Ordinances of Vesteras); but many of the old religious cere- monies and practices were permitted to continue, and it was not until 1592 that Lutheranism was officially sanctioned by the Swedish synod.2 Charles V., finding that his efforts to check the spread of the religious schism were unsuccessful, resorted once more to The conferences between Roman Catholic and Lutheran Council theologians, but it became apparent that no permanent of Trent, compromise was possible. The emperor then succeeded in disrupting the Schmalkaldic League by winning over, on purely political grounds, Philip of Hesse and young Maurice of Saxony, whose father, Henry, had died after a very brief reign. Charles V. had always exhibited the greatest confidence in the proposed general council, the summoning of which had hitherto been frustrated by the popes, and at last, in 1545, the council was summoned to meet at Trent, which lay con- veniently upon the confines of Italy and Germany (see TRENT, COUNCIL OF). The Dominicans and, later, members of the newly born Order of Jesus, were conspicuous, among the 1 The episcopal office was retained, but the " succession " broken, the new Lutheran bishops being consecrated by Buggenhagen, who was only in priest's orders. * The episcopal system and succession were maintained, and the " Mass vestments " (i.e. alb and chasuble) remain in use to this day. Ing In the religious peace of theological deputies, while the Protestants, though invited, refused to attend. It was clear from the first that the decisions of the council would be uncompromising in character, and that the Protestants would certainly refuse to be bound by its decrees. And so it fell out. The very first anathemas of the council were directed against those innovations which the Protestants had most at heart. The emperor had now tried threats, conferences and a general council, and all had failed to unify the Church. Maurice of Saxony, without surrendering his religious beliefs, had become the political friend of the emperor, who had promised him the neighbouring electorate of Saxony. Event* John Frederick, the elector, was defeated at Muhlberg, April 1547, and taken prisoner. Philip of Hesse also surrendered, and Charles tried once more to establish a basis of agreement. Three theologians, in- "Augsburg, eluding a conservative Lutheran, were chosen to draft isss. the so-called " Augsburg Interim." This reaffirmed the seven sacraments, transubstantiation and the invocation of saints, and declared the pope head of the Church, but adopted Luther's doctrine of justification by faith in a conditional way, as well as the marriage of priests, and considerably modified the theory and practice of the Mass. For four years Charles, backed by the Spanish troops, made efforts to force the Protestant towns to observe the Interim, but with little success. He rapidly grew extremely unpopular, and in 1552 Maurice of Saxony turned upon him and attempted to capture him at Innsbruck. Charles escaped, but Maurice became for the moment leader of the German princes who gathered at Passau (August 1552) to discuss the situation. The settlement, however, was deferred for the meeting of the diet, which took place at Augsburg, 1555. There was a general anxiety to conclude a peace — " beslUndiger , behorrlicher, un- bedingter, jilr und fiir ewig wahrender." There was no other way but to legalize the new faith in Germany, but only those were to be tolerated who accepted the Augsburg Confession. This excluded, of course, not only the Zwinglians and Ana- baptists, but the ever-increasing Calvinistic or " Reformed " Church. The principle cujus regio ejus religio was adopted, according to which each secular ruler might choose between the old faith and the Lutheran. His decision was to bind all his sub- jects, but a subject professing another religion from his prince was to be permitted to leave the country. The ecclesiastical rulers, however, were to lose their possessions if they abandoned the old faith.3 Freedom of conscience was thus established for princes alone, and their power became supreme in religious as well as secular matters. The Church and the civil government had been closely associated with one another for centuries, and the old system was perpetuated in the Protestant states. Scarcely any one dreamed that individual subjects could safely be left to believe what they would, and permitted, so long as they did not violate the law of the land, freely to select and practise such religious rites as afforded them help and comfort. During the three or four years which followed the signing of the Augsburg Confession in 1530 and the formation of the Schmalkaldic League, England, while bitterly de- Religious nouncing and burning Lutheran heretics in the name sft«"»"o" of the Holy Catholic Church, was herself engaged in '^^ at the severing the bonds which had for well-nigh a thousand open/agof years bound her to the Apostolic See. An in- theKth dependent national Church was formed in IS34, >*atuTy- which continued, however, for a time to adhere to all the characteristic beliefs of the medieval Catholic Church, excepting alone the headship of the pope. The circum- stances which led to the English schism are dealt with elsewhere (see ENGLAND, CHURCH OF), and need be reviewed here only in the briefest manner. There was som« heresy in England during the opening decades of the i6th century, survivals of the Lollardy which now and then brought a victim to the stake. There was also the old discontent among the orthodox in regard to the Church's exactions, bad clerics and 3 This so-called " ecclesiastical reservation " was not included in the main peace. i6 REFORMATION, THE dissolute and lazy monks. Scholars, like Colet, read the New Testament in Greek and lectured on justification by faith before they knew of Luther, and More included among the institutions of Utopia a rather more liberal and enlightened religion than that which he observed around him. Erasmus was read and approved, and his notion of reform by culture no doubt attracted many adherents among English scholars. Luther's works found their way into England, and were read and studied at both Oxford and Cambridge. In May 1521 Wolsey attended a pom- pous burning of Lutheran tracts in St Paul's churchyard, where Bishop Fisher preached ardently against the new German heresy. Henry VIII. himself stoutly maintained the headship of the pope, and, as is well known, after examining the arguments of Luther, published his Defence of the Seven Sacraments in 1521, which won for him from the pope the glorious title of " Defender of the Faith." The government and the leading men of letters and prelates appear therefore to have harboured no notions of revolt before the matter of the king's divorce became prominent in 1527. Henry's elder brother Arthur, a notoriously sickly youth of scarce fifteen, had been married to Catherine, daughter of „ Ferdinand and Isabella, but had died less than five v///. months after the marriage (April 1502), leaving and the doubts as to whether the union had ever been physi- divorce cally consummated. Political reasons dictated an case- alliance between the young widow and her brother-in- law Henry, prince of Wales, nearly five years her junior; Julius II. was induced reluctantly to grant the dispensation necessary on account of the relationship, which, according to the canon law and the current interpretation of Leviticus xviii. 16, stood in the way of the union. The wedding took place some years later (1509), and several children were born, none of whom survived except the princess Mary. By 1527 the king had become hopeless of having a male heir by Catherine. He was tired of her, and in love with the black-eyed Anne Boleyn, who refused to be his mistress. He alleged that he was beginning to have a horrible misgiving that his marriage with Catherine had been invalid, perhaps downright " incestuous. " The negotiations with Clement VII. with the hope of obtaining a divorce from Catherine, the reluctance of the pope to impeach the dispensation of his predecessor Julius II., and at the same time to alienate the English queen's nephew Charles V., the futile policy of Wolsey and his final ruin in 1529 are described elsewhere (see ENGLISH HISTORY; HENRY VIII.; CATHERINE or ARAGON). The king's agents secured the opinion of a number of prominent universities that his marriage was void, and an assembly of notables, which he summoned in June 1530, warned the pope of the dangers involved in leaving the royal succession in uncertainty, since the heir was not only a woman, but, as it seemed to many, of illegitimate birth. Henry's next move was to bring a monstrous charge against the clergy, accusing them of having violated the ancient laws Beginning of praemunire in submitting to the authority of papal of Eng- legates (although he himself had ratified the appoint- revoit ment of Wolsey as legate a later e). The clergy of the against province of Canterbury were fined £100,000 and com- papacy. pelled to declare the king " their singular protector and only supreme lord, and, as far as that is permitted by the law of Christ, the supreme head of the Church and of the clergy." This the king claimed, perhaps with truth, was only a clearer statement of the provisions of earlier English laws. The following year, 1532, parliament presented a petition to the king (which had been most carefully elaborated by the monarch's own advisers) containing twelve charges against the bishops, relating to their courts, fees, injudicious appointments and abusive treatment of heretics, which combined to cause an unprecedented and " marvellous disorder of the godly quiet, peace and tranquillity" of the realm. For the remedy of these abuses parliament turned to the king, " in whom and by whom the only and sole redress, reformation and remedy herein absolutely rests and remains." The ordinaries met these accusations with a lengthy and dignified answer; but this did not satisfy the king, and convocation was compelled on the 15th of May 1532, further to clarify the ancient laws of the land, as understood by the king, in the very brief, very humble and very pertinent document known as the " Submission of the Clergy." Herein the king's " most humble subjects daily orators, and bedesmen " of the clergy of England, in view of his goodness and fervent Christian zeal and his learning far exceeding that of all other kings that they have read of, agree never to assemble in convocation except at the king's summons, and to enact and promulgate no constitution or ordinances except they receive the royal assent and authority. Moreover, the existing canons are to be subjected to the examination of a commission appointed by the king, half its members from parliament, half from the clergy, to abrogate with the king's assent such provisions as the majority find do not stand with God's laws and the laws of the realm. This appeared to place the legislation of the clergy, whether old or new, entirely under the monarch's control. A few months later Thomas Cranmer, who had been one of those to discuss sympathetically Luther's works in the little circle at Cambridge, and who believed the royal supremacy would tend to the remedying of grave abuses and that the pope had acted ultra vires in issuing a dispensation for the king's marriage with Catherine, was induced by Henry to succeed Warham as archbishop of Canterbury. About the same time parliament passed an interesting and important statute, forbidding, unless the king should wish to suspend the operation of the law, the payment to the pope of the annates. This item alone amounted during the previous forty-six years, the parliament declared, " at the least to eight score thousand pounds, besides other great and intolerable sums which have yearly been conveyed to the said court of Rome by many other ways and means to the great impoverishment of this realm." The annates were thereafter to accrue to the king; and bishops and archbishops were thenceforth, in case the pope refused to confirm them,1 to be consecrated and invested within the realm, " in like manner as divers other archbishops and bishops have been heretofore in ancient times by sundry the king's most noble progenitors." No censures, excommunications or interdicts with which the Holy Father might vex or grieve the sovereign lord or his subjects, should be published or in any way impede the usual performance of the sacraments and the holding of the divine services. In February parliament discovered that " by divers sundry old authentic histories and chronicles " it was manifest that the realm of England was an empire governed by one supreme head, the king, to whom all sorts and degrees of people — both clergy and laity — ought to bear next to God a natural and humble obedience, and that to him God had given the authority finally to deter- mine all causes and contentions in the realm, " without restraint, or provocation to any foreign princes or potentates of the world." The ancient statutes of the praemunire and provisors are recalled and the penalties attached to their violation re-enacted. All appeals were to be tried within the realm, and suits begun before an archbishop were to be deter- mined by him without further appeal. Acting on this, Cranmer tried the divorce case before his court, which declared the marriage with Catherine void and that with Anne Boleyn, which had been solemnized privately in January, valid. The pope replied by ordering Henry under pain of excommuni- cation to put away Anne and restore Catherine, his legal wife, within ten days. This sentence the emperor, all the Christian princes and the king's own subjects were summoned to carry out by force of arms if necessary. As might have been anticipated, this caused no break in the policy of the English king and his parliament, and a series of famous acts passed in the year 1534 completed and Secession confirmed the independence of the Church of England, of Eng- which, except during five years under Queen Mary, ^"^J^ was thereafter as completely severed from the papal monarchy, monarchy as the electorate of Saxony or the duchy #•*•<• of Hesse. The payment of annates and of Peter's pence 1 Cranmer himself had taken the oath of canonical obedience t» the Holy See and duly received the pallium. REFORMATION, THE was absolutely forbidden, as well as the application to the bishop of Rome for dispensations. The bishops were thereafter to be elected by the deans and chapters upon receiving the king's conge d'eslire (q.v.). The Act of Succession provided that, should the king have no sons, Elizabeth, Anne's daughter, should succeed to the crown. The brief Act of Supremacy confirmed the king's claim to be reputed the " only supreme head in earth of the Church of England "; he was to enjoy all the honours, dignities, jurisdictions and profits thereunto appertaining, and to have full power and authority to reform and amend all such errors, heresies and abuses, as by any manner of spiritual authority might lawfully be reformed, or amended, most to the pleasure of Almighty God, and the increase of virtue in Christ's religion, " foreign authority, prescription, or any other thing or things to the contrary hereof, notwithstanding." The Treasons Act, terrible in its operation, included among capital offences that of declaring in words or writing the king to be " a heretic, schismatic, tyrant, infidel or usurper." The convocations were required to abjure the papal supremacy by declaring " that the bishop of Rome has not in Scripture any greater jurisdiction in the kingdom of England than any other foreign bishop." The king had now clarified the ancient laws of the realm to his satisfaction, and could proceed to abolish superstitious rites, remedy abuses, and seize such por- tions of the Church's possessions, especially pious and monastic foundations, as he deemed superfluous for the maintenance of religion. In spite of the fact that the separation from Rome had been carried out during the sessions of a single parliament, and The that there had been no opportunity for a general reform expression of opinion on the part of the nation, there of the js no reason to suppose that the majority of the church people, thoughtful or thoughtless, were not ready to under reconcile themselves to the abolition of the papal Henry supremacy. It seems just as clear that there was viu. no strong evangelical movement, and that Henry's pretty consistent adherence to the fundamental doctrines of the medieval Church was agreeable to the great mass of his subjects. The ten " Articles devised by the Kyng's Highnes Majestic to stablysh Christen quietness " (1536), together with the " Injunctions " of 1536. and 1538, are chiefly noteworthy for their affirmation of almost all the current doctrines of the Catholic Church, except those relating to the papal supremacy, purgatory, images, relics and pilgrimages, and the old rooted distrust of the Bible in the vernacular. The clergy were bidden to exhort their hearers to the " works of charity, mercy and faith, specially prescribed and commanded in Scripture, and not to repose their trust or affiance in any other works devised by men's phantasies beside Scripture; as in wandering to pilgrimages, offering of money, candles or tapers to images or relics, or kissing or licking the same, saying over a number of beads, not understood or minded on, or in such-like superstition." To this end a copy of the whole English Bible was to be set up in each parish church where the people could read it. During the same years the monasteries, lesser and greater, were dissolved, and the chief shrines were despoiled, notably that of St Thomas of Canter- bury. Thus one of the most important of all medieval ecclesi- astical institutions, monasticism, came to an end in England. Doubtless the king's sore financial needs had much to do with the dissolution of the abbeys and the plundering of the shrines, but there is no reason to suppose that he was not fully con- vinced that the monks had long outlived their usefulness and that the shrines were centres of abject superstition and ecclesi- astical deceit. Henry, however, stoutly refused to go further in the direction of German Protestantism, even with the prospect of forwarding the proposed union between him and the princes of the Schmalkaldic League. An insurrection of the Yorkshire peasants, which is to be ascribed in part to the distress caused by the enclosure of the commons on which they had been wont to pasture their cattle, and in part to the 17 destruction of popular shrines, may have caused the king to defend his orthodoxy by introducing into parliament in 1 539 the six questions. These parliament enacted into the terrible statute of " The Six Articles," in which a felon's death was prescribed for those who obstinately denied transubstantiation, demanded the communion under both kinds, questioned the binding character of vows of chastity, or the lawfulness of private Masses or the expediency of auricular confession. On the 3<3th of July 1540 three Lutheran clergymen were burned and three Roman Catholics beheaded, the latter for denying the king's spiritual supremacy. The king's ardent desire that diversities of minds and opinions should be done away with and unity be " charitably established " was further promoted by publishing in 1543 A Necessary Doctrine and Erudition for any Christian Man, set forth by the King's Majesty of England, in which the tenets of medieval theology, except for denial of the supremacy of the bishop of Rome and the unmistakable assertion of the supremacy of the king, were once more restated. Henry VIII. died in January 1547, having chosen a council of regency for his nine-year-old son Edward, the members of which were favourable to further religious innova- England tions. Somerset, the new Protector, strove to govern become* on the basis of civil liberty and religious tolerance. '3ro'*»'«"' The first parliament of the reign swept away almost Upa"ara all the species of treasons created during the previous Vi., two centuries, the heresy acts, including the Six 1547- Articles, all limitations on printing the Scriptures in &&• English and reading and expounding the 'same — indeed " all and every act or acts of parliament concerning doctrine or matters of religion." These measures gave a great impetus to religious discussion and local innovations. Representatives of all the new creeds hastened from the Continent to England, where they hoped to find a safe and fertile field for the particular seed they had to plant. It is impossible exactly to estimate the influence which these teachers exerted on the general trend of religious opinion in England; in any case, however, it was not unimportant, and the Articles of Religion and official homilies of the Church of England show unmistakably the influence of Calvin's doctrine. There was, however, no such sudden breach with the traditions of the past as characterized the Reformation in some con- tinental countries. Under Edward VI. the changes were continued on the lines laid down by Henry VIII. The old hierarchy continued, but service books in English were sub- stituted for those in Latin, and preaching was encouraged. A royal visitation, beginning in 1547, discovered, however, such a degree of ignorance and illiteracy among the parish clergy that it became clear that preaching could only be gradually given its due place in the services of the Church. Communion under both kinds and the marriage of the clergy were sanctioned, thus gravely modifying two of the fundamental institutions of the medieval Church. A conservative Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and other Rites and Ceremonies after the Use of the Church of England — commonly called the First Prayer Book of Edward VI. — was issued in 1549. This was based upon ancient " uses," and represented no revolutionary change in the traditions of the " old religion." It was followed, however, in 1552 by the second Prayer Book, which was destined to be, with some modifications, the permanent basis of the English service. This made it clear that the communion was no longer to be regarded as a propitiatory sacrifice, the names " Holy Communion" and " Lord's Supper " being definitively sub- stituted for " Mass " (?.».), while the word " altar " was replaced by " table." In the Forty-two Articles we have the basis of Queen Elizabeth's Thirty-nine Articles. Thus during the reign of Edward we have not only the founda- tions of the Anglican Church laid, but there appears the beginning of those evangelical and puritanical sects which were to become the " dissenters " of the following centuries. i8 REFORMATION, THE With the death of Edward there came a period of reaction lasting for five years. Queen Mary, unshaken in her attach- Cathoiic ment to the ancient faith and the papal monarchy, reaction was abie wjtjj tne sanction of a subservient parlia- "wary ment to turn back the wheels of ecclesiastical legis- 1553- lation, to restore the old religion, and to reunite the isss. English Church with the papal monarchy; the pope's legate, Cardinal Pole, was primate of all England. Then, the ancient heresy laws having been revived, came the burnings of Rogers, Hooker, Latimer, Ridley, Cranmer and many a less noteworthy champion of the new religion. It would seem as if this sharp, uncompromising reaction was what was needed to produce a popular realization of the contrast between the Ecclesia anglicana of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and the alternative of " perfect obedience to the See Apostolic." Elizabeth, who succeeded her sister Mary in 1558, was sus- pected to be Protestant in her leanings, and her adviser, Cecil, Settle- had received his training as secretary of the Protector meat Somerset; but the general European situation as under wen as the young queen's own temperament pre- EHzabeth. c[u(jecj anv abrupt or ostentatious change in religious matters. The new sovereign's first proclamation was directed against all such preaching as might lead to contention and the breaking of the common quiet. In 1559 ten of Henry VIII. 's acts were revived. On Easter Sunday the queen ventured to display her personal preference for the Protestant conception of the eucharist by forbidding the celebrant in her chapel to elevate the host. The royal supremacy was reasserted, the title being modified into " supreme governor "; and a new edition of Edward VI. 's second Prayer Book, with a few changes, was issued. The Marian bishops who refused to recognize these changes were deposed -and imprisoned, but care was taken to preserve the " succession " by consecrating others in due form to take their places.1 Four years later the Thirty-nine Articles imposed an official creed upon the English nation. This was Protestant in its general character: in its appeal to the Scriptures as the sole rule of faith (Art. VI.), its repudiation of the authority of Rome (Art. XXXVII.), its definition of the Church (Art. XIX.), its insistence on justifica- tion by faith only (Art. XI.) and repudiation of the sacrifice of the Mass (Arts. XXVIII. and XXXI.). As supreme governor of the Church of England the sovereign strictly controlled all ecclesiastical legislation and appointed royal delegates to hear appeals from the ecclesiastical courts, to be a " papist " or to " hear Mass " (which was construed as the same thing) was to risk incurring the terrible penalties of high treason. By the Act of Uniformity (1559) a uniform ritual, the Book of Common Prayer, was imposed upon clergy and laity alike, and no liberty of public worship was permitted. Every subject was bound under penalty of a fine to attend church on Sunday. While there was in a certain sense freedom of opinion, all printers had to seek a licence from the government for every manner of book or paper, and heresy was so closely affiliated with treason that the free expression of thought, whether reactionary or revolutionary, was beset with grave danger. Attempts to estimate the width of the gulf separating the Church of England in Elizabeth's time from the corresponding institution as it existed in the early years of her father's reign are likely to be gravely affected by personal bias. There is a theory that no sweeping revolution in dogma took place, but that only a few medieval beliefs were modified or rejected owing to the practical abuses to which they had given rise. To Professor A. F. Pollard, for example, " The Reformation in England was mainly a domestic affair, a national protest against national grievances rather than part of a cosmopolitan move- ment toward doctrinal change" (Camb. Mod. Hist.ii. 478-9). This estimate appeals to persons of -widely different views and temperaments. It is as grateful to those who, like many " Anglo-Catholics," desire on religious grounds to establish the doctrinal continuity of the Anglican Church with that of the 1 Only one of the Marian bishops, Kitchin of Llandaff, was found willing to conform. middle ages, as it is obvious to those who, like W. K. Clifford, perceive in the ecclesiastical organization and its influence nothing more than a perpetuation of demoralizing medieval superstition. The nonconformists have, moreover, never wearied of denouncing the " papistical " conservatism of the Anglican establishment. On the other hand, the impartial historical student cannot compare the Thirty-nine Articles with the contemporaneous canons and decrees of the council of Trent without being impressed by striking contrasts between the two sets of dogmas. Their spirit is very different. The un- mistakable rejection on the part of the English Church of the conception of the eucharist as a sacrifice had alone many wide- reaching implications. Even although the episcopal organiza- tion was retained, the conception of " tradition," of the conciliar powers, of the "characters" of the priest, of the celibate life, of purgatory, of " good works," &c. — all these serve clearly to differentiate the teaching of the English Church before and after the Reformation. From this standpoint it is obviously un- historical to deny that England had a very important part in the cosmopolitan movement toward doctrinal change. The little backward kingdom of Scotland definitely accepted the new faith two years after Elizabeth's accession, and after having for centuries sided with France against England, Tne Ketor- she was inevitably forced by the Reformation into an matioa la alliance with her ancient enemy to the south when they Scotland, both faced a confederation of Catholic powers. The I560~ first martyr of Luther's gospel had been Patrick Hamilton, who had suffered in 1528; but in spite of a number of executions the new ideas spread, even among the nobility. John Knox, who, after a chequered career, had come under the influence of Calvin at Geneva, returned to Scotland for a few months in 1555, and shortly after (1557) that part of the Scottish nobility which had been won over to the new faith formed their first " covenant " for mutual protection. These " Lords of the Congregation " were able to force some concessions from the queen regent. Knox appeared in Scotland again in 1559, and became a sort of second Calvin. He opened negotiations with Cecil, who induced the reluctant Elizabeth to form an alliance with the Lords of the Congregation, and the English sent a fleet to drive away the French, who were endeavouring to keep their hold on Scotland. In 1560 a confession of faith was prepared by John Knox and five companions. This was adopted by the Scottish parliament, with the resolution " the bishops of Rome have no jurisdiction nor authoritie in this Realme in tymes cuming." The alliance of England and the Scottish Protestants against the French, and the common secession from the papal monarchy, was in a sense the foundation and beginning of Great Britain. Scottish Calvinism was destined to exercise no little influence, not only on the history of England, but on the form that the Protestant faith was to take in lands beyond the seas, at the time scarcely known to the Europeans. While France was deeply affected during the i6th century by the Protestant revolt, its government never undertook any thoroughgoing reform of the Church. During the Begin- latter part of the century its monarchs were en- "ings of gaged in a bloody struggle with a powerful religious- **^J" political party, the Huguenots, who finally won a movement toleration which they continued to enjoy until the '» France. revocation of the edict of Nantes in 1685. It was not until 1789 that the French Church of the middle ages lost its vast possessions and was subjected to a fundamental reconstruction by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (i79i).2 Yet no summary of 2 In 1795 the National Convention gruffly declared that the Republic would no longer subsidize any form of worship or furnish buildings for religious services. " The law recognizes no minister of religion, and no one is^to appear in public with costumes or orna- ments used in religious ceremonies." Bonaparte, in the Concordat which he forced upon the pope in 1801, did not provide for the return of "any of the lands of the Church which had been sold, but agreed that the government should pay the salaries of bishops and priests, whose appointment it controlled. While the Roman Catholic re- ligion was declared to be that accepted by the majority of French- men, the state subsidized the Reformed Church, those adhering to the Augsburg Confession and the Jewish community. Over a REFORMATION, THE the Protestant revolt would be complete without some allusion to the contrast between the course of affairs in France and in the neighbouring countries. The French monarchy, as we have seen, had usually succeeded in holding its own against the centralizing tendencies of the pope. By the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438) it had secured the advantages of the conciliar movement. In 1516, after Francis I. had won his victory at Marignano, Leo X. concluded a new concordat with France, in which, in view of the repudiation of the offensive Pragmatic Sanction, the patronage of the French Church was turned over, with scarce any restriction, to the French monarch, although in another agreement the annates were reserved to the pope. The encroachments — which had begun in the time of Philip the Fair — of the king's lawyers on the ancient ecclesiastical juris- diction, had reached a point where there was little cause for jealousy on the part of the State. The placet had long prevailed, so that the king had few of the reasons, so important in Germany and England, for quarrelling with the existing system, unless it were on religious grounds. France had been conspicuous in the conciliar movement. It had also furnished its due quota of heretics, although no one so conspicuous as Wycliffe or Huss. Marsiglio of Padua had had Frenchmen among his sympathizers and helpers. The first prominent French scholar to " preach Christ from the sources " was Jacques Lefebvre of Etaples, who in 1512 published a new Latin translation of the epistles of St Paul. Later he revised an existing French translation of both the New Testament (which appeared in 1523, almost con- temporaneously with Luther's German version) and, two years later, the Old Testament. He agreed with Luther in rejecting transubstantiation, and in believing that works without the grace of God could not make for salvation. The centre of Lefebvre's followers was Meaux, and they found an ardent adherent in Margaret of Angouleme, the king's sister, but had no energetic leader who was willing to face the danger of disturb- ances. Luther's works found a good many readers in France, but were condemned (1521) by both the Sorbonneand the parle- ment of Paris. The parlement appointed a commission to discover and punish heretics; the preachers of Meaux fled to Strassburg, and Lefebvre's translation of the Bible was publicly burned. A council held at Sens, 1528-29, approved all those doctrines of the old Church which the Protestants were attacking, and satisfied itself with enumerating a list of necessary conservative reforms. After a fierce attack on Protestants caused by the mutilation of a statue of the Virgin, in 1528, the king, anxious to con- Joha ciliate both the German Protestants and anti-papa) Calvin England, invited some of the reformers of Meaux and his [O preach in the Louvre. An address written by 'tutel 'of a vounS man °f twenty-four, Jean Cauvin (to the become immortal under his Latin name of Calvinus) Christian was read by the rector of the university. It was Religion." a c[efence of the new evangelical views, and so aroused the Sorbonne that Calvin was forced to flee from Paris. In October 1534, the posting of placards in Paris and other towns, containing brutal attacks on the Mass and denouncing the pope and the " vermin " of bishops, priests and monks as blasphemers and liars, produced an outburst of persecution, in which thirty-five Lutherans were burned, while many fled the country. The events called forth from Calvin, who was in Basel, the famous letter to Francis which forms the preface to his Institutes of the Christian Religion. In this address he sought to vindicate the high aims of the Protestants, and to put the king on his guard against those mad men who were disturbing his kingdom with their measures of persecution. ' The Institutes, the first great textbook of Protestant theology, was published in Latin in 1536, and soon (1541) in a French version. The original work is much shorter than in its later editions, for, as Calvin says, he wrote learning and learned century elapsed before the Concordat was abrogated by the Separa- tion Law of 1905 which suppressed all government appropriations for religious purposes and vested the control of Church property in " associations for public worship " (associations cultuelles) , to be composed of from seven to twenty-five members according to the size of the commune. writing. His address had little effect on the king. The parle- ments issued a series of edicts against the heretics, culminating in the very harsh general edict of Fontainebleau, sanctioned by the parlement of Paris in 1543. The Sorbonne issued a concise series of twenty-five articles, refuting the Institutes of Calvin. This statement, when approved by4he king and his council , was published throughout France, and formed a clear test of orthodoxy. The Sorbonne also drew up a list of prohibited books, including those of Calvin, Luther and Melanchthon; and the parlement issued a decree against all printing of Pro- testant literature. The later years of Francis's reign were noteworthy for the horrible massacre of the Waldenses and the martyrdom of fourteen from the group of Meaux, who were burnt alive in 1546. When Francis died little had been done, in spite of the government's cruelty, to check Protestantism, while a potent organ of evangelical propaganda had been developing just beyond the confines of France in the town of Geneva. In its long struggle with its bishops and with the dukes of Savoy, Geneva had turned to her neighbours for aid, especi- ally to Bern, with which an alliance was concluded Oeaeva in 1526. Two years later Bern formally sanctioned become* the innovations advocated by the Protestant preachers, » centre and although predominantly German assumed the °'/'">P»- role of protector of the reform party in the Pays *" de Vaud and Geneva. William Farel, one of the group of Meaux, who had fled to Switzerland and had been active in the conversion of Bern, went to Geneva in 1531. With the protection afforded him and his companions by Bern, and the absence of well-organized opposition on the part of the Roman Catholics, the new doctrines rapidly spread, and by 1535 Farel was preaching in St Pierre itself. After a public disputation in which the Catholics were weakly represented, and a popular demonstration in favour of the new doctrines, the council of Geneva rather reluctantly sanctioned the abolition of the Mass. Meanwhile Bern had declared war on the duke of Savoy, and had not only conquered a great part of the Pays de Vaud, including the important town of Lausanne, but had enabled Geneva to win its complete inde- pendence. In the same year (September 1536), as Calvin was passing through the town on his way back to Strassburg after a short visit in Italy, he was seized by Farel and induced most reluctantly to remain and aid him in thoroughly carrying out the Reformation in a city in which the conservative senti- ment was still very strong. As there proved to be a large number in the town councils who did not sympathize with the plans of organization recommended by Calvin and his col- leagues, the town preachers were, after a year and a half of unsatisfactory labour, forced to leave Geneva. For three years Calvin sojourned in Germany; he signed the Augsburg Con- fession, gained the friendship of Melanchthon and other leading reformers, and took part in the religious conferences of the period. In 1541 he was induced with great difficulty to sur- render once more his hopes of leading the quiet life of a scholar, and to return again to Geneva (September 1541), where he spent the remaining twenty-three years of his life. His ideal was to restore the conditions which he supposed prevailed during the first three centuries of the Church's existence; but the celebrated Ecclesiastical Ordinances adopted by the town in 1541 and revised in 1561 failed fully to realize his ideas, which find a more complete exemplification in the regulations govern- ing the French Church later. He wished for the complete independence and self-government of the Church, with the right of excommunication to be used against the ungodly. The Genevan town councils were quite ready to re-enact all the old police regulations common in that age in regard to excessive display, dancing, obscene songs, &c. It was arranged too that town government should listen to the " Consistory," made up of the " Elders," but the Small Council was to choose the members of the Consistory, two of whom should belong to the Small Council, four to the Council of Sixty, and six to the Council of Two Hundred. One of the four town syndics was to preside over its sessions. The Consistory was thus a sort of committee of 20 REFORMATION, THE the councils, and it had no power to inflict civil punishment on offenders. Thus " we ought," as Lindsay says, " to see in the disciplinary powers and punishments of the Consistory of Geneva not an exhibition of the working of the Church organ- ized on the principles of Calvin, but the ordinary procedure of the town council of a medieval city. Their petty punishments and their minute interferences with private life are only special instances of what was common to all municipal rule in the i6th century." This is true of the supreme crime of heresy, which in the notorious case of Servetus was only an expression of rules laid down over a thousand years earlier in the Theodosian Code. Geneva, however, with its most distinguished of Protestant theo- logians, became a school of Protestantism, which sent its trained men into the Netherlands, England and Scotland, and especially across the border into France. It served too as a place of refuge for thousands of the persecuted adherents of its beliefs. Calvin's book furnished the Protestants not only with a compact and admirably written handbook of theology, vigorous and clear, but with a system of Church government and a code of morals. After the death of Francis I., his successor, Henry II., set himself even more strenuously to extirpate heresy; a special OH nn of branch of the parlement of Paris — the so-called Hifgueaot Chambre ardente (q.v.) — for the trial of heresy cases party was established, and the fierce edict of Chateaubriand under (June 1551) explicitly adopted many of the expedients eary ' of the papal inquisition. While hundreds were im- prisoned or burned, Protestants seemed steadily to increase in numbers, and finally only the expostulations of the parlement of Paris prevented the king from introducing the Inquisition in France in accordance with the wishes of the pope and the cardinal of Lorraine. The civil tribunals, however, practically assumed the functions of regular inquisitorial courts, in spite of the objections urged by the ecclesiastical courts. Notwith- standing these measures for their extermination, the French Protestants were proceeding to organize a church in accordance with the conceptions of the early Christian communities as Calvin described them in his Institutes. Beginning with Paris, some fifteen communities with their consistories were established in French towns between 1555 and 1560. In spite of continued persecution a national synod was assembled in Paris in 1559, representing at least twelve Protestant churches in Normandy and central France, which drew up a confession of faith and a book of church discipline. It appears to have been from France rather than from Geneva that the Presbyterian churches of Holland, Scotland and the United States derived their form of government. A reaction against the extreme severity of the king's courts became apparent at this date. Du Bourg and others ventured warmly to defend the Protestants in the parle- ment of Paris in the very presence of the king and of the cardinal of Lorraine. The higher aristocracy began now to be attracted by the new doctrines, or at least repelled by the flagrant power enjoyed by the Guises during the brief reign of Francis II. (1550-1560). Protestantism was clearly becoming inextricably associated with politics of a very intricate sort. The leading members of the Bourbon branch of the royal family, and Gaspard de Coligny, admiral of France, were conspicuous among the converts to Calvinism. Persecution was revived by the Guises; Du Bourg, the brave defender of the Protestants, was burned as a heretic; yet Calvin could in the closing years of his life form a cheerful estimate that some three hundred thousand of his countrymen had been won over to his views. The death of Francis II. enabled Catherine de' Medici, the queen mother, to assert herself against the Guises, and become the regent of her ten-year-old son Charles IX. A meeting of the States General had already been summoned to consider the state of the realm. Michel de PH6pital, the chancellor, who opened the assembly, was an advocate of toleration; he deprecated the abusive use of the terms " Lutherans," " Papists " and " Huguenots," and advocated deferring all action until a council should have been called. The deputies of the clergy were naturally conservative, but advocated certain reforms, an abolition of the Concordat, and a re-establishment of the older Pragmatic Sanction. The noblesse were divided on the matter of toleration, but the cahiers (lists of grievances and suggestions for reform) submitted by the Third Estate demanded, besides regular meetings of the estates every five years, complete toleration and a reform of the Church. This grew a little later into the recommendation that the revenues and possessions of the French Church should be appropriated by the government, which, after properly sub- sidizing the clergy, might hope, it was estimated, that a surplus of twenty-two millions of livres would accrue to the State. Two hundred and thirty years later this plan was realized in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. The deliberations of 1561 resulted in the various reforms, the suspension of persecution and the liberation of Huguenot prisoners. These were not accorded freedom of worship, but naturally took advantage of the situation to carry on their services more publicly than ever before. An unsuccessful effort was made at the conference of Poissy to bring the two religious parties together; Beza had an opportunity to defend the Calvinistic cause, and Lainez, the general of the Order of Jesus, that of the bishop of Rome. The government remained tolerant toward the movement, and in January 1562 the Huguenots were given permission to hold public services outside the walls of fortified towns and were not forbidden to meet in private houses within the walls. Catherine, who had promoted these measures, cared nothing for the Protestants, but desired the support of the Bourbon princes. The country was Catholic, and disturbances inevitably occurred, culminating in the attack of the duke of Guise and his troops .on the Protestants at Vassy, less than two months after the issuing of the edict. It is impossible to review here the Wars of Religion which distracted France, from the " massacre of Vassy " to the publication of the edict of Nantes, thirty-six years rfte later. Religious issues became more and more domin- Preach ated by purely political and dynastic ambitions, and Wars of the whole situation was constantly affected by the ^'ifthe policy of Philip II. and the struggle going on in the edict of Netherlands. Henry IV. was admirably fitted to Nantes, reunite France once more, and, after a superficial IS62~ conversion to the Catholic faith, to meet the needs of his former co-religionists, the Huguenots. The edict of Nantes recapitulated and codified the provisions of a series of earlier edicts of toleration, which had come with each truce during the previous generation. Liberty of conscience in religious matters was secured and the right of private worship to those of the " so-called Reformed religion." Public worship was permitted everywhere where it had existed in 1596-1597, in two places within each bailliage and senechauss&e, and in the chateaux of the Protestant nobility, with slight restrictions in the case of lower nobility. Protestants were placed upon a political equality and made eligible to all public offices. To ensure these rights, they were left in military control of two hundred towns, including La Rochelle, Montauban and Montpellier. Jealous of their " sharing the State with the king," Richelieu twenty-five years later reduced the exceptional privileges of the Huguenots, and with the advent of Louis XIV. they began to suffer renewed persecution, which the king at last flattered himself had so far reduced their number that in 1685 he revoked the edict of Nantes and reduced the Protestants to the status of outlaws. It was not until 1786 that they were restored to their civil rights, and by the Declaration of the Rights of Man, in 1789, to their religious freedom. Contemporaneously with the Wars of Religion in France a long and terrible struggle between the king of Spain and his Dutch and Belgian provinces had resulted in the The formation of a Protestant state— the United Nether- lands, which was destiited to play an important role in the history of the Reformed religion. Open both their im- to German and French influences, the Netherlands had been the scene of the first executions of Lutherans; lathe history they had been a centre of Anabaptist agitation; but Cal- oftoiera- vinism finally triumphed in the Confession of Dordrecht , tioa. 1572, since Calvin's system of church government did not, like REFORMATION, THE 21 Luther's, imply the sympathy of the civil authorities. Charles V. had valiantly opposed the development of heresy in the Nether- lands, and nowhere else had there been such numbers of martyrs, for some thirty thousand are supposed to have been put to death during his reign. Under Philip II. it soon became almost impossible to distinguish clearly between the religious issues and the resistance to the manifold tyranny of Philip and his representatives. William of Orange, who had passed through several phases of religious conviction, stood first and foremost for toleration. Indeed, Holland became the home of modern religious liberty, the haven of innumerable free spirits, and the centre of activity of printers and publishers, who asked for no other imprimatur than the prospect of intelligent readers. It is impossible to offer any exhaustive classification of those who, while they rejected the teachings of the old Church, The Ana- refused at the same time to conform to the particular baptists, types of Protestantism which had found favour in the eyes of the princes and been imposed by them on their subjects. This large class of " dissenters " found themselves as little at home under a Protestant as under a Catholic regime, and have until recently been treated with scant sympathy by historians of the Church. Long before the Protestant revolt, simple, obscure people, under the influence of leaders whose names have been forgotten, lost confidence in the official clergy and their sacraments and formed secret organizations of which vague accounts are found in the reports of the 13th-century inquisitors, Rainerus Sacchoni, Bernard Gui, and the rest. Their anti-sacerdotalism appears to have been their chief offence, for the inquisitors admit that they were puritanically careful in word and conduct, and shunned all levity. Similar groups are mentioned in the town chronicles of the early i6th century, and there is reason to assume that informal evangelical movements were no new things when Luther first began to preach. His appeal to the Scriptures against the traditions of the Church encouraged a more active propaganda on the part of Balthasar Hubmaier, Carlstadt, Miinzer, Johann Denk (d. 1527) and others, some of whom were well-trained scholars capable of maintaining with vigour and effect their ideas of an apostolic life as the high road to salvation. Miinzer dreamed of an approaching millennium on earth to be heralded by violence and suffering, but Hubmaier and Denk were peaceful evangelists who believed that man's will was free and that each had within him an inner light which would, if he but followed it, guide him to God. To them persecution was an outrage upon Jesus's teachings. Luther and his sympathizers were blind to the reasonableness of the fundamental teachings of these " brethren." The idea of adult baptism, which had after 1525 become generally accepted among them, roused a bitterness which it is rather hard to understand nowadays. But it is easy to see that informal preaching to the people at large, especially after the Peasant Revolt, with which Miinzer had been identified, should have led to a general condemnation, under the name " Anabaptist " or " Catabaptist," of the heterogeneous dissenters who agreed in rejecting the State religion and associated a condemnation of infant baptism with schemes for social betterment. The terrible events in Mtinster, which was controlled for a short time (1533-34) by a group of Anabaptists under the leadership of John of Leiden, the introduction of polygamy (which appears to have been a peculiar accident rather than a general principle), the speedy capture of the town by an alliance of Catholic and Protestant princes, and the ruthless retribution inflicted by the victors, have been cherished by ecclesiastical writers as a choice and convincing instance of the natural fruits of a rejection of infant baptism. Much truer than the common estimate of the character of the Anabaptists is that given in Sebastian Franck's Chronicle: " They taught nothing but love, faith and the crucifixion of the flesh, manifesting patience and humility under many sufferings, breaking bread with one another in sign of unity and love, helping one another with true helpfulness, lending, borrowing, giving, learning to 'have all things in common, calling each other ' brother.' " Menno ' Simons (b. circ. 1500) succeeded in bringing the scattered Ana- baptist communities into a species of association; he dis- couraged the earlier apocalyptic hopes, inculcated non-resist- ance, denounced the evils of State control over religious matters, and emphasized personal conversion, and adult baptism as its appropriate seal. The English Independents and the modern Baptists, as well as the Mennonites, may be regarded as the historical continuation of lines of development going back to the Waldensians and the Bohemian Brethren, and passing down through the German, Dutch and Swiss Anabaptists. The modern scholar as he reviews the period of the Pro- testant Revolt looks naturally, but generally in vain, for those rationalistic tendencies which become so clear in the socioiaa* latter part of the 17th century. Luther found no in- orAnti- tellectual difficulties in his acceptance and interpreta- tion of the Scriptures as God's word, and in maintain- ing against the Anabaptists the legitimacy of every old custom that was not obviously contrary to the Scriptures. Indeed, he gloried in the inherent and divine unreasonableness of Christianity, and brutally denounced reason as a cunning fool, " a pretty harlot." The number of questions which Calvin failed to ask or eluded by absolutely irrational expedients frees him from any taint of modern rationalism. But in Servetus, whose execution he approved, we find an isolated, feeble revolt against assumptions which both Catholics and Protestants of all shades accepted without question. It is pretty clear that the common accounts of the Renaissance and of the revival of learning grossly exaggerate the influence of the writers of Greece and Rome, for they produced no obvious rationalistic movement, as would have been the case had Plato and Cicero, Lucretius and Lucian, been taken really seriously. Neo- Platonism, which is in some respects nearer the Christian patristic than the Hellenic spirit, was as far as the radical religious thinkers of the Italian Renaissance receded. The only religious movement that can be regarded as even rather vaguely the outcome of humanism is the Socinian. Faustus Sozzini, a native of Sienna (1539-1603), much influenced by his uncle Lelio Sozzini, after a wandering, questioning life, found his way to Poland, where he succeeded in uniting the various Anabaptist sects into a species of church, the doctrines of which are set forth in the Confession of Rakow (near Minsk), published in Polish in 1605 and speedily in German and Latin. The Latin edition declares that although this new statement of the elements of the Christian faith differs from the articles of other Christian creeds it is not to be mistaken for a challenge. It does not aim at binding the opinions of men or at condemn- ing to the tortures of hell-ire those who refuse to accept it. Absit a nobis ea mens, immo amentia. " We have, it is true, ventured to prepare a catechism, but we force it on no one; we express our opinions, but we coerce no one. It is free to every one to form his own conclusions in religious matters; and so we do no more than set forth the meaning of divine things as they appear to our minds without, however, attacking or insulting those who differ from us. This is the golden freedom of preaching which the holy words of the New Testa- ment so strictly enjoin upon us. ... Who art thou, miserable man, who would smother and extinguish in others the fire of God's Spirit which it has pleased him to kindle in them ? " The Socinian creed sprang from intellectual rather than re- ligious motives. Sufficient reasons could be assigned for accepting the New Testament as God's word and Christ as the Christian's guide. He was not God, but a divine prophet born of a virgin and raised on the third day as the first-fruits of them that slept. From the standpoint of the history of enlight- enment, as Harnack has observed, " Socinianism with its sys- tematic criticism (tentative and imperfect as it may now seem) and its rejection of all the assumptions based upon mere ecclesiastical tradition, can scarcely be rated too highly. That modern Unitarianism is all to be traced back to Sozzini and the Rakow Confession need not be assumed. The anti-Trini- tarian path was one which opened invitingly before a consider- able class of critical minds, seeming as it did to lead out into 22 REFORMATORY— REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA a sunny open, remote from the unfathomable depths of mystery and clouds of religious emotion which beset the way of the sincere Catholic and Protestant alike. The effects of the Protestant secession on the doctrines, organization and practices of the Roman Catholic Church are The difficult to estimate, still more so to substantiate. It Catholic is clear that the doctrinal conclusions of the council Keforma- of Trent were largely determined by the necessity "°"' of condemning Protestant tenets, and that the result of the council was to give the Roman Catholic faith a more precise form than it would otherwise have had. It is much less certain that the disciplinary reforms which the council, following the example of its predecessors, re-enacted, owed anything to Protestantism, unless indeed the council would have shown itself less intolerant in respect to such innovations as the use of the vernacular in the services had this not smacked of evangelicalism. In the matter of the pope's supremacy, the council followed the canon law and Thomas Aquinas, not the decrees of the council of Constance. It prepared the way for the dogmatic formulation of the plenitude of the papal power three centuries later by the council of the Vatican. The Protestants have sometimes taken credit to themselves for the indubitable reforms in the Roman Catholic Church, which by the end of the i6th century had done away with many of the crying abuses against which councils and diets had so long been protesting. But this conservative reformation had begun before Luther's preaching, and might conceivably have followed much the same course had his doctrine never found popular favour or been ratified by the princes. In conclusion, a word may be said of the place of the Re- formation in the history of progress and enlightenment. A The place "philosopher," as Gibbon long ago pointed out, of the who asks from what articles of faith above and against Keforma- reason (_ne eariy Reformers enfranchised their followers history of will bfi surprised at their timidity rather than scandal- progress. ized by their freedom. They remained severely orthodox in the doctrines of the Fathers — the Trinity, the Incarnation, the plenary inspiration of the Bible — and they condemned those who rejected their teachings to a hell whose fires they were not tempted to extenuate. Although they sur- rendered transubstantiation, the loss of one mystery was amply compensated by the stupendous doctrines of original sin, redemption, faith, grace and predestination upon which they founded their theory of salvation. They ceased to appeal to the Virgin and saints, and to venerate images and relics, procure indulgences and go on pilgrimages, they deprecated the monastic life, and no longer nourished faith by the daily repetition of miracles, but in the witch persecutions their demonology cost the lives of thousands of innocent women. They broke the chain of authority, without, however, recognizing the propriety of toleration. In any attempt to determine the relative im- portance of Protestant and Catholic countries in promoting modern progress it must not be forgotten that religion is natur- ally conservative, and that its avowed business has never been to forward scientific research or political reform. Luther and his contemporaries had not in any degree the modern idea of progress, which first becomes conspicuous with Bacon and Descartes, but believed, on the contrary, that the strangling of reason was the most precious of offerings to God. " Free- thinker " and " rationalist " have been terms of opprobrium whether used by Protestants or Catholics. The pursuit of salvation does not dominate by any means the whole life and ambition of even ardent believers; statesmen, philosophers, men of letters, scientific investigators and inventors have commonly gone their way regardless of the particular form of Christianity which prevailed in the land in which they lived. The Reformation was, fundamentally, then, but one phase, if the most conspicuous, in the gradual decline of the majestic medieval ecclesiastical State, for this decline has gone on in France, Austria, Spain and Italy, countries in which the Protestant revolt against the ancient Church ended in failure. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Reference is made here mainly to works dealing with the Reformation as a whole. Only recent books are men- tioned, since the older works have been largely superseded owing to modern critical investigations: Thomas A. Lindsay, A History of the Reformation, 2 vols. (1906-7), the best general treatment; The Cambridge Modern History, vol. i. (1902), chaps, xviii. and xix., vol. ii. (190*1), " The Reformation," and vol. iii. (1905), " The Wars of Religion, ' with very full bibliographies; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy during the Reformation, 6 vols. (new ed. 1899-1901). From a Catholic standpoint: L. Pastor, Geschichte der Papste seit dem Ausgang des Mittelalters (1891 sqq., especially vol. iv. in two parts, 1906-7, and vol. v., 1909). This is in course of publica- tion and is being translated into English (8 vols. have appeared, 1891-1908, covering the period 1305-1521); I. Janssen, History of the German People at the Close of the Middle Ages, 12 vols., 1896- 1907, corresponding to vols. i.-vi. of the German original, in 8 vols., edited by Pastor, 1897-1904. This is the standard Catholic treat- ment of the Reformation, and is being supplemented by a series of monographs, Ergdnzungen zu Janssens Geschichte des deutschen Volkes, which have been appearing since 1898 and correspond with the Protestant Schriften des Vereins fur Reformations- geschichte (1883 sqq.). F. von Bezold, Geschichte der deutschen Reformation (1890), an excellent illustrated account ; E. Troeltsch, Protestantisches Christentum und Kirche der Neuzeit, in the series " Kultur der Gegenwart," Teil i. Abt. 4, i. Halite, 1905; Charles Beard, The Reformation of the Sixteenth Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge (The Hibbert Lectures for 1883), and by the same, Martin Luther, vol. i. (no more published; 1889); A. Harnack, History of Dogma (trans, from the 3rd German edition, vol. vii., 1900) ; A. E. Berger, Die Kulturaufgaben der Reformation (2nd ed., 1908); Thudichum, Papsttum und Reformation (1903); " Janus," The Pope and the Council (1869), by Dollinger and others, a suggestive if not wholly accurate sketch of the papal claims; W. Maurenbrecher, Geschichte der Katholischen Reformation, vol. i. (no more published) (1880); J. Haller, Papsttum und Kirchenreform, vol. i. (1903) relates to the I4th century; J. Kostlin, Martin Luther, sein Leben und seine Schriften, new edition by Kawerau, 2 vols., 1903, the most useful life of Luther; H. Denifle, Luther und Luthertum, 2 vols. (1904-6), a bitter but learned arraignment of Luther by a distinguished Dominican scholar. H. Boehmer, Luther im Lichte der neueren Forschungen (1906), brief and sug- gestive. First Principles of the Reformation, the Three Primary Works of Dr Martin Luther, edited, by Wace and Buchheim, — an English translation of the famous pamphlets of 1520. (J. H. R.*) REFORMATORY SCHOOL, an institution for the industrial training of juvenile offenders, in which they are lodged, clothed and fed, as well as taught. They are to be distinguished from " industrial schools," which are institutions for potential and not actual delinquents. To reformatory schools in England are sent juveniles up to the age of sixteen who have been con- victed of an offence punishable with penal servitude or im- prisonment. The order is made by the court before which they are tried; the limit of detention is the age of nineteen. Reformatory schools are regulated by the Children Act 1908, which repealed the Reformatory Schools Act 1866, as amended by acts of 1872, 1874, 1891, 1893, 1899 and 1901. See further JUVENILE OFFENDERS. REFORMED CHURCHES, the name assumed by those Pro- testant bodies who adopted the tenets of Zwingli (and later of Calvin), as distinguished from those of the Lutheran or Evangeli- cal divines. They are accordingly often spoken of as the Calvin- istic Churches, Protestant being sometimes used as a synonym for Lutheran. The great difference is in the attitude towards the Lord's Supper, the Reformed or Calvinistic Churches re- pudiating not only transubstantiation but also the Lutheran consubstantiation. They also reject the use of crucifixes and other symbols and ceremonies retained by the Lutherans. Full details of these divergences are given in M.Schneckenburger, Vergleichende Darstellung des lutherischen und reformierten Lehrbe- griffs (Stuttgart, 1855); G. B. Winer, Comparative Darstellung (Berlin, 1866; Eng. tr., Edinburgh, 1873). See also REFORMATION; PRESBYTERIANISM; CAMERONIANS. REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA, until 1867 called offi- cially " The Reformed Protestant Dutch Church in North America," and still ^popularly called the Dutch Reformed Church, an American Calvinist church, originating with the settlers from Holland in New York, New Jersey and Delaware, the first permanent settlers of the Reformed faith in the New World. Their earliest settlements were at Manhattan, Walla- bout and Fort Orange (now Albany), where the West India Company formally established the Reformed Church of Holland. REFORMED CHURCH IN AMERICA Their first minister was Jonas Michaelius, pastor in New Amsterdam of the " church in the fort " (now the Collegiate Church of New York City). The second domine, Everardus Bogardus (d. 1647), migrated to New York in 1633 with Gover- nor Wouter van T wilier, with whom he quarrelled continually; in the same year a wooden church " in the fort " was built; and in 1642 it was succeeded by a stone building. A minister, John van Mekelenburg (Johannes Megapolensis) migrated to Rensselaerwyck manor in 1642, preached to the Indians — probably before any other Protestant minister — and after 1649 was settled in New Amsterdam. With the access of English and French settlers, Samuel Drisius, who preached in Dutch, German, English and French, was summoned, and he laboured in New Amsterdam and New York from 1652 to 1673. On Long Island John T. Polhemus preached at Flatbush in 1654-76. During Peter Stuy vesant 's governorship there was little toleration of other denominations, but the West India Company reversed his intolerant proclamations against Lutherans and Quakers. About 1659 a French and Dutch church was organized in Harlem. The first church in New Jersey, at Bergen, in 1661, was quickly followed by others at Hackensack and Passaic. After English rule in 1664 displaced Dutch in New York, the relations of the Dutch churches there were much less close with the state Church of Holland; and in 1679 (on the request of the English governor of New York, to whom the people of New Castle appealed) a classis was constituted for the ordination of a pastor for the church in New Castle, Delaware. The Dutch strongly opposed the establishment of the Church of England, and contributed largely toward the adoption (in October 1683) of the Charter of Liberties which confirmed in their privileges all churches then " in practice " in the city of New York and elsewhere in the province, but which was repealed by James II. in 1686, when he established the Church of England in New York but allowed religious liberty to the Dutch and others. The Dutch ministers stood by James's government during Leisler's rebellion. Under William III., Governors Sloughter and Fletcher worked for a law (passed in 1693 and approved in 1697) for the settling of a ministry in New York, Richmond, Westchester and Queen's counties; but the Assembly foiled Fletcher's purpose of establishing a Church of England clergy, although he attempted to construe the act as applying only to the English Church. In 1696 the first church charter in New York was granted to the Reformed Protestant Dutch Church (now the Collegiate Church) of New York City; at this time there were Dutch ministers at Albany and Kingston, on Long Island and in New Jersey; and for years the Dutch and English (Episcopalian) churches alone received charters in New York and New Jersey — the Dutch church being treated practically as an establishment — and the church of the fort and Trinity (Episcopalian; chartered 1697) were fraternally harmonious. In 170x3 there were twenty-nine Reformed Dutch churches out of a total of fifty in New York. During the administration of Governor Edward Hyde, Lord Cornbury, many members joined the Episcopal Church and others removed to New Jersey. The Great Awakening crowned the efforts of Theodore J. Frelinghuysen, who had come over as a Dutch pastor in 1720 and had opposed formalism and preached a revival. The Church in America in 1738 asked the Classis of Amsterdam (to whose care it had been transferred from the West India Com- pany) for the privilege of forming a Coetus or Association with power to ordain in America; the Classis, after trying to join the Dutch with the English Presbyterian churches, granted (1747) a Coetus first to the German and then to the Dutch churches, which therefore in September 1754 organized them- selves into a classis. This action was opposed by the church of New York City, and partly through this difference and partly because of quarrels over the denominational control of King's College (now Columbia), five members of the Coetus seceded, and as the president of the Coetus was one of them they took the records with them; they were called the Con- ferentie; they organized independently in 1764 and carried on a bitter warfare with the Coetus (now more properly called the American Classis), which in 1 766 (and again in 1 770) obtained a charter for Queen's (now Rutgers) College at New Brunswick. But in 1771-72 through the efforts of John H. Livingston (1746-1825), who had become pastor of the New York City church in 1770, on the basis of a plan drafted by the Classis of Amster- dam Coetus and Conferentie were reunited with a substantial independence of Amsterdam, which was made complete in 1792 when the Synod (the nomenclature of synod and classis had been adopted upon the declaration of American Independ- ence) adopted a translation of the eighty-four Articles of Dort on Church Order with seventy-three "explanatory articles."1 In 1800 there were about forty ministers and one hundred churches. In 1819 the Church was incorporated as the Re- formed Protestant Dutch Church; and in 1867 the name was changed to the Reformed Church in America. Preaching in Dutch had nearly ceased in 1820, but about 1846 a new Dutch immigration began, especially in Michigan, and fifty years later Dutch preaching was common in nearly one-third of the churches of the country, only to disappear almost entirely in the next decade. Union with other Reformed churches was planned in 1743, in 1784, in 1816-20, 1873-78 and 1886, but unsuc- cessfully; however, ministers go from one to another charge in the Dutch and German Reformed, Presbyterian, and to a less degree Congregational churches. A conservative secession " on account of Hopkinsian errors " in 1822 of six ministers (five then under suspension) organized a General Synod and the classes of Hackensack and Union (central New York) in 1824; it united with the Christian Re- formed Church, established by immigrants from Holland after 1835, to which there was added a fresh American secession in 1882 due to opposition (on the part of the seceders) to secret societies. The organization of the Church is: a General Synod (1794); the (particular) synods of New York (1800), Albany (1800), Chicago (1856) and New Brunswick (1869); classes, corresponding to the presbyteries of other Calvinistic bodies; and the churches, num- bering, in 1906, 659. The agencies of the Church are: the Board of Education, privately organized in 1828 and adopted by the General Synod in 1831 ; a Widows' Fund (1837) and a Disabled Ministers' Fund; a Board of Publication (1855); a Board of Domestic Missions (1831 ; reorganized 1849) with a Church Building Fund and a Woman's Executive Committee; a Board of Foreign Missions (1832) succeeding the United Missionary Society (1816), which included Presbyterian, Dutch Reformed and Associate Re- formed Churches, and which was merged (1826) in the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, from which the Dutch Church did not entirely separate itself until 1857; and a Woman's Board of Foreign Missions (1875). The principal missions are in India at Arcot (1854; transferred in 1902 to the Synod of S. India) and at Amoy in China (1842) ; and the work of the Church in Japan was very successful, especially under Guido Fridolin Verbeck2 (1830-1898), and 1877 native churches built up by Presby- terian and Dutch Reformed missionaries wore organized as the United Church of our Lord Jesus Christ in Japan. There is also an Arabian mission, begun privately in 1888 and transferred to the Board in 1894. The colleges and institutions of learning connected with the Church are: Rutgers, already mentioned; Union College (1795), the out- growth ofSchenectady Academy, founded in 1785 by Dirck Romeyn, a Dutch minister; Hope College (1866; coeducational) at Holland, Michigan, originally a parochial school (1850) and then (1855) Holland Academy; the Theological Seminary at New Brunswick (q.v.); and the Western Theological Seminary (1869) at Holland, Michigan. In 1906 (according to Bulletin loj (1909) of the Bureau of the U.S. Census) there were 659 organizations with 773 church edifices reported and the total membership was 12^,938. More than one- half of this total membership (63,350) was in New York state, the 'principal home of the first great Dutch immigration; more than one-quarter (32,290) was in New Jersey; and the other states were: Michigan (11,260), Illinois (4962), Iowa (4835), Wisconsin (2312), and Pennsylvania ('979)- The Church wasalso represented in Minne- sota, S. Dakota, Oklahoma, Nebraska, Indiana, Ohio, Kansas, N. Dakota, S. Carolina, Washington and Maryland — the order being that of rank in number of communicants. The Christian Reformed Church, an " old school " secession, had in 1906, 174 organizations, 181 churches and a membership of 26,669, 1 In 1832 the articles of Church government were rearranged and in 1872-74 they were amended. ' See W. E. Griffis, Verbeck of Japan (New York, 1900). REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES of which more than one-half (14,779) was in Michigan, where many of the immigrants who came after 1835 belonged to the seces- sion church in Holland. There were 2990 in Iowa, 2392 in New Jersey, 2332 in Illinois, and smaller numbers in Wisconsin, Indiana, Minnesota, S. Dakota, Ohio, New York, Washington, Kansas, Massachusetts, Montana, N. Dakota, New Mexico, Nebraska and Colorado. See D. D. Demarest, The Reformed Church in America (New York, 1889) ; E. T. Corwin, The Manual of the Reformed Church in America (ibid., 4th ed., 1902), his sketch of the history of the Church in vol. viii. (ibid., 1895) of the American Church History Series, and his Ecclesiastical Records of the State of New York (Albany, 1901 sqq.), published by the State of New York. REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES, a German Calvinistic church in America, commonly called the German Reformed Church. It traces its origin to the great German immigration of the 17th century, especially to Pennsylvania, where, although the German Lutherans afterwards outnumbered them, the Reformed element was estimated in 1730 to be more than half the whole number of Germans in the colony. In 1709 more than 2000 Palatines emigrated to New York with their pastor, Johann Friedrich Hager (d. c. 1723), who laboured in the Mohawk Valley. A church in Germantown, Virginia, was founded about 1714. Johann Philip Boehm (d. 1749), a school teacher from Worms, although not ordained, preached after 1725 to congregations at Falckner's Swamp, Skippack, and White Marsh, Pennsylvania, and in 1729 he was ordained by Dutch Reformed ministers in New York. Georg Michael Weiss (c. I7oo-c. 1762), a graduate of Heidelberg, ordained and sent to America by the Upper Consistory of the Palatinate in 1727, organized a church in Philadelphia; preached at Skippack; worked in Dutchess and Schoharie counties, New York, in 1731-46; and then returned to his old field in Pennsylvania. Johann Heinrich Goetschius was pastor (c. 1731-38) of ten churches in Pennsylvania, and was ordained by the Presbyterian Synod of Philadelphia in 1737. A part of his work was undertaken by Johann Conrad Wirtz, who was ordained by the New Brunswick (New Jersey) Presbytery in 1750, and in 1761-63 was pastor at York, Pennsylvania. A church was built in 1736 at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where Johann Bartholomaeus Rieger (1707-1769), who came from Germany with Weiss on his return in 1731, had preached for several years. Michael Schlatter (1716-1790), a Swiss of St Gall, sent to America in 1746 by the Synods (Dutch Reformed) of Holland, immediately convened Boehm, Weiss and Rieger in Philadelphia, and with them planned a Coetus, which first met in September 1747; in 1751 he presented the cause of the Coetus in Germany and Holland, where he gathered funds; in 1752 came back to America with six ministers, one of whom, William Stoy (1726-1801), was an active opponent of the Coetus and of clericalism after 1772. Thereafter Schlatter's work was in the charity schools of Pennsylvania, which the people thought were tinged with Episcopalianism. Many churches and pastors were independent of the Coetus, notably John Joachim Zubly (1724-1781), of St Gall, who migrated to S. Carolina in 1726, and was a delegate to the Continenta Congress from Georgia, but opposed independence and was banished from Savannah in 1777. Within the Coetus there were two parties. Of the Pietists of the second class one of the leaders was Philip William Otterbein (1726-1813), born in Dillenburg, Nassau, whose system of class-meetings was the basis of a secession from which grew the United Brethren in Christ, commonly called the "New Reformed Church," organize( in 1800. During the War of Independence the Pennsylvania members of the Church were mostly attached to the American cause, and Nicholas Herkimer and Baron von Steuben were both Reformed; but in New York and in the South there wen many German Loyalists. Franklin College was founded by Lutherans and Reformed with much outside help, notably that of Benjamin Franklin at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1787. The Coetus had actually assumed the power of ordinatior in 1772 and formally assumed it in 1791; in 1792 a synodica constitution was prepared; and in 1793 the first independen ynod met in Lancaster and adopted the constitution, thus ecoming independent of Holland. Its churches numbered 78, and there were about 15,000 communicants. The strongest hurches were those of Philadelphia, Lancaster and Germantown n Pennsylvania, and Frederick in Maryland. The German Reformed churches in Lunenburg county, Nova Scotia, became 'resbyterian in 1837; a German church in Waldoboro, Maine, fter a century, became Congregational in 1850. The New York churches became Dutch Reformed. The New Jersey hurches rapidly fell away, becoming Presbyterian, Dutch leformed, or Lutheran. In Virginia many churches became Episcopalian and others United Brethren. By 1825, 13 Re- ormed ministers were settled W. of the Alleghanies. The iynod in 1819 divided itself into eight Classes. In 1824 the Classis of Northampton, Pennsylvania (13 ministers and 80 :ongregations), became the Synod of Ohio, the parent Synod laving refused to allow the Classis to ordain. In 1825 there were 87 ministers, and in the old Synod about 23,300 com- municants. A schism over the establishment of a theological seminary resulted in the organization of a new synod of the " Free German Reformed Congregations of Pennsylvania," which returned to he parent synod in 1837. John Winebrenner (q.v.), pastor in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, eft the Church in 1828, and in 1830 organized the " Church of God "; his main doctrinal difference with the Reformed Church was on infant baptism. In 1825 the Church opened a theological seminary at Carlisle, Pennsylvania, affiliated with Dickinson College. James Ross X.eily (1788-1844) travelled in Holland and Germany, collecting money and books for the seminary. It was removed in 1829 to York, where an academy was connected with it; in 1835 the academy (which in 1836 became Marshall College) and in 1837 the seminary removed to Mercersburg, where, in 1840, John W. Nevin (q.v.) became its president, and with Philip Schaff (q.v.) founded the Mercersburg theology, which lost to the Church many who objected to Nevin's (and Schaff's) Romanizing tendencies. The seminary was removed in 1871 from Mercersburg to Lancaster, whither the college had gone in 1853 to form, with Franklin College, Franklin and Marshall College. In 1842 the Western Synod (i.e. the Synod of Ohio) adopted the constitution of the Eastern, and divided into classes. It founded in 1850 a theological school and Heidelberg University at Tiffin, Ohio. The Synods organized a General Synod in 1863. New German Synods were: that of the North-West (1867), organized at Fort Wayne, Ind.; that of the East (1875), organized at Philadelphia; and the Central Synod (1881), organized at Gallon, Ohio. New English Synods were: that of Pittsburg (1870); that of the Potomac (1873); and that of the Interior (1887), organized at Kansas City, Missouri. In 1894 there were eight district synods. After a long controversy over a liturgy (connected in part with the Mercersburg controversy) a Directory of Worship was adopted in 1887. The principal organizations of the Church are: the Board of Publication (1844); the Society for the Relief of Ministers and their Widows (founded in 1755 by the Pennsylvania Coetus; incorporated in 1810; transferred to the Synod in 1833); a Board of Domestic Missions (1826); a Board of Foreign Missions (1838; reorganized in 1873), which planted a mission in Japan (1879), now a part of the Union Church of Japan, and one in China (1900). The Church has publishing houses in Philadelphia (replacing that of Chambers- burg, Pa., founded in 1840 and destroyed in July 1864 by the Confederate army) and in Cleveland, Ohio. Colleges connected with the Church, besides the seminary at Lancaster, Franklin and Marshall College and Heidelberg University, are : Catawba College (1851) at Newton, North Carolina ; and Ursinus College (1869), founded by the Low Church wing, at Collegeville, Pennsylvania, which had, until 1908, a theological seminary, then removed to Dayton, Ohio, where it united with Heidelberg Theological Seminary (until 1908 at Tiffin) to form the Central Theological Seminary. In 1906, according to Bulletin 103 (1909) of the Bureau of the United States Census, the Church had 1736 organizations in the REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH— REFRACTION United States, 1740 churches and 292,654 communicants, of whom 177,270 were in Pennsylvania, and about one-sixth (50,732) were in Ohio. Other states in which the Church had communicants were: Maryland (13,442), Wisconsin (8386), Indiana (8289), New York (5700), North "Carolina (4718), Iowa (3692), Illinois (2652), Virginia (2288), Kentucky (2101), Michigan (1666), Nebraska (1616), and (less than 1500 in each of the following arranged in rank) S. Dakota, Missouri, New Jersey, Connecticut, Kansas, W. Virginia N. Dakota, Minnesota, District of Columbia, Oregon, Massachusetts, Tennessee, California, Colorado, Arkansas and Oklahoma. See James I. Good, History of the Reformed Church in the United States, 1725-17^2 (Reading, Pa., 1899), and Historical Handbook (Philadelphia, 1902); and the sketch by Joseph Henry Dubbs in vol. viii. (New York, 1895) of the American Church History Series. REFORMED EPISCOPAL CHURCH, a Protestant community in the United States of America, dating from December 1873. The influence of the Tractarian movement began to be felt at an early date in the Episcopal Church of the United States, and the ordination of Arthur Carey in New York, July 1843, a clergyman who denied that there was any difference in points of faith between the Anglican and the Roman Churches and con- sidered the Reformation an unjustifiable act, brought into relief the antagonism between Low Church and High Church, a struggle which went on for a generation with increasing bitterness. The High Church party lost no opportunity of arraigning any Low Churchman who conducted services in non-episcopal churches, and as the Triennial Conference gave no heed to remonstrances on the part of these ecclesiastical offenders they came to the conclusion that they must either crush their consciences or seek relief in separation. The climax was reached when George D. Cummins (1822-1876), assistant bishop of Kentucky, was angrily attacked for officiating at the united communion service held at the meeting of the Sixth General Conference of the Evangelical Alliance in New York, October 1873. This prelate resigned his charge in the Episcopal Church on November nth, and a month later, with seven other clergy- men and a score of laymen, constituted the Reformed Episcopal Church. Cummins was chosen as presiding officer of the new body, and consecrated Charles E. Cheney (b. 1836), rector of Christ Church, Chicago, to be bishop. The following Declaration of Principles (here abridged) was promulgated: — I. An. expression of belief in the Bible as the Word of God, and the sole rule of faith and practice, in the Apostles' Creed, in the divine institution of the two sacraments and in the doctrines of grace substantially as set out in the 39 Articles. II. The recognition of Episcopacy not as of divine right but as a very ancient and desirable form of church polity. III. An acceptance of the Prayer Book as revised by the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1785, with liberty to revise it as may seem most conducive to the edification of the people. IV. A condemnation of certain positions, viz. •, — (a) That the Church of God exists only in one form of ecclesi- astical polity. (b) That Christian ministers as distinct from all believers have any special priesthood. (c) That the Lord's Table is an altar on which the body and blood of Christ are offered anew to the Father. (d) That the presence of Christ is a material one. (e) That Regeneration is inseparably connected with Baptism. The Church recognizes no orders of ministry, presbyters and deacons; the Episcopate is an office, not an order, the bishop being the chief presbyter, primus inter pares. There are some 7 bishops, 85 clergy and about 9500 communicants. £1600 annually is raised for foreign missionary work in India. The Church was introduced into England in 1877, and has in that country a presiding bishop and about 20 organized congrega- tions. The Church has a theological seminary in Philadelphia. REFRACTION (Lat. refringere, to break open or apart), in physics, the change in the direction of a wave of light, heat or sound which occurs when such a wave passes from one medium into another of different density. I. REFRACTION OF LIGHT When a ray of light traversing a homogeneous medium falls on the bounding surface of another transparent homogeneous medium, it is found that the direction of the transmitted ray in the second medium is different from that of the incident ray; in other words, the ray is refracted or bent at the point of incidence. The laws governing refraction are: (i) the refracted and incident rays are coplanar with the normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence, and (2) the ratio of the sines of the angles between the normal and the incident and refracted rays is constant for the two media, but depends on the nature of the light employed, i.e. on its wave length. This constant is called the relative refractive index of the second medium, and may be denoted by fiat, the suffix ab signifying that the light passes from medium a to medium b; similarly fna denotes the relative refractive index of a with regard to b. The absolute refractive index is the index when the first medium is a vacuum. Ele- mentary phenomena in refraction, such as the apparent bending of a stick when partially immersed in water, were observed in very remote times, but the laws, as stated above, were first grasped in the r/th century by W. Snell and published by Descartes, the full importance of the dependence of the refractive index on the nature of the light employed being first thoroughly realized by Newton in his famous prismatic decomposition of white light into a coloured spectrum. Newton gave a theor- etical interpretation of these laws on the basis of his corpuscular theory, as did also Huygens on the wave theory (see LIGHT, II. Theory of). In this article we only consider refractions at plane surfaces, refraction at spherical surfaces being treated under LENS. The geometrical theory will, be followed, the wave theory being treated in LIGHT, DIFFRACTION and DIS- PERSION. Refraction at a Plane Surface. — Let LM (fig. i) be the surface dividing two homogeneous media A and B; let IO be a ray in the first medium incident on LM at O, and let OR be the refracted ray. Draw the normal POQ. Then by Snell 's law we have invariably sin lOP/sin QOR =#«„(,. Hence if two of these quantities be given the third can be calculated. The commonest question is: Given the incident ray and the refractive index to construct the refracted ray. A simple construction is to take along the incident ray OI, unit distance OC, and a distance OD equal to the refractive index in the same units. Draw CE perpendicular to LM, and draw an arc with centre O and radius OD, cutting CE in E. Then EO produced downwards is the refracted ray. The proof is left to the reader. In the figure the given incident ray is assumed to be passing from a less dense to a denser medium, and it is seen by the con- struction or by examining the formula sin /9 = sin a/p that for all values of a there is a corresponding value of 0. Consider the case when the light passes from a denser to a less dense medium. In the equation sin (3 = sin O//K we have in this case /z I and there is no refraction into the second medium, the rays being totally reflected back into the first medium; this is called total internal reflection. Images produced by Refraction at Plane Surfaces. — If a luminous point be situated in a medium separated from one of less density by a plane surface, the ray normal to this surface will be unre- fracted, whilst the others will undergo_ refraction according to their angles of emergence. If the rays in the less dense medium be produced into the denser medium, they envelop a caustic, but by restricting ourselves to a small area about the normal ray it is seen that they intersect this ray in a point which is the geometrical REFRACTION image of the luminous source. The position of this point can be easily determined. If / be the distance of the source below the surface, /' the distance of the image, and n the refractive index, then I' =t//i. This theory provides a convenient method for determining the refractive index of a plate. A micrometer microscope, with vertical motion, is focused on a scratch on the surface of its stage; the plate, which has a fine scratch on its upper surface, is now introduced, and the microscope is successively focused on the scratch on the stage as viewed through the plate, and on the scratch on the plate. The difference between the first and third readings gives the thickness of the plate, corresponding to / above, and between the second and third readings the depth of the image, corresponding to /'. Refraction by a Prism. — In optics a prism is a piece of trans- parent material bounded by two plane faces which meet at a definite angle, called the refracting angle of the prism, in a straight line called the edge of the prism; a section perpendicular to the edge is called a principal section. Parallel rays, refracted succes- sively at the two faces, emerge from the prism as a system of parallel rays, but the direction is altered by an amount called the deviation. The deviation depends on the angles of incidence and emergence; but, since the course of a ray may always be reversed, there must be a stationary value, either a maximum or minimum, when the ray traverses the prism symmetrically, i.e. when the angles of incidence and emergence are equal. As a matter of fact, it is a minimum, and the position is called the angle of minimum deviation. The relation between the minimum deviation D, the angle of the prism i, and the refractive index ,u is found as follows. Let in fig. 2, PQRS be the course of the ray through the prism; the internal angles <£', $' each equal Ji, and the angles of incidence and emergence , $ are each equal and connected with ' by Snell's law, i.e. sin 4> = n sin'. Also the deviation D is 2 (—'). Hence M = sin <£/sin ' = sin% (D+z')/sin|i. Refractometers. — Instruments for determining the refractive indices of media are termed refractometers. The simplest are really spectrometers, consisting of a glass prism, usually hollow and fitted with accurately parallel glass sides, mounted on a table which carries a fixed collimation tube and a movable observing tube, the motion of the latter being recorded on a graduated circle. The collimation tube has a narrow adjustable flit at its outer end and a lens at the nearer end, so that the light leaves the tube as a parallel beam. The refracting angle of the prism, i in our previous notation, is deter- mined by placing the prism with its refracting edge towards the collimator, and observing when the reflections of the slit in the two prism faces coincide with the cross-wires in the observing telescope; half the angle between these two positions gives i. To determine the position of minimum deviation, or D, the prism is removed, and the observing telescope is brought into line with the slit; in this position the graduation is read. The prism is replaced, and the telescope moved until it catches the refracted rays. The prism is now turned about a vertical axis until a position is found when the telescope has to be moved towards the collimator in order to catch the rays; this operation sets the prism at the angle of minimum deviation. The refractive index /j. is calculated from the formula given above. More readily manipulated and of superior accuracy are refracto- meters depending on total reflection. The Abbe refractometer (fig. 3) essentially consists of a double Abbe prism AB to contain the substance to be experimented with ; and a telescope F to ob- serve the border line of the total reflection. The prisms, which are right-angled and made of the same flint glass, are mounted in a hinged frame such that the lower prism, which is used for purposes of illumination, can be locked so that the hypothenuse faces are distant by about 0-15 mm., or rotated away from the upper prism. The double prism is used in examining liquids, a few drops being placed between the prisms; the single prism is used when solids or plastic bodies are employed. The mount is capable of rotation about a horizontal axis by an alidade /. The telescope is provided with a reticule, which can be brought into exact coincidence with the observed border line, and is rigidly fastened to a sector S graduated directly in refractive indices. The reading is effected by a lens L. Beneath the prisms is a mirror for reflecting light FIG. 3. into the apparatus. To use the apparatus, the liquid having been inserted between the prisms, or the solid attached by its own adhesiveness or by a drop of monobromnaphthalene to the upper prism, the prism case is rotated until the field of view consists of a light and dark portion, and the border line is now brought into coincidence with the reticule of the telescope. In using a lamp or daylight this border is coloured, and hence a compensator, consisting of two equal Amici prisms, is placed between the objective and the prisms. These Amici prisms can be rotated, in opposite directions, until they produce a dispersion opposite in sign to that originally seen, and hence the border line now appears perfectly sharp and colourless. When at zero the alidade corresponds to a refractive index of 1-3, and any other reading gives the corresponding index correct to about 2 units in the 4th decimal place. Since temperature markedly affects the refractive index, this apparatus is provided with a device for heating the prisms. Figs. 4 and 5 show the course of the rays when a solid and liquid FIG. 4- FIG. 5- are being experimented with. Dr R. Wollny's butter refracto- meter, also made by Zeiss, is constructed similarly to Abbe's form, with the exception that the prism casing is rigidly attached to the telescope, and the observation made by noting the point where the border line intersects an appropriately graduated scale in the focal plane of the tele'scope objective, fractions being read by a micrometer screw attached to the objective. This apparatus is afso provided with an arrangement for heating. This method of reading is also employed in Zeiss's " dipping refractometer " (fig. 6). This instrument consists of a telescope R having at its lower end a prism P with a refracting angle of 63°, above which and below the objective is a movable compensator A for purposes of annulling the dispersion about the border line. In REFRACTION the focal plane of the objective O there is a scale Sc, exact reading being made by a micrometer Z. If a large quantity of liquid be FIG. 6. — Zeiss's Dipping Refractometer. available it is sufficient to dip the refractometer perpendicularly into a beaker containing the liquid and to transmit light into the instrument by means of a mirror. If only a smaller quantity be available, it is enclosed in a metal beaker M, which forms an exten- sion of the instrument, and the liquid is retained there by a plate D. The instrument is now placed in a trough B, containing water and having one side of ground glass G; light is reflected into the refractometer by means of a mirror S outside this trough. An accuracy of 3-7 units in the 5th decimal place is obtainable. The Pulfrich refractometer is also largely used, especially for liquids. It consists essentially of a right-angled glass prism placed on a metal foundation with the faces at right angles horizontal and vertical, the hypothenuse face being on the support. The horizontal face is fitted with a small cylindrical vessel to hold the liquid. Light is led to the prism at grazing incidence by means of a collimator, and is refracted through the vertical face, the deviation being observed by a telescope rotating about a graduated circle. From this the refractive index is readily calculated if the refractive index of the prism for the light used be known: a fact supplied by the maker. The instrument is also available for determining the refractive index of isotropic solids. A little of the solid is placed in the vessel and a mixture of monobrpmnaph- thalene and acetone (in which the solid must be insoluble) is added, and adjustment made by adding either one or other liquid until the border line appears sharp, i.e. until the liquid has the same index as the solid. The Herbert Smith refractometer (fig. 7) is especially suitable for determining the refractive index of gems, a constant which is •= J.30 = 135 m i-w = '"*s = ISO == 155 if ISO If us 1 1-70 =1 I-TS FIG. most valuable in distinguishing the precious stones. It consists of a hemisphere of very dense glass, having its plane surface fixed at a certain angle to the axis of the instrument. Light is admitted by a window on the under side, which is inclined at the same angle, but in the opposite sense, to the axis. The light on emerging from the hemisphere is received by a convex lens, in the focal plane of which is a scale graduated to read directly in refractive indices. The light then traverses a positive eye-piece. To use the instru- ment for a gem, a few drops of methylene iodide (the refractive index of which may be raised to 1-800 by dissolving sulphur in it) are placed on the plane surface of the hemisphere and a facet of the stone then brought into contact with the surface. If mono- chromatic light be used (i.e. the D line of the sodium flame) the field is sharply divided into a light and a dark portion, and the posi- tion of the line of demarcation on the scale immediately gives the refractive index. It is necessary for the liquid to have a higher refractive index than the crystal, and also that there is close con- tact between the facet and the lens. The range of the instrument is between 1-400 and 1-760, the results being correct to two units in the third decimal place if sodium light be used. (C. E.*) II. DOUBLE REFRACTION That a stream of light on entry into certain media can give rise to two refracted pencils was discovered in the case of Iceland spar by Erasmus Bartholinus, who found that one pencil had a direction given by the ordinary law of refraction, but that the other was bent in accordance with a new law that he was unable to determine. This law was discovered about eight years later by Christian Huygens. According to Huygens' fundamental principle, the law of refraction is determined by the form and orientation of the wave-surface in the crystal — the locus of points to which a disturbance emanating from a luminous point travels in unit time. In the. case of a doubly refracting medium the wave-surface must have two sheets, one of which is spherical, if one of the pencils obey in all cases the ordinary law of refraction. Now Huygens observed that a natural crystal of spar behaves in precisely the same way which- ever pair of faces the light passes through, and inferred from this fact that the second sheet of the wave-surface must be a surface of revolution round a line equally inclined to the faces of the rhomb, i.e. round the axis of the crystal. He accordingly assumed it to be a spheroid, and finding that refraction in the direction of the axis was the same for both streams, he concluded that the sphere and the spheroid touched one another in the axis. So far as his experimental means permitted, Huygens veri- fied the law of refraction deduced from this hypothesis, but its correctness remained unrecognized until the measures of W. H. Wollaston in 1802 and of E. T. Malus in 1810. More recently its truth has been established with far more perfect optical appliances by R. T. Glazebrook, Ch. S. Hastings and others. In the case of Iceland spar and several other crystals the extraordinarily refracted stream is refracted away from the axis, but Jean Baptiste Biot in 1814 discovered that in many cases the reverse occurs, and attributing the extraordinary refractions to forces that act as if they emanated from the axis, he called crystals of the latter kind " attractive," those of the former " repulsive." They are now termed " positive " and " negative " respectively: and Huygens' law applies to both classes, the spheroid being prolate in the case of positive, and oblate in the case of negative crystals. It was at first supposed that Huygens' law applied to all doubly refracting media. Sir David Brewster, however, in 1815, while examining the rings that are seen round the optic axis in polarized light, discovered a number of crystals that possess two optic axes. He showed, moreover, that such crystals belong to the rhombic, monoclinic and anorthic (triclinic) systems, those of the tetragonal and hexagonal systems being uniaial, and those of the cubic system being optically isotropic. Huygens found in the course of his researches that the streams that had traversed a rhomb of Iceland spar had acquired new properties with respect to transmission through a second crystal. This phenomenon is called polarization (g.v.), and the waves are said to be polarized — the ordinary in its principal plane and the extraordinary in a plane perpendicular to its principal plane, the principal plane of a wave being the plane containing its normal and the axis of the crystal. From the facts of polarization Augustin Jean Fresnel deduced that the 28 REFRACTION vibrations in plane polarized light are rectilinear and in the plane of the wave, and arguing from the symmetry of uniaxal crystals that vibrations perpendicular to the axis are propa- gated with the same speed in all directions, he pointed out that this would explain the existence of an ordinary wave, and the relation between its speed and that of the extraordinary wave. From these ideas Fresnel was forced to the conclusion, that he at once verified experimentally, that in biaxal crystals there is no spherical wave, since there is no single direction round which such crystals are symmetrical; and, recognizing the difficulty of a direct determination of the wave-surface, he attempted to represent the laws of double refraction by the aid of a simpler surface. The essential problem is the determination of the propaga- tional speeds of plane waves as dependent upon the directions of their normals. These being known, the deduction of the wave-surface follows at once, since it is to be regarded as the envelope at any subsequent time of all the plane waves that at a given instant may be supposed to pass through a given point, the ray corresponding to any tangent plane or the direction of transport of energy being by Huygens' principle the radius- vector from the centre to the point of contact. Now Fresnel perceived that in uniaxal crystals the speeds of plane waves in any direction are by Huygens' law the reciprocals of the semi- axes of the central section, parallel to the wave-fronts, of a spheroid, whose polar and equatorial axes are the reciprocals of the equatorial and polar axes of the spheroidal sheet of Huygens' wave-surface, and that the plane of polarization of a wave is perpendicular to the axis that determines its speed. Hence it occurred to him that similar relations with respect to an ellipsoid with three unequal axes would give the speeds and polarizations of the waves in a biaxal crystal, and the results thus deduced he found to be in accordance with all known facts. This ellipsoid is called the ellipsoid of polarization, the index ellipsoid and the indicatrix. , We may go a step further; for by considering the intersection of a wave-front with two waves, whose normals are indefinitely near that of the first and lie in planes perpendicular and parallel respectively to its plane of polarization, it is easy to show that the ray corresponding to the wave is parallel to the line in which the former of the two planes intersects the tangent plane to the ellipsoid at the end of the semi-diameter that determines the wave- velocity; and it follows by similar triangles that the ray-velocity is the reciprocal of the length of the perpendicular from the centre on this tangent plane. The laws of double refraction are thus contained in the following proposition. The propagational speed of a plane wave in any direction is given by the reciprocal of one of the semi-axes of the central section of the ellipsoid of polarization parallel to the wave; the plane of polarization of the wave is perpendicular to this axis; the corresponding ray is parallel to the line of intersection of the tangent plane at the end of the axis and the plane containing the axis and the wave-normal; the ray- velocity is the reciprocal of the length of the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent plane. By reciprocating with respect to a sphere of unit radius concentric with the ellipsoid, we obtain a similar proposition in which the ray takes the place of the wave-normal, the ray- velocity that of the wave-slowness (the reciprocal of the velocity) and vice versa. The wave-surface is thus the apsidal surface of the reciprocal ellipsoid; this gives the simplest means of obtain- ing its equation, and it is readily seen that its section by each plane of optical symmetry consists of an ellipse and a circle, and that in the plane of greatest and least wave-velocity these curves intersect in four points. The radii-vectors to these points are called the ray-axes. When the wave-front is parallel to either system of circular sections of the ellipsoid of polarization, the problem of finding the axes of the parallel central section becomes indeterminate, and all waves in this direction are propagated with the same speed, whatever may be their polarization. The normals to the circular sections are thus the optic axes. To determine the rays corresponding to an optic axis, we may note that the ray and the perpendiculars to it through the centre, in planes perpendicular and parallel to that of the ray and the optic axis, are three lines intersecting at right angles of which the two latter are confined to given planes, viz. the central circular section of the ellipsoid and the normal section of the cylinder touching the ellipsoid along this section: whence by a known proposition the ray describes a cone whose sections parallel to the given planes are circles. Thus a plane perpendicular to the optic axis touches the wave-surface along a circle. Similarly the normals to the circular sections of the reciprocal ellipsoid, or the axes of the tangent cylinders to the polarization-ellipsoid that have circular normal sections, are directions of single-ray velocity or ray-axes, and it may be shown as above that corre- sponding to a ray-axis there is a cone of wave-normals with circular sections parallel to the normal section of the corre- sponding tangent cylinder, and its plane of contact with the ellipsoid. Hence the extremities of the ray-axes are conical points on the wave-surface. These peculiarities of the wave- surface are the cause of the celebrated conical refractions discovered by Sir William Rowan Hamilton and H. Lloyd, which afford a decisive proof of the general correctness of Fresnel's wave-surface, though they cannot, as Sir G. Gabriel Stokes (Math, and Phys. Papers, iv. 184) has pointed out, be employed to decide between theories that lead to this surface as a near approximation. In general, both the direction and the magnitude of the axes of the polarization-ellipsoid depend upon the frequency of the light and upon the temperature, but in many cases the possible variations are limited by considerations of symmetry. Thus the optic axis of a uniaxal crystal is invariable, being deter- mined by the principal axis of the system to which it belongs: most crystals are of the same sign for all colours, the refractive indices and their difference both increasing with the frequency, but a few crystals are of opposite sign for the extreme spectral colours, becoming isotropic for some intermediate wave-length. In crystals of the rhombic system the axes of the ellipsoid coincide in all cases with the crystallographic axes, but in a few cases their order of magnitude changes so that the plane of the optic axes for red light is at right angles to that for blue light, the crystal being uniaxal for an intermediate colour. In the case of the monoclinic system one axis is in the direction of the axis of the system, and this is generally, though there are notable exceptions, either the' greatest, the least, or the intermediate axis of the ellipsoid for all colours and temperatures. In the latter case the optic axes are in the plane of symmetry, and a variation of their acute bisectrix occasions the phenomenon known as " inclined dispersion ": in the two former cases the plane of the optic axes is perpendicular to the plane of symmetry, and if it vary with the colour of the light, the crystals exhibit " crossed " or " horizontal dispersion " according as it is the acute or the obtuse bisectrix that is in the fixed direction. The optical constants of a crystal may be determined either with a prism or by observations of total reflection. In the latter case the phenomenon is characterized by two angles — the critical angle and the angle between the plane of incidence and the line limiting the region of total reflection in the field of view. With any crystalline surface there are four cases in which this latter angle is 90°, and the principal refractive indices of the crystal are obtained from those calculated from the correspond- ing critical angles, by excluding that one of the mean values for which the plane of polarization of the limiting rays is perpendicular to the plane of incidence. A difficulty, however, may arise when the crystalline surface is very nearly the plane of the optic axes, as the plane of polarization in the second mean case is then also very nearly perpendicular to the plane of incidence; but since the two mean refractive indices will be very different, the ambiguity can be removed by making, as may easily be done, an approximate measure of the angle between the optic axes and comparing it with the values calculated by using in turn each of these indices (C. M. Viola, Zeit. fiir Kryst., 1002, 36, p. 245). A substance originally isotropic can acquire the optical REFRESHER 29 properties of a crystal under the influence of homogeneous strain, the principal axes of the wave-surface being parallel to those of the strain, and the medium being uniaxal, if the strain be symmetrical. John Kerr also found that a dielectric under electric stress behaves as an uniaxal crystal with its optic axis parallel to the electric force, glass acting as a negative and b''sulphide of carbon as a positive crystal (Phil. Mag., 1875 (4), Not content with determining the laws of double refraction, Fresnel also attempted to give their mechanical explanation. He supposed that the aether consists of a system of distinct material points symmetrically arranged and acting on one another by forces that depend for a given pair only on their distance. If in such a system a single molecule be displaced, the projection of the force of restitution on the direction of dis- placement is proportional to the inverse square of the parallel radius- vector of an ellipsoid; and of all displacements that can occur in a given plane, only those in the direction of the axes of the parallel central section of the quadric develop forces whose projection on the plane is along the displacement. In undula- tions, however, we are concerned with the elastic forces due to relative displacements, and, accordingly, Fresnel assumed that the forces called into play during the propagation of a system of plane waves (of rectilinear transverse vibrations) differ from those developed by the parallel displacement of a single molecule only by a constant factor, independent of the plane of the wave. Next, regarding the aether as incompressible, he assumed that the components of the elastic forces parallel to the wave-front are alone operative, and finally, on the analogy of a stretched string, that the propagational speed of a plane wave of permanent type is proportional to the square root of the effective force developed by the vibrations. With these hypotheses we immediately obtain the laws of double refraction, as given by the ellipsoid of polarization, with the result that the vibrations are perpendicular to the plane of polarization. In its dynamical foundations Fresnel's theory, though of considerable historical interest, is clearly defective in rigour, and a strict treatment of the aether as a crystalline elastic solid does not lead naturally to Fresnel's laws of double refraction. On the other hand, Lord Kelvin's rotational aether (Math, and Phys. Papers, iii. 442) — a medium that has no true rigidity but possesses a quasi-rigidity due to elastic resistance to absolute rotation — gives these laws at once, if we abolish the resistance to compression and, regarding it as gyrostatically isotropic, attribute to it aeolotropic inertia. The equations then obtained are the same as those deduced in the electro-magnetic theory from the circuital laws of A. M. Ampere and Michael Faraday, when the specific inductive capacity is supposed aeolotropic. In order to account for dispersion, it is necessary to take into account the interaction with the radiation oi tne intra-molecular vibrations of the crystalline substance: thus the total current on the electro-magnetic theory must be regarded as made up of the current of displacement and that due to the osculations of the electrons within the molecules of the crystal. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — An interesting and instructive account of Fresnel's work on double refraction has been given by Emile Verdet in his introduction to Fresnel's works: (Euvres d'Augustin Fresnel, i. 75 (Paris, 1866); (Euvres de E. Verdet, i. 360 (Paris, 1872) For an account of theories of double refraction see the reports of H. Lloyd, Sir G. G. Stokes and R. T. Glazebrook in the Brit. Ass. Reports for 1834, 1862 and 1885, and Lord Kelvin's Baltimore Lectures (1904). An exposition of the rotational theory of the aether has been given by H. Chipart, Theorie gyrostatique de la lumiere (Paris, 1904); and P. Drude's Lehrbuch der Optik, 2" Auf. (1906), the first German edition of which was translated by C. Riborg Mann and R. A. Milliken in 1902, treats the subject from the standpoint of the electro-magnetic theory. The methods of determining the optical constants of crystals will be found in Th. Liebisch's Physikalische Krystallographie (1891); F. Pocket's Lehrbuch der Kristalloptik (1906); and J. Walker's Analytical Theory of Light (1904). A detailed list of papers on the geometry of the wave-surface has been published by E. Wollfing, Bibl Math., 1902 (3), iii. 361; and a general account of the subject will be found in the following treatises: L. Fletcher, The Optical Indicatrix (1892); Th. Preston, The Theory of Light, 3rd ed. by C. J. Joly (1901); A. Schuster, An Introduction to the Theory oj Optics (1904); R. W. Wood, Physical Optics (1005); E. Mascart, Traite d'optique (1889) ; A. Winkelmann, Handbuch der Physik. (J. WAL.*) III. ASTRONOMICAL REFRACTION The refraction of a ray of light by the atmosphere as it passes 'rom a heavenly body to an observer on the earth's surface, is called " astronomical." A knowledge of its amount is a necessary datum in the exact determination of the direction of the body. [n its investigation the fundamental hypothesis is that the strata of the air are in equilibrium, which implies that the surfaces of equal density are horizontal. But this condition is being continually disturbed by aerial currents, which produce con- tinual slight fluctuations in the actual refraction, and commonly give to the image of a star a tremulous motion. Except for this slight motion the refraction is always in the vertical direction; that is, the actual zenith distance of the star is always greater than its apparent distance. The refracting power of the air is nearly proportional to its density. Consequently the amount of the refraction varies with the temperature and barometric pressure, being greater the higher the barometer and the lower the temperature. At moderate zenith distances, the amount of the refraction varies nearly as the tangent of the zenith distance. Under ordinary conditions of pressure and temperature it is, near the zenith, about i " for each degree of zenith distance. As the tangent increases at a greater rate than the angle, the increase of the refraction soon exceeds i" for each degree. At 45° from the zenith the tangent is i and the mean refraction is about 58*. As the horizon is approached the tangent increases more and more rapidly, becoming infinite at the horizon; but the re- fraction now increases at a less rate, and, when the observed ray is horizontal, or when the object appears on the horizon, the refraction is about 34', or a little greater than the diameter of the sun or moon. It follows that when either of these objects is seen on the horizon their actual direction is entirely below it. One result is that the length of the day is increased by refraction to the extent of about five minutes in low latitudes, and still more in higher latitudes. At 60° the increase is about nine minutes. The atmosphere, like every other transparent substance, refracts the blue rays of the spectrum more than the red; conse- quently, when the image of a star near the horizon is observed with a telescope, it presents somewhat the appearance of a spectrum. The edge which is really highest, but seems lowest in the telescope, is blue, and the opposite one red. When the atmosphere is steady this atmospheric spectrum is very marked and renders an exact observation of the star difficult. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Refraction has been a favourite subject of research. See Dr. C. Bruhns, Die astronomische Strahlenbrechung (Leipzig, 1861), gives a resume of the various formulae of refraction which had been developed by the leading investigators up to the date 1861. Since then developments of the theory are found in: W. Chauvenet, Spherical and Practical Astronomy, \. ; F. Brunnow, Sphdrischen Astronomic; S. Newcomb, Spherical Astronomy; R. Radau, "Recherches sur la the'orie des refractions astronomiques" (Annales de I'observatoire de Paris, xvi., 1882), " Essai sur les r6frac- tions astronomiques " (ibid., xix., 1889). Among the tables of refraction which have been most used are Bessel's, derived from the observations of Bradley in Bessel's Fundamenta Astronomiae; and Bessel's revised tables in his Tabulae Regiomontanae, in which, however, the constant is too large, but which in an expanded form were mostly used at the observatories until 1870. The constant use of the Poulkova tables, Tabulae re- fraclionum, which is reduced to nearly its true value, has gradually replaced that of Bessel. Later tables are those of L. de Ball, published at Leipzig in 1906. REFRESHER, in English legal phraseology, a further or additional fee paid to counsel where a case is adjourned from one term or sittings to another, or where it extends over more than one day and occupies, either on the first day or partly on the first and partly on a subsequent day or days, more than five hours without being concluded. The refresher allowed for every clear day subsequent to that on which the five hours have expired is five to ten guineas for a leading counsel and from three to seven guineas for other counsel, but the taxing REFRIGERATING master is at liberty to allow larger fees in special circumstances. See Rules of the Supreme Court, O. 65, r. 48. REFRIGERATING and ICE-MAKING. " Refrigeration " (from Lat. frigus, frost) is the cooling of a body by the transfer of a portion of its heat to another and therefore a cooler body. For ordinary temperatures it is performed directly with water as the cooling agent, especially when well water, which usually has a temperature of from 52° to 55° F., can be obtained. There are, however, an increasingly large number of cases in which temperatures below that of any available natural cooling agent are required, and in these it is necessary to resort to machines which are capable of producing the required cooling effect by taking in heat at low temperatures and rejecting it at tempera- tures somewhat above that of the natural cooling agent, which for obvious reasons is generally water. The function of a refrigerating machine, therefore, is to take in heat at a low temperature and reject it at a higher one. This involves the expenditure of a quantity of work W, the amount in any particular case being found by the equation W = Qj — Qi .where W is the work, expressed by its equivalent in British thermal units; Q2 the quantity of heat, also in B.Ther.U., given out at the higher temperature T2; and Qi the heat taken in at the lower temperature TI. It is evident that the discharged heat Q2 is equal to the abstracted heat Qi, plus the work expended, seeing that the work W, which causes the rise in temperature from Ti to Tz, is the thermal equivalent of the energy actually expended in raising the temperature to the level at which it is rejected. The relation then between the work expended and the actual cooling work performed denotes the efficiency of the process, and this is expressed by QiKQt— Qi); but as in a perfect refrigerating machine it is understood that the whole of the heat Qi is taken in at the absolute temperature TI, and the whole of the heat Q2, is rejected at the absolute temperature T2, the heat quantities are proportional to the temperatures, and the expression Ti/(T2— Ti) gives the ideal coefficient of performance for any stated temperature range, whatever working substance is used. These coefficients for a number of cases met with in practice are given in the following table. They TABLE I. Ti. Temperature at which Heat is extracted in Degrees Fahr. T,.. Temperature at which Heat is rejected in Degrees Fahr. 5°° 60° 7&° 80° 90° loo" -10° 7-5 6-4 5-6 5-o 4-5 4-1 0° 9-2 7-7 6-6 5"« 5-i 4-6 10° II-7 9'4 7-8 6-7 5'9 5-2 20° 16-0 I2-O 9-6 8-0 6-8 6-0 30° 24-5 16-3 12-2 9-8 8-2 7-0 40° 50-0 25-0 16-7 12-5 IO-O 8-3 show that in all cases the heat abstracted exceeds by many times the heat expended. As an instance, when heat is taken in at o° and rejected at 70°, a perfect refrigerating machine would abstract 6-6 times as much heat as the equivalent of the energy to be applied. If, however, the heat is to be rejected at 100°, then the coefficient is reduced to 4-6. By examining Table I. it will be seen how important it is to reduce the temperature range as much as possible, in order to obtain the most economical results. No actual refrigerating machine does, in fact, take in heat at the exact temperature of the body to be cooled, and reject it at the exact temperature of the cooling water, but, for economy in working, it is of great importance that the differences should be as small as possible. There are two distinct classes of machines used for refrigerat- ing and ice-making. In the first refrigeration is produced by the expansion of atmospheric air, and in the second by the evaporation of a more or less volatile liquid. Compressed-air Machines. — A compressed-air refrigerating machine consists in its simplest form of three essential parts — a compressor, a compressed-air cooler, and an expansion cylinder. It is shown diagrammatically in fig. i in connexion with a chamber which it is keeping cool. The compressor draws in air from the room and compresses it, the work expended in compression being almost entirely converted into heat. The compressed air, leaving the compressor at the temperature Tz, passes through the cooler, where it is cooled by means of water, and is then admitted to the expansion cylinder, where it is expanded to atmospheric pressure, performing work on the piston. The heat equivalent of the mechanical work per- formed on the piston is abstracted from the air, which is dis- charged at the temperature Ti. This temperature Tj is neces- Compression Cylinder Expansion Cylinder FIG. i. — Compressed-Air Refrigerating Machine. sarily very much below the temperature to be maintained in the room, because the cooling effect is produced by transferring heat from the room or its contents to the air, which is thereby heated. The rise in temperature of the air is, in fact, the measure of the cooling effect produced. If such a machine could be constructed with reasonable mechanical efficiency to compress the air to a temperature but slightly above that of the cooling water, and to expand the air to a temperature but slightly below that required to be maintained in the room, we should of course get a result approximating in efficiency somewhat nearly to the figures given in Table I. Unfortunately, however, such results cannot be obtained in practice, because the extreme lightness of the air and its very small heat capacity (which at constant pressure is -2379) would necessitate the employment of a great volume, with extremely large and mechanically in- efficient cylinders and apparatus. A pound of air, represent- ing about 12 cub. ft., if raised 10° F. will only take up about 2-4 B.T.U. Consequently, to make such a machine mechani- cally successful a comparatively small weight of air must be used, and the temperature difference increased; in other words, the air must be discharged at a temperature very much below that to be maintained in the room. This theory of working is founded on the Carnot cycle for a perfect heat motor, a perfect refrigerating machine being simply a reversed heat motor. Another theory involves the use of the Stirling regenerator, which was proposed in connexion with the Stirling heat engine (see AIR ENGINES). The air machine invented by Dr. A. Kirk in 1862, and described by him in a paper on the " Mechanical Production of Cold " (Proc. Inst. C.E., xxxyii., 1874, 244), is simply a reversed Stirling air engine, the air working in a closed cycle instead of being actually discharged into the room to be copied, as is the usual practice with ordinary compressed- air machines. Kirk's machine was used commercially with success on a fairly large scale, chiefly for ice-making, and it is recorded that it produced about 4 Ib of ice for I Ib of coal. In 1868 J. Davy Postle read a paper before the Royal Society of Victoria, suggesting the conveyance of meat on board ship in a frozen state by means of refrigerated air, and in 1869 he showed by experiment how it could be done; but his apparatus was not commercially developed. In 1877 a compressed-air machine was designed by J. J. Coleman of Glasgow, and in the early part of 1879 one of his machines was fitted on board the Anchor liner " Circassia," which successfully brought a cargo of chilled beef from America — the first imported by the aid of refrigerating machinery, ice having been previously used. The first successful cargo of frozen mutton from Australia was also brought by a Bell-Coleman machine in 1879. In the Bell-Coleman machine the air was cooled during compression by means of an injection of water, and further by being brought into contact with a shower of water. Another, perhaps the principal, feature was the interchanger, an apparatus whereby the compressed air was further cooled before expansion by means of the com- paratively cold air from the room in its passage to the compressor, the same air being used over and over again. The object of this interchanger was not only to cool the compressed air before expansion, but to condense part of the moisture in it, so reducing the quantity of ice or snow produced during expansion. A full description of the machine may be found in a paper on " Air- Refrigerating Machinery " by J. J. Coleman (Proc. Inst. C.E. Ixviii., 1882). At the present time the Bell-Coleman machine has practically ceased to exist. In such compressed-air machines REFRIGERATING as are now made there is no injection of water during compression, and the compressed air is cooled in a surface cooler, not by actual mixture with a shower of cold water. Further, though the inter- changer is still used by some makers, it has been found by experience that, with properly constructed valves and passages in the expansion cylinder, tnere is no trouble from the formation of snow, when, as is the general practice, the same air is used over and over again, the compressor taking its supply from the insulated room. So far as the air discharged from the expansion cylinder is concerned, its humidity is precisely the same so long as its temperature and pressure are the same, inasmuch as when discharged from the expansion cylinder it is always in a saturated condition for that temperature and pressure. The ideal coefficient of performance is about i, but the actual coefficient will be about f, after allowing for the losses incidental to working. In practice the air is compressed to about 50 tb per square inch above the atmosphere, its temperature rising to about 300° F. The compressed air then passes through coolers in which it is cooled to within about 5° of the initial temperature of the cooling water, and is deprived of a portion of its moisture, after which it is admitted into the expansion cylinder and expanded nearly to atmospheric pressure. The thermal equi- _valent of the power exerted on the piston is taken from the air, which, with cooling water at 60° F. and after allowing for friction and other losses, is discharged at a temperature of 60° to 80° below zero F. according to the size of the machine. The pistons of the compression and expansion cylinders are connected to the same crankshaft, and the difference between the power expended in compression and that restored in expansion, plus the friction of the machine, is supplied by means of a steam engine coupled to the crankshaft, or by any other source of power. For marine purposes two complete machines are frequently mounted on one bed-plate and worked either together or separately. In some machines used in the United States the cold air is not discharged into the rooms but is worked in a closed cycle, the rooms being cooled by means of overhead pipes through which the cold expanded air passes on its way back to the compressor. Liquid Machines. — Machines of the second class may con- veniently be divided into three types: (a) Those in which there is no recovery of the refrigerating agent, water being the agent employed; they will be dealt with as " Vacuum machines." (b) Those in which the agent is recovered by means of mechan- ical compression; they are termed " Compression machines." (c) Those in which the agent is recovered by means of absorption by a liquid; they are known as " Absorption machines." In the first class, since the refrigerating liquid is itself rejected, the only agent cheap enough to be employed is water. The Vacuum boiling point of water varies with pressure; thus at machines. one atmosphere or 14-7 Ib per square inch it is 212° F., whereas at a pressure of -085 Ib per square inch it is 32°, and at lower pressures there is a still further fall in temperature. This property is made use of in vacuum machines. Water at ordinary temperature, say 60°, is placed in an air-tight glass or insulated vessel, and when the pressure is reduced by means of a vacuum pump it begins to boil, the heat necessary for evapor- ation being taken from the water itself. The pressure being still further reduced, the temperature is gradually lowered until the freezing-point is reached and ice formed, when about one-sixth of the original volume has been evaporated. The earliest machine of this kind appears to have been made in '755 by Dr. William Cullen, who produced the vacuum by means of a pump alone. In 1810 Sir John Leslie combined with the air pump a vessel containing strong sulphuric acid for absorbing the vapour from the air, and is said to have succeeded in producing I to l J tb of ice in a single operation. E. C. Carre later adopted the same principle. In 1878 F. Windhausen patented a vacuum machine for producing ice in large quantities, and in 1881 one of these machines, said to be capable of making about 12 tons of ice per day, was put to work in London. The installation was fully described by Carl Pieper (Trans. Soc. of Engineers, 1882, p. 145) and by Dr. John Hopkinson (Journal of Soc. of Arts, 1882, vol. xxxi. p. 20). The process, however, not being successful from a commercial point of view, was abandoned. At the present time vacuum machines are only employed for domestic purposes. The hand apparatus invented by H. A. Fleuss consists of a vacuum pump capable of reducing the air pressure to a fraction of a milli- metre, the suction pipe of which is connected first with a vessel containing sulphuric acid, and second with the vessel containing the water to be frozen. Both these vessels are mounted on a rocking base, so that the acid can be thoroughly agitated while the machine is being worked. As soon as the pump has sufficiently exhausted the air from the vessel containing the water, vapour is rapidly given off and is absorbed by the acid until sufficient heat has been abstracted to bring about the desired reduction in temperature, the acid becoming heated by the absorption of water vapour, while the water freezes. The small Fleuss machine will produce about ij Ib of ice in one operation of 20 minutes. Iced water in a carafe for drinking purposes can be produced in about three minutes. The acid vessel holds 9 Ib of acid, and nearly 3 Ib of ice can be made for each I Ib of acid before the acid has become too weak to do further duty. Another machine, which can be easily worked by a boy, will produce 20 to 30 Ib of ice in one hour, and is perhaps the largest size practicable with this method of freezing. The temperature attainable depends on the strength and condition of the sulphuric acid; ordinarily it can be reduced to zero F., and temperatures 20° lower have frequently been obtained. Though prior to 1834 several suggestions had been made with regard to the production of ice and the cooling of liquids by the evaporation of a more volatile liquid than water, the Compres- first machine actually constructed and put to work *i°a was made by John Hague in that year from the designs macl>la"- of Jacob Perkins (Journal of Soc. of Arts, 1882, vol. xxxi. p. 77). This machine, though never used commercially, is the parent of all modern compression machines. Perkins in his patent specification states that the volatile fluid is by preference ether. In 1856 and 1857 James Harrison of Geelong, Victoria, patented a machine embodying the same principle as that of Perkins, but worked out in a much more complete and practical manner. It is stated that these machines were first made in New South Wales in 1859, but the first Harrison machine adopted success- fully for industrial purposes in England was applied in the year 1861 for cooling oil in order to extract the paraffin. In Harrison's machine the agent used was ether (C2H5)2O. Improvements were made by Siebe & Company of London, and a considerable number of ether machines both for ice-making and refrigerating purposes were supplied by that firm and others up to the year 1880. In 1870 the subject of refrigeration was investigated by Professor Carl Linde of Munich, who was the first to consider the question from a thermodynamic point of view. He dealt with the coefficient of performance as a common basis of com- parison for all machines, and showed that the compression vapour machine more nearly reached the theoretic maximum than any other (Bayerisches Industrie und Gewerbeblatt, 1870 and 1871). Linde also examined the physical properties of various liquids, and, after making trials with methylic ether in 1872, built his first ammonia compression machine in 1873. Since then the ammonia compression machine has been most widely adopted, though the carbonic acid machine, also compression, which was first made in 1880 from Linde's designs, is now used to a considerable extent, especially on board ship. Condenser Refrigerator Regulating Valve FIG. 2. — Vapour Compression Machine. A diagram of a vapour compression machine is shown in tig. 2. There are three principal parts, a refrigerator or evaporator, a compression pump, and a condenser. The refrigerator, which REFRIGERATING consists of a coil or series of coils, is connected to the suction side TABLE III.— Ledoux's Table for Saturated Sulphur Dioxide >f the pump, and the delivery from the pump is connected to the Vapour (SO2). :ondenser, which is generally of somewhat similar construction to he refrigerator. The condenser and refrigerator are connected by i pipe in which is a valve named the regulator. Outside the re- Temp, of Vapour- tension in Pounds per Heat of Liquid r Latent Heat of Volume of one Pound rigerator coils is the air, brine or other substance to be cooled, and Ebullition. sq. in. from 32° Fahr. Evaporation. of Saturated >utside the condenser is the cooling medium, which, as previously Degs. Fahr. Absolute. B.T.U. B.T.U. Vapour. Cub ft .tated, is generally water. The refrigerating liquid (ether, sulphur iioxide, anhydrous ammonia, or carbonic acid) passes from the x>ttom of the condenser through the regulating valve into the •efrigerator in a continuous stream. The pressure in the refrigerator aeing reduced by the pump and maintained at such a degree as to jive the required boiling-point, which is of course always lower than .he temperature outside the coils, heat passes from the substance jutside, through the coil surfaces, and is taken up by the entering iquid, which is converted into vapour at the temperature TI. The /apours thus generated are drawn into the pump, compressed, and discharged into the condenser at the temperature T2, which is some- ivhat above that of the cooling water. Heat is transferred from the :ompressed vapour to the cooling water and the vapour is converted nto a liquid, which collects at the bottom and returns by the re- gulating valve into the refrigerator. As heat is both taken in and discharged at constant temperature during the change in physical state of the agent, a vapour compression machine must approach —22 -13 - 4 5 H 23 32 5° 59 68 77 86 95 104 5-546 7-252 9-303 11-803 14-789 18-544 22-468 27-445 33-275 39-958 47-637 56-3II 66-407 77-641 90-297 -19-55 -16-31 -I3-05 - 9-79 - 6-85 - 3-26 o-oo 3-27 6-55 9-83 13-10 16-38 19-69 22-99 26-28 176-98 174-94 I72-9I 170-82 168-75 166-63 164-47 162-39 160-24 158-08 I55-89 I53-67 I5I-49 149-27 147-02 13-168 10-268 8-122 6-504 5-254 4-293 3-540 2-931 2-451 2-O66 I-746 1-490 1-266 1-089 0-9I3 the ideal much more nearly than a compressed-air machine, in which there is no such change. TABLE IV. — Mollier's Table for Saturated Anhydrous Ammonia , 17 x /'XTU \ This will be seen by taking as an example a case in which the cold Vapour (NHa). room is to be kept at IO° F., the cooling water being at 60°. Under :hese conditions, the actual evaporating temperature Ti, in a well- t Vapour- tension V r Volume of instructed ammonia compression machine, after allowing for the Temp, of in Pounds per Heat of Liquid Latent Heat of one Pound differences necessary for the exchange of heat, would be about 5° jelow zero, and the discharge temperature T would be about 75°. Ebullition. Degs. Fahr. sq. in. Absolute. from 32° Fahr. B.T.U. Evaporation. B.T.U. of Saturated Vapour. Cub. ft. \n ideal machine workintr between S below zero and 7S° above las a coefficient of about 5-7, or nearly six times that of an ideal :ompressed-air machine of usual construction performing the same -40 -31 10-238 I3-324 —60-048 -53-064 60O-00 597-24 25-630 2O- 1 2O A vapour compression machine does not, however, work precisely n the reversed Carnot cycle, inasmuch as the fall in temperature — 22 -13 16-920 21-472 -45-918 -38-646 595-08 593-00 I5-97I 12-783 jetween the condenser and the refrigerator is not produced, nor is — 4 27-OOO — 3I-2I2 590-00 cQ^.Qo 10-316 8-1C\A t attempted to be produced, by the adiabatic expansion of the igent, but results from the evaporation of a portion of the liquid tself. In other words, the liquid-refrigerating agent enters the refrigerator at the condenser temperature and introduces heat which has to be taken up by the evaporating liquid before any useful refrigerating effect can be performed. The extent of this loss s determined by the relation between the liquid heat and the latent leat of vaporization at the refrigerator temperature. If r represents the latent heat of the vapour, and q2 and gi the amounts of heat contained in the liquid at the respective temperatures of T2 and Ti, then the loss from the heat carried from the condenser into the 5 H 23 32 41 50 59 68 77 86 95 33"7GI 41-522 50-908 61-857 74-5I3 89-159 105-939 124-994 146-908 170-782 197-800 -15-894 - 8-028 o-ooo 8-172 16-506 24-966 33-588 42-354 51-282 60-336 ^OU O^ 58I-OO 576-00 571-00 562-50 555-48 550-00 541-00 531-00 523-00 5I2-50 394 6-888 5-703 4-742 3-973 2-851 2-435 2-098 1-810 1-570 refrigerator is shown by (qi-q^/r and the useful refrigerating effect 104 227-662 69-552 5OI-5° 1-361 produced in the refrigerator is r — (q? — qi). Assuming, as in the previous example, that T2 is 75° F., and that TI is 5° below zero, the results for various refrigerating agents are as follows: — TABLE V. — Mollier's Table for Saturated Carbon Dioxide Vapour (CO2). TABLE II. 1 Vapour- tension t r Volume of Temp, of in Pounds per Heat of Liquid Latent Heat of one Pound Latent Liquid Net Proportion Ebullition. Degs. Fahr. sq. in. Absolute. from 32° Fahr. B.T.U. Evaporation. B.T.U. of Saturated Vapour. C,iK ft Heat. Heat. Refrigeration, of Loss. UD. It. «-41 r-(n-gi) (52-,,)/r — 22 213-345 — 24-80 126-72 •4330 1 3 248-903 — 2 1 -06 123-25 •367O Anhydrous ammonia 590-33 72-556 517-774 0-1225 — 4 288-727 — I7-I9 II9-43 •3I3O Sulphurous acid . 173-13 29-062 144-068 0-168 5 334-240 -I3-I7 II5-25 •2680 Carbonic acid . 119-85 47'35 72-50 0-395 H 385-443 — 9-OO 110-65 •2295 23 440-913 — 4-63 105-53 •1955 32 503-497 0-00 99-81 •I67O The results show that the loss is least in the case of anhydrous 41 573-I87 4-93 93-35 •1430 ammonia and greatest in the case of carbonic acid. At higher con- 5° 649-991 10-28 85-93 •1202 denser temperatures the results are even much more favourable to 59 733-906 16-22 77-40 •IOIO ammonia. As the critical temperature (88-4° F.) of carbonic acid 68 826-356 23-08 66-47 •0833 is approached, the value of r becomes less and less and the refrigerat- 77 930-184 31-63 51-80 •0673 ing effect is much reduced. When the critical point is reached 86 1039-70! 45-45 27-00 •0481 the value of r disappears altogether, and a carbonic-acid machine is 87-8 1062-458 51-61 15-12 •0416 then dependent for its refrigerating effect on the reduction in tem- 88-43 1070-99! 59-24 o-oo •0352 perature produced by the internal work performed in expanding the gaseous carbonic acid from the condenser pressure to that in The action of a vapour compression machine is shown in fig. 3- the refrigerator. The abstraction of heat does not then take place Liquid at the condenser temperature being introduced into the re- at constant temperature. The expanded vapour enters the re- frigerator at a temperature below that of the substance to be frigerator through the regulating valve, a small portion evaporates and reduces the remaining liquid to the temperature Ti. This is cooled, and whatever cooling effect is produced is brought about shown by the curve AB, and is the useless work represented by the by the superheating of the vapour, the result being that above expression (32— ?i)/r. v Evaporation then continues at the constant the critical point of carbonic acid the difference T2— T2 is in- temperature T, abstracting heat from the substance outside the creased and the efficiency of the machine is reduced. The critical temperature of anhydrous ammonia is about 266° F., which is •refrigerator as shoyn by the line BC. The vapour is then compressed along the line CD to the temperature T2, when, by the action of the never approached in the ordinary working of refrigerating machines. cooling water in the condenser, heat is abstracted at constant Some of the principal physical properties of sulphurous acid, anhydrous ammonia, and carbonic acid are given in Tables III., temperature and the vapour condensed along the line DA. In a compression machine the refrigerator is usually a series of IV. and V. iron or steel coils surrounded by the air, brine or other substance it REFRIGERATING 33 is desired to cool. One end (generally the bottom) of the coils is connected to the liquid pipe from the condenser and the other end to the suction of the compressor. Liquid from the condenser is ad- mitted to the coils through an ad- justable regulating valve, and by taking heat from the substance out- side is evaporated, the vapour being continually drawn off by the com- pressorand discharged under increased pressure into the condenser. The condenser is constructed of coils like FIG. 3. — Action of Vapour Compression Machine. the refrigerator, the cooling water being contained in a tank; fre- quently, however, a series of open coils is employed, the cooling water falling over the coils into a collecting tray below, and this form is perhaps the most convenient for ordinary use as it affords great facilities for inspection and painting. The compressor may be driven by a steam engine or in any other convenient manner. The pressure in the condenser varies according to the temperature of the cooling water, and that in the refrigerator is dependent upon the temperature to which the outside substance is cooled. In an ammonia machine copper and copper alloys must be avoided, but for carbonic acid they are not objectionable. The compression of ammonia is sometimes carried out on what is known as the Linde or " wet " system, and sometimes on the " dry " system. When wet compression is used the regulating valve is opened to such an extent that a little more liquid is passed than can be evaporated in the refrigerator. This liquid enters the compressor with the vapour, and is evaporated there, the heat taken up preventing the rise in temperature during compression which would otherwise take place. The compressed vapour is dis- charged at a temperature but little above that of the cooling water. With dry compression, vapour alone is drawn into the compressor, and the temperature rises to as much as 180 or 200 degrees. Wet compression theoretically is not quite so efficient as dry compression, but it possesses practical advantages in keeping the working parts of the compressor cool, and it also greatly facilitates the regulation of the liquid, and ensures the full duty of the machine being continu- ously performed. Very exact comparative trials have been made by Professor M. Schroeter and others with compression machines using sulphur dioxide and ammonia. The results are published in Vergleichende Versuche an Kaltemaschinen, by Schroeter, Munich, 1890, and in Nos. 32 and 51 of Bayerisches Industrie und Gewerbeblatt, 1892. Some of the results obtained by Schroeter in 1893 with an ordinary brine cooling machine on the Linde ammonia system are given in Table VI. : — TABLE VI. Temperature reduction in refriger- 14 to 8-6 I.H. P. in steam cylinder .... IS'79 16-48 15-29 I4-2S 11*98 Pressure in refrigerator in pounds per sq. in. above atmosphere . . Pressure in condenser in pounds per sq. in. above atmosphere . Heat abstracted in refrigerator. B.T.U. per hour Heat rejected in condenser. B.T.U. per hour 45-2 116-0 342192 377567 32 '6 II 5 'o 263400 301200 IQ'8 iio-o 171515 214347 0'9 108-0 121218 158504 The principle of the absorption process is chemical or physical rather than mechanical; it depends on the fact that many Absorp- vapours of low boiling-point are readily absorbed in tion water, and can be separated again by the application machines. of heat. jn ;ts simplest form an absorption machine consists of two iron vessels connected together by a bent pipe. One of these contains a mixture of ammonia and water, which on the application of heat gives off a mixed vapour containing a large proportion of ammonia, a liquid containing but little ammonia being left behind. In the second vessel, which is placed in cold water, the vapour rich in ammonia is condensed under pressure. To produce refrigeration the operation is reversed. On allowing the weak liquor to cool to normal temperature, it becomes greedy of ammonia (at 60° F. at atmospheric pressure water will absorb about 760 times its own volume of ammonia vapour) , and this produces an evaporation from the liquid in the vessel previously used as a condenser. This liquid, containing a large proportion of ammonia, gives off vapour at a low temperature, and therefore becomes a refrigerator abstracting heat from water or any surrounding body. When the ammonia is evaporated the operation as described must be again commenced. Such an apparatus is not much used now. Larger and more elaborate machines were made by F. P. E. Carre in France; but no very high degree of perfection was XXIII. 2 arrived at, owing to the impossibility of getting an anhydrous product of distillation. In 1867 Rees Reece, taking advantage of the fact that two vapours of different boiling-points, when mixed, can be separated by means of fractional condensation, brought out an absorption machine in which the distillate was very nearly anhydrous. By means of vessels termed the analyser and the rectifier, the bulk of the water was condensed at a comparatively high temperature and run back to the generator, while the ammonia passed into a condenser, and there assumed the liquid form under the pressure produced by the heat in the generator and the cooling action of water circulating outside the condenser tubes. Fig. 4 is a diagram of an absorption apparatus. The ammonia vapour given off in the refrigerator is absorbed by a cold weak solution of ammonia and water in the absorber, and the strong liquor is pumped back into the generator <.•«.„•, r through an intorchanger through which also the weak hot liquor from the generator passes on its way to the absorber. In this way the strong liquor is heated before it enters the generator, and the weak liquor is cooled c«r,«r»i«r before it enters the absorber.8Utilr The generator being heated by means of a steam coil, ammonia vapour is driven off at such a pressure as to cause its condensation in the FIG. 4. condenser. From the con- denser it passes into the refrigerator through a regulating valve in the usual manner. The process is continuous, and is identical with that of the compression machine, with the exception of the return from the temperature T; to the temperature T2, which is brought about by the direct application of heat instead of by means of mechan- ical compression. With the same temperature range, however, the same amount of heat has to be acquired in both cases, though from the nature of the process the actual amount of heat demanded from the steam is much greater in the absorption system than in the compression. This is chiefly due to the fact that in the former the neat of vaporization acquired in the refrigerator is rejected in the absorber, so that the whole heat of vaporization has to be supplied again by the steam in the generator. In the latter the vapour passes direct from the refrigerator to the pump, and power has to be expended merely in raising the temperature to a sufficient degree to enable condensation to occur at the temperature of the cooling water. On the other hand, a great advantage is gained in the absorption machine by using the direct heat of the steam, without first converting it into mechanical work, for in this way its latent _heat of vaporization can be utilized by condensing the steam in the coils and letting it escape in the form of water. Each pound of steam can thus be made to give up some 950 units of heat; while in a good steam engine only about 200 units are utilized in the steam cylinder per pound of steam, and in addition allowance has to be made for mechanical inefficiency. In the absorption machine the cooling water has to take up about twice as much heat as in the compression system, owing to the ammonia being twice liquefied — namely, once in the absorber and cnce in the condenser. It is usual to pass the cooling water first through the condenser and then through the absorber. The absorption machine is not so economical as the compres- sion ; but an actual comparison between the two systems is difficult to make. Information on this head is given in papers read by Dr. Linde and by Professor J. A. Ewing before the Society of Arts (Journal of the Society of Arts, vol. xlu., 1894, p. 322, and Howard Lectures, January, February and March 1897). An absorption apparatus as_ applied to the cooling of liquids consists of a generator containing coils to which steam is supplied at suitable pressure, an analyser, a rectifier, a condenser either of the submerged or open type, a refrigerator in which the nearly anhydrous ammonia obtained in the condenser is allowed to eva- porate, an absorber through which the weak liquor from the gener- ator continually flows and absorbs the anhydrous vapour produced in the refrigerator, and a pump for forcing the strong liquor produced in the absorber back through an economizer into the analyser where, meeting with steam from the generator, the ammonia gas is again driven off, the process being uius carried on continuously. Sometimes an additional vessel is employed for heating liquor by means of the exhaust steam from the engine driving the ammonia pump. Absorption machines are also made without a pump for returning the strong liquor to the generator. In these cases they work intermittently. In some machines the same vessel is used alternately as a generator and absorber, while in others, in order 34 REFRIGERATING to minimize the loss of time, two vessels are provided which can be used alternately as generators and absorbers. Applications. — Apart from the economical working of the machine itself, whatever system may be adopted, it is of importance that cold once produced should not be wasted, and it is therefore necessary to use some form of insulation to protect the vessels in which liquids are being cooled, or the rooms of ships' holds in which the freezing or storage processes are being carried on. This insulation generally consists of materials such as charcoal, silicate cotton, granulated cork, small pumice, hair-felt, sawdust, &c., held between layers of wood or brick, and forming a more or less heat-tight box. There is no recognized standard of insulation. For a cold store to be erected inside a brick or stone building, and to be maintained at an internal temperature of from 18° to, 20° F., a usual plan is snown in fig. 5. The same insulation is used for the floors and FIG. 5. — Insulation of a Cold Store. ceilings, except that the wearing surface of the floor is generally made thicker than the inside lining of the sides. Should the walls or floor be damp, waterproof paper is added. Granulated cork has practically the same insulating properties as silicate cotton, and the same thicknesses may be used. About 10 in. of flake charcoal and vegetable silica, or n of small pumice, are required to give the same protection as 7 in. of good silicate cotton. Cork bricks made of compressed granulated cork are frequently used, a thickness of about 5 in. giving the same protection as 7 in. of silicate cotton. The walls and ceilings are finished off with a smooth coating of hard cement and the floors are protected by cement or asphalt, according to the nature of the traffic on them. For lager-beer cellars and fermenting rooms, for bacon-curing cellars, and for similar purposes, brick walls with single or double air spaces are used, and sometimes a space filled with silicate cotton or other in- sulating material. In Australia and New Zealand pumice, jvhich is found in enormous quantities in the latter country, takes the place of charcoal and silicate cotton. In Canada air spaces are largely used either alone or in combination with silicate cotton or planer shavings. The air spaces, two or three in number, are formed between two layers of tongued and grooved wood, and the total thickness of the insulation is about the same as when silicate cotton alone is used. On board ship charcoal has been almost entirely employed, but silicate cotton and granulated cork are sometimes used. The material is either placed directly up to the skin of the vessel, and kept in place by a double lining of wood inside, in which case a thickness of about 10 in. is used depending upon the depth of the frames, or it is placed between two layers of wood, with an air space next the skin, in which case about 6 in. of flake charcoal is generally sufficient for the insulation of the holds, though for deck-houses and other parts exposed to the sun the thickness must be greater. A layer of sheet zinc or tin has frequently to be used as pro- tection from rats. Given a certain allowable heat transmission, the principal points to be considered in connexion with insulation are, first cost, durability, weight and space occupied, the two last named being specially important factors on board ship. No exact rules can be laid down, as the conditions vary so greatly; and though experiments have been made to determine the actual heat conduction of various materials per unit of surface, thickness and temperature difference, the experience of actual practice is at present the only accepted guide. With compressed-air machines which discharge the cold air direct into the insulated room or hold, a snow box is provided close to the outlet of the expansion cylinder to catch the snow and congealed oil. The air is distributed by means of wood air trunks with openings controlled bv slides, and similar trunks are pro- vided in connexion with the suction of the compressor to conduct the air back to the machine. With liquid machines of the compres- sion and absorption system, the rooms are either cooled by means of cold pipes or surfaces placed in them, or by a circulation of air cooled in an apparatus separated from the rooms. The cold pipes may be direct-expansion pipes in which the liquid evaporates, or they may be pipes or walls through which circulates an un- congealable brine previously copied to the desired temperature. The pipes are placed on the ceilings or sides according to circum- stances, but they must be arranged so as to induce a circulation of air throughout the compartment and ensure every part being cooled. With what is termed the air circulation system the air is generally circulated by means of a fan, being drawn from the rooms through ducts, passed over a cooler, and returned again to the rooms by other ducts. In some coolers the cooling surfaces consist of direct-expansion pipes placed in clusters of convenient form ; in others brine pipes are used ; in others there is a shower of cold brine, and in some cases combinations of cold pipes and brine showers. Whether pipes in the rooms or air circulation give the best results is to some extent a matter of opinion, but at the present time the tendencyis decidedly in favour of air circulation, at any rate for general cold storage purposes. Whichever system be adopted, it is important for economical reasons that ample cooling surface be allowed, and that all surfaces be kept clean and active, to make the difference between the temperature of the evaporating liquid and the rooms as small as possible. Small surfaces reduce first cost, but involve higher working expenses by decreasing the value of Tj/(Tj— TI), and thus demanding more energy, and consequently more fuel, to effect the given result than if larger surfaces were employed. The general arrangement of an ice factory for producing can ice is shown in fig. 6. The water to be frozen is contained in galvanized a. j T^ . FIG. 6. — General Arrangement of an Ice Factory. or terned steel moulds suspended in a tank filled to the proper level with brine maintained at the desired temperature. The moulds are frequently arranged in frames, so that by means of an overhead crane one complete row is lifted at a time. When the water is frozen the moulds are dipped in a tank containing warm water, and on being tipped the blocks of ice fall out. Ordinary water contains air, and ice made from it is generally opaque, due to the inclusion of numerous small air-bubbles. To produce clear ice the water must be agitated during the freezing process, or previously boiled to get rid of the air. Distilled water is frequently used, as well as^the water produced by the condensation of the steam from the engine, which of course must be thoroughly purified and filtered. It should be noted, however, that with an ice- making plant of moderate size and a steam-engine of good con- struction the weight of steam used will not nearly equal the weight of ice produced, so that the difference must be made up either by distillation, which is a costly process, or by ordinary water. Can ice is usually made in blocks weighing 56, 1 12 of 224 ft, and from 4 to 8 in. thick. For cell ice ordinary water is used, agitated REGAL 35 during freezing. The cells are flat and constructed of galvanized iron, so as to form a hollow space of about 2 in. in width, through which cold brine is circulated by a pump. They are placed vertically in a tank, the distance between them being from 8 to 14 in., according to the thickness of the ice to be produced. The tank is filled with water, which is kept in agitation by means of a reciprocating paddle or piston; in this way the air escapes, and with proper care a block of great transparency is produced. To thaw it off, warm brine is circulated through the cells. A usual size for cell ice is 4 ft. by 3 ft. by i ft. mean thickness, the weight being about 6 cwt. If perfectly transparent ice is required, the two sides of the block are not allowed to join up, and it is then called plate ice, which is often made in very large blocks, afterwards divided by saws or steam cutters. In such cases the evaporation of the ammonia or other refrigerating liquid frequently takes place in the cells themselves, brine being dispensed with. With a well- constructed can ice-plant of say 25 tons capacity per day, from 15 to 16 tons of ice should be made in Great Britain to a ton of best steam coal. For cell and plate ice the production is considerably below this, and the first cost of the plant is much greater than that for can ice. Fig. 7 shows an arrangement of cold storage on land, refrigerated on the air circulation system. The insulated rooms, on two floors, FIG. 7.— Cold Stores. are approached by corridors, so as to exclude external air, which if allowed to enter would deposit moisture upon the cold goods. The air cooler is placed at the end, and the air is distributed by means of wood ducts furnished with slides for regulating the temperature of the rooms, which are insulated according to the method shown in fig. 5. In some cases, instead of the entrance being at the sides or ends, it is at the top, all goods being raised to the top floor in lifts and lowered by lifts into the rooms. With good machinery the cost of raising is not great, and is probably equalled by the saving in refrigeration, since the rooms hold the heavy cold air as a glass holds water. Large passenger vessels and yachts are now generally Ptted with refrigerating machinery for preserving provisions, cooling water and wine, and making ice. Usually two insulated compartments are provided, one for frozen meats at about 20° F., and one for vegetables, &c., at about 40°. They have a capacity of from 1500 to 3000 cub. ft. or more, according to the number of passen- gers carried, and they are generally cooled by means of brine pipes, though direct expansion and air circulation are sometimes adopted. A passenger vessel requires from 2 to 4 cwt. of ice per day. On battleships and cruisers the British Admiralty use small compressed- air machines for ice-making, and larger machines, generally on the carbonic-acid system, for cooling the magazines. A modern frozen- meat-carrying vessel will accommodate as much as 120,000 carcases, partly sheep and partly lambs, requiring a hold capacity of about 300,000 cub. ft. In some vessels both fore and aft holds and 'tween decks are insulated. Lloyd's Committee now issue certificates for refrigerating installations, if constructed according to their rules, and most modern cargo-carrying vessels have their refrigerating machinery classed at Lloyd's. In the meat trade between the River Plate, the United States, Canada and Great Britain, ammonia or carbonic acid machines are now exclusively used, but for the Australian and New Zealand frozen- meat trade compressed-air machines are still employed to a small extent. The holds of meat-carrying vessels are refrigerated eit/ier by cold air circulation or by brine pipes. Though the adoption of refrigerating and ice-making machinery for industrial purposes practically dates from the year 1880, the manufacture of these machines has already assumed very great proportions; indeed, in no branch of mechanical engineering, with the exception of electrical machinery, has there been so re- markable a development in recent years. The sphere of application is extending year by year. The cooling of residential and public buildings in hot countries, though attempted in a few cases in the United States and elsewhere, is yet practically untouched, the manufacture of ice and the preservation of perishable foods (apart from the frozen and chilled meat trades) have in many countries hardly received serious consideration, but in breweries, dairies, margarine works and many other industries there is a large and increasing field for refrigerating and ice-making machinery. A recent application is in the cooling and drying 01 the air blast for blast furnaces. Though this matter had been discussed for some years, it was only in 1904 that the first plant was put to work at Pittsburg. For further information reference may be made to the following: Siebel, Compend. of Mechanical Refrigeration (Chicago); Red- wood, Theoretical and Practical Ammonia Refrigeration (New York) ; Stephansky, Practical Running of an Ice and Refriger- ating Plant (Boston) ; Lcdoux, Ice-Making Machines (New York) ; Wallis-Taylor, Refrigerating and Ice-Making- Machines (London) ; Ritchie Leask, Refrigerating Machinery (London) ; De Volson Wood, Thermodynamics, Heat Motors and Refrigerating Machinery (New York); Linde, Kalteerzeugungsmaschine Lexikon der gesamten Technik; Behrend, Eis und Kdlteerzeugungs- Maschinen (Halle); De Marchena, Kompressions Kdltemaschinen (Halle) ; Theodore Roller, Die Kalteindustrie (Vienna) ; Voorhees, Indicating the Refrigerating Machine (Chicago) ; Norman Selfe, Machinery for Refrigeration (Chicago) ; Hans Lorenz, Modern Re- frigerating Machinery (London); Lehnert, Moderne Kaltetechnik (Leipzig) ; L. _ Marchis, Production et utilisation du froid (Paris); C. Heinel, Bau und Betrieb von Kdltemaschinen Anlagen (Oldenburg); R. Stetefeld, Eis und Kdlteerzeugungs-Maschinen (Stuttgart). (T. B. L.) REGAL, a small late-medieval portable organ, furnished with beating-reeds and having two bellows like a positive organ; also in Germany the name given to the reed-stops (beating-reeds) of a large organ, and more especially the " vox humana " stop. The name was not at first applied to the small table instrument, but to certain small brass pipes in the organ, sounded by means of beating-reeds, the longest of the 8-ft. tone being but sJ in. long. Praetorius (1618) mentions a larger regal used in the court orchestras of some of the German princes, more like a positive, containing 4-ft., 8-ft. and even sometimes i6-ft. tone reeds, and having behind the case two bellows. These regals were used not only at banquets but often to replace positives in small and large churches. The very small regal, sometimes called Bible-regal, because -it can be taken to pieces and folded up like a book, is also mentioned by the same writer, who states that these little instruments, first made in Nuremberg and Augsburg, have an unpleasantly harsh tone, due to their tiny pipes, not quite an inch long. The pipes in this case were not intended to reinforce the vibrations of the beating-reed or of its overtones as in the reed pipes of the organ, but merely to form an attachment for keeping the reed in its place without inter- fering with its functions. The beating-reed itself in the older organs of the early middle ages, many of which undoubtedly were reed organs, was made of wood; those of the regal were mostly of brass (hence their " brazen voices "). The length of the vibrating portion of the beating-reed governed the pitch of the pipe and was regulated by means of a wire passing through the socket, the other end pressing on the reed at the proper distance. Drawings of the reeds of regals and other reed-pipes, as well as of the instrument itself, are given by Praetorius (pi. iv., xxxviii.). There is evidence to show that in England, and France also, the word " regal " was applied to reed-stops on the organ; Mersenne (1636) states that " now the word is applied to the vox humana stop on the organ." In England, as late as the reign of George III., there was the appointment of " tuner of the regals " to the Chapel Royal. The reed-stops required constant tuning, according to Prae- torius, who lays special emphasis on the fact that the pitch of the reed-pipes alone falls in summer and rises in winter. During the i6th and 17th centuries the regal was a very great favourite, and although, owing to the civil wars and the ravages REGALIA— REGENERATION OF LOST PARTS of time, very few specimens now remain, the regals are often men- tioned in old wills and inventories, such as the list of Henry VIII. 's musical instruments made after his death by Sir Philip Wilder (Brit. Mus. Harleian MS. 1415, fol. 200 seq.), in which no fewer than thirteen pairs of single and five pairs of double regals are mentioned. Monteverde scored for the regals in his operas, and the instrument is described and figured by S. Virdung in 1511, Martin Agricola in 1528, and Ottmar Luscinius in 1536, as well as by Michael Praetorius in 1618. (K. S.) REQALIA (Lat. regalis, royal, from rex, king), the ensigns of royalty. The crown (see CROWN and CORONET) and sceptre (see SCEPTRE) are dealt with separately. Other ancient symbols of royal authority are bracelets, the sword, a robe or mantle, and, in Christian times, a ring. Bracelets, as royal emblems, are mentioned in the Bible in connexion with Saul (2 Sam. i. 10), and they have been commonly used by Eastern monarchs. In Europe their later use seems to have been fitfully confined to England, although they were a very ancient ornament for kings among the Teutonic races. Two coronation bracelets are mentioned among the articles of the regalia ordered to be destroyed at the time of the Commonwealth, and two new ones were made at the Restoration. These are of gold, i| in. in width, and ornamented with the rose, thistle, harp and fleur-de-lis in enamel round them. They have not been used for modern coronations. The sword is one of the usual regalia of most countries, and is girded on to the sovereign during the coronation. In England the one sword has been developed into five. The Sword of State is borne before the sovereign on certain state occasions, and at the coronation is exchanged for a smaller sword, with which the king is ceremonially girded. The three other swords of the regalia are the " Curtana," the Sword of Justice to the Spirituality, and the Sword of Justice to the Temporality. The Curtana has a blade cut off short and square, indicating thereby the quality of mercy. The mantle, as a symbol of royalty, is almost universal, but in the middle ages other quasi-priestly robes were added to it (see CORONATION). The English mantle was formerly made of silk; latterly cloth of gold has been used. The ring, by which the sovereign is wedded to his kingdom, is not of so wide a range of usage. That of the English kings held a large ruby with a cross engraved on it. Recently a sapphire has been substituted for the ruby. Golden spurs, though included among the regalia, are merely used to touch the king's feet, and are not worn. The orb and cross was not anciently placed in the king's hands during the coronation ceremony, but was carried by him in the left hand on leaving the church. It is emblematical of monarchical rule, and is only used by a reigning sovereign. The idea is undoubtedly derived from the globe with the figure of Victory with which the Roman emperors are depicted. The larger orb of the English regalia is a magnificent ball of gold, 6 in. in diameter, with a band round the centre edged with gems and pearls. A similar band arches the globe, on the top of which is a remarkably fine amethyst i| in. in height, upon which rests the cross of gold outlined with diamonds. There is a smaller orb made for Mary II., who reigned jointly with King William III. The English regalia, with one or two exceptions, were made for the coronation of Charles II. by Sir Robert Vyner. The Scottish regalia preserved at Edinburgh comprise the crown, dating, in part, from Robert the Bruce, the sword of state given to James IV. by Pope Julius II., and two sceptres. Besides regalia proper, certain other articles are sometimes included under the name, such as the ampulla for the holy oil, and the coronation spoon. The ampulla is of solid gold in the form of an eagle with outspread wings. It weighs 10 oz., and holds 6 oz. of oil. The spoon was not originally used for its present purpose. It is of the I2th or I3th century, with a long handle and egg- shaped bowl. Its history is quite unknown. See Cyril Davenport, The English Regalia, with illustrations in colour of all the regalia; Leopold Wickham Legg, English Corona- tion Records; The Ancestor, Nos. I and 2 (1902); Menin, The Form, &c., of Coronations (translated from French, 1727). REGENERATION OF LOST PARTS. A loss and renewal of living material, either continual or periodical, is a familiar occurrence in the tissues of higher animals. The surface of the human skin, the inner lining of the mouth and respiratory organs, the blood corpuscles, the ends of the nails, and many other portions of tissues are continuously being destroyed and replaced. The hair of many mammals, the feathers of birds, the epidermis of reptiles, and the antlers of stags are shed and replaced periodically. In these normal cases the regeneration depends on the existence of special formative layers or groups of cells, and must be regarded in each case as a special adapta- tion, with individual limitations and peculiarities, rather than as a mere exhibition of the fundamental power of growth and reproduction displayed by living substance. Many tissues, even in the highest animals, are capable of replacing an ab- normal loss of substance. Thus in mammals, portions of muscular tissue, of epithelium, of bone, and of nerve, after accidental destruction or removal, may be renewed. The characteristic feature of such cases appears to be, in the higher animals at any rate, that lost cells are replaced only from cells of the same morphological order — epiblastic cells from the epiblast, mesoblastic from the mesoblast, and so forth. It is also becoming clear that, at least in the higher animals, regenera- tion is in intimate relation with the central nervous system. The process is in direct relation to the general power of growth and reproduction possessed by protoplasm, and is regarded by pathologists as the consequence of " removal of resistances to growth." It is much less common in the tissues of higher plants, in which the adult cells have usually lost the power of reproduction, and in which the regeneration of lost parts is replaced by a very extended capacity for budding. Still, more complicated reproductions of lost parts occur in many cases, and are more difficult to understand. In Amphibia the entire epidermis, together with the slime-glands and the integumentary sense-organs, is regenerated by the epidermic cells in the vicinity of the defect. The whole limb of a Salamander or a Triton will grow again and again after amputation. Similar renewal is either rarer or more difficult in the case of Siren and Pro- teus. In frogs regeneration of amputated limbs does not usually take place, but instances have been recorded. Chelonians, croco- diles and snakes are unable to regenerate lost parts to any extent, while lizards and geckoes possess the capacity in a high degree. The capacity is absent almost completely in birds and mammals. In coelenterates, worms, and tunicates the power is exhibited in a very varying extent. In Hydra, Nais, and Lumbriculus, after transverse section, each part may complete the whole animal. In most worms the greater, and in particular the anterior part, will grow a new posterior part, but the separated posterior portion dies. In Hydra, sagittal and horizontal amputations result in the completion of the separated parts. In worms such operations result in death, which no doubt may be a mere consequence of the more severe wound. Extremely interesting instances of regenera- tion are what are called " Heteromorphoses," where the removed part is replaced by a dissimilar structure. The tail of a lizard, grown after amputation, differs in structure from the normal tail: the spinal cord is replaced by an epithelial tube which gives off no nerves; the vertebrae are replaced by an unsegmented carti- laginous tube; very frequently " super-regeneration " occurs, the amputated limb or tail being replaced by double or multiple new structures. J. Loeb produced many heteromorphoses on lower animals. He lopped off the polyp head and the pedal disc of a Tubularia, and supported the lopped stem in an inverted position in the sand ; the original pedal end, now superior, gave rise to a new po'VP head, while the neck-end, on regeneration, formed a pedal disc. _In Cerianthus, a sea-anemone, and in done, an ascidian, regeneration after his operations resulted in the formation of new mouth-openings in abnormal places, surrounded by elaborate structures character- istic of normal mouths. Other observers have recorded hetero- morphoses in Crustacea, where antennulae have been regenerated in place of eyes. It appears that, in the same fashion as more simply organized animals display a capacity for reproduction of lost parts greater than that of higher animals, so embryos and embryonic structures generally have a higher power of renewal than that displayed by the corresponding adult organs or organisms. Moreover, experimental work on the young stages of organisms has revealed a very striking series of phenomena, similar to the hetero- morphoses in adult tissues, but more extended in range. H. Driesch, O. Hertwig and others, by separating the segmentation spheres, by destroying some of them, by compressing young embryos by glass plates, and by many olher means, have caused cells to develop REGALIA PLATE I I. — ST EDWARD'S CROWN. The ancient crown was destroyed at the •Commonwealth, and a model made for Charles II's coronation. z.— THE IMPERIAL STATE CROWN, as worn by Queen Victoria. The Black Prince's ruby is in the centre. Modifications in the cap were made for the coronation of King Edward VII. and the smaller "Cullinan" diamond substituted for the sapphire below the ruby. 3-— QUEEN ALEXANDRA'S CORONATION CROWN, with the Koh-i-Noor in centre. 4.— THE CORONET OF THE PRINCE OF WALES. The illustrations on these plates are, except where otherwise stated, repro- duced by permission from the unique collection of photographs in the pos- session of SIR BENJAMM STONE, formerly M. P. for East Birmingham. XXIII. 36. 5.— THE LARGER OR KING'S ORB. 6.— THE LESSER OR QUEEN'S ORB. PLATE II. REGALIA 2.— THE CORONATION SPOON. a b c d e i.— THE SCEPTRES: (a) The Sceptre with the Dove; (V) The Royal Sceptre with the Cross (c/.Fig. 3); (c) The Queen's Sceptre with the Cross; (d) The Queen's Ivory Rod; (e) The Queen's Sceptre with the Dove. 4.— THE SWORDS: (a) The Spiritual Sword of Justice; (i) The Sword of State; (c) The Temporal Sword of Justice. Photo, W. E. Gray. 3.— THE HEAD OF THE ROYAL SCEPTRE with the largest of the "Star of Africa" (Cullinan) Diamonds. pkola, W. E. Gray. 5.— THE BRACELETS. 6.— THE AMPULLA. ^— THE ST. GEORGE'S SPURS. REGALIA PLATE HI. i.— THE SILVER-GILT CHRISTENING FONT, made for Charles II. 2 — QUEEN ELIZABETH'S SALT-CELLAR. 3.— SILVER-GILT ALTAR DISH, used at Christmas and Easter in the Chapel of St Peter ad Vincula, Tower of London. 4.— THE GOLD SALT-CELLAR presented to tne Crown by the City of Exeter. PLATE IV. REGALIA I t; !-d < f-t w 5 REGENSBURG— REGENT 37 so as to give rise to structures which in normal development they would not have formed. It is clear that there are at least three kinds of factors in- volved in regeneration. There are: (i) Regenerations due to the presence of undifferentiated, or little differentiated, cells, which have retained the normal capacity of multiplication when conditions are favourable. (2) Regenerations due to the presence of special complicated rudiments, the stimulus to the development of which is the removal of the fully formed structure. (3) Regeneration involving the general capacity of protoplasm to respond to changes in the surroundings by changes of growth. The most general view is to regard re- generations as special adaptations; and A. Weismann, following in this matter Arnold Lang, has developed the idea at con- siderable length, and has found a place for regenerations in his system of the germ-plasm (see HEREDITY) by the conception of the existence of " accessory determinants." Hertwig, on the other hand, attaches great importance to the facts of regeneration as evidence for his view that every cell of a body contains a similar essential plasm. In E. Schwalbe's Morphologic der Minbildungen (1904), part i. chap, v., an attempt is made to associate the facts of regeneration with those of embryology and pathology. Our knowledge of the facts, however, is not yet systematic enough to allow of important general conclusions. The power of regeneration appears to be in some cases a special adaptation, but more often simply an expression of the general power of protoplasm to grow and to reproduce its kind. It has been suggested that regenerated parts always repre- sent ancestral stages, but there is no conclusive evidence for this view. (P. C. M.) REGENSBURG (RATISBON), a city and episcopal see of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, and the capital of the government district of the Upper Palatinate. Pop. (1905) 48,41 2. It is situated on the right bank of the Danube, opposite the influx of the Regen, 86 m. by rail N.E. from Munich, and 60 m. S.E. of Nuremberg. On the other side of the river is the suburb Stadt-am-Hof, connected with Regensburg by a long stone bridge of the I2th century, above and below which -are the islands of Oberer and Unterer Worth. In appearance the town is quaint and romantic, presenting almost as faithful a picture of a town of the early middle ages as Nuremberg does of the later. One of the most characteristic features in its architecture is the number of strong loopholed towers attached to the more ancient dwellings. The interesting " street of the envoys " (Gesandtenstrasse) is so called because it contained the residences of most of the envoys to the German diet, whose coats-of-arms may still be seen on many of the houses. The cathedral, though small, is a very interesting example of pure German Gothic. It was founded in 1275, and completed in 1634, with the exception of the towers, which were finished in 1869. The interior con tains numerous interesting monuments, including one of Peter Vischer's masterpieces. Adjoining the cloisters are two chapels of earlier date than the cathedral itself, one of which, known as the "old cathedral," goes back perhaps to the 8th century. The church of St James — also called Schottenkirche — a plain Romanesque basilica of the 1 2th century, derives its name from the monastery of Irish Benedictines (" Scoti ") to which it was attached; the principal doorway is covered with very singular grotesque carvings. The old parish church of St Ulrich is a good example of the Transition style of the i3th century, and contains a valu- able antiquarian collection. Examples of the Romanesque basilica style are the church of Obermunster, dating from 1010, and the abbey church of St Emmeran, built in the I3th century, and remarkable as one of the few German churches with a detached belfry. The beautiful cloisters of the ancient abbey, one of the oldest in Germany, are still in fair preservation. In 1809 the conventual buildings were converted into a palace for the prince of Thurn and Taxis, hereditary postmaster-general of the Holy Roman Empire. The town hall, dating in part from the I4th century, contains the rooms occupied by the imperial diet from 1663 to 1806. An historical interest also attaches to the Gasthof zum Goldenen Kreuz (Golden Cross Inn), where Charles V. made the acquaintance of Barbara Blomberg, the mother of Don John of Austria (b. 1547). The house is also shown where Kepler died in 1630. Perhaps the most pleasing modern building in the city is the Gothic villa of the king of Bavaria on the bank of the Danube. At Kumpfmuhl, in the immediate neighbourhood of the city, was discovered, in 1885, the remains of a Roman camp with an arched gateway; the latter, known as the Porta Praetoria, was cleared in 1887. Among the public institutions of the city should be mentioned the public library, picture gallery, botanical garden, and the institute for the making of stained glass. The educational establishments include two gymnasia, an episcopal clerical seminary, a seminary for boys and a school of church music. Among the chief manufactures are iron and steel wares, pottery, parquet flooring, tobacco, and lead pencils. Boat-building is also prosecuted, and a brisk transit trade is carried on in salt, grain and timber. Near Regensburg are two very handsome classical buildings, erected by Louis I. of Bavaria as national monuments of German patriotism and greatness. The more imposing of the two is the Walhalla, a costly reproduction of the Parthenon, erected as a Teutonic temple of fame on a hill rising from the Danube at Donau- stauf, 6 m. to the east. The interior, which is as rich as coloured marbles, gilding, and sculptures can make it, contains the busts of more than a hundred German worthies. The second of King Louis's buildings is the Befreiungshalle at Kelheim, 14 m. above Regensburg, a large circular building which has for its aim the glorification of the neroes of the war of liberation in 1813. The early Celtic settleipent of Radespona (L. 'Lat. Ralisbona) was chosen by the Romans, who named it Castra Regina, as the centre of their power on the upper Danube. It is mentioned as a trade centre as early as the 2nd century. It afterwards became the seat of the dukes of Bavaria, and one of the main bulwarks of the East Frankish monarchy; and it was also the focus from which Christianity spread over southern Germany. St Emmeran founded an abbey here in the middle of the 7th century, and St Boniface established the bishopric about a hundred years later. Regensburg acquired the freedom of the empire in the I3th century, and was for a time the most flourishing city in southern Germany. It became the chief seat of the trade with India and the Levant, and the boat- men of Regensburg are frequently heard of as expediting the journeys of the Crusaders. The city was loyally Ghibelline in its sympathies, and was a favourite residence of the emperors. Numerous diets were held here from time to time, and after 1663 it became the regular place of meeting of the German diet. The Reformation found only temporary acceptance at Regensburg, and was met by a counter-reformation inspired by the Jesuits. Before this period the city had almost wholly lost its commercial importance owing to the changes in the great highways of trade. Regensburg had its due share in the Thirty Years' and other wars, and is said to have suffered in all no fewer than seventeen sieges. In 1807 the town and Wfehopric were assigned to the prince primate Dalberg, and in 1810 they were ceded to Bavaria. After the battle of Eggmiihl in 1809 the Austrians retired upon Regensburg, and the pursuing French defeated them again beneath its walls and reduced a great part of the city to ashes. See Gemeiner, Chronik der Sladt und des Hochsiifts Regensburg (4 vols., Regensburg, 1800-24) ; Chroniken der deutschen Stadte,vo\. xv. (Leipzig, 1878) ; Count v.Waldersdorf, Regensburg in i einer Vergangen- heit und Gegenwart (4th ed., Regensburg, 1896) ; Fink, Regensburg in seiner Vorzeit und Gegenwart (6th ed., Regensburg, 1903) ; and Schratz, Fiihrer durch Regensburg (sth ed., G. Dengler, Regensburg, 1904). REGENT (from Lat. regere, to rule), one who rules or governs, especially one who acts temporarily as an administrator of the realm during the minority or incapacity of the king. This latter function, however, is one unknown to the English common law. " In judgment of law the king, as king, cannot be said to be a minor, for when the royal body politic of the king doth meet with the natural capacity in one person the whole body shall have the quality of the royal politic, which is the greater and more worthy and wherein is no minority. For omne majus continet inseminus " (Coke upon Littleton, 433). Butforreasons of necessity a regency, however anomalous it may be in strict law, has frequently been constituted both in England and Scotland. The earliest instance in English history is the appointment of the earl of Pembroke with the assent of the loyal barons on the accession of Henry III. Whether or not the sanction of parliament is necessary for the appointment is a question which has been much discussed. Lord Coke recommends that the office should depend on the will of 38 REGGIO CALABRIA— REGICIDE parliament (Inst., vol. iv. p. 58), and in modern times provision for a regency has always been made by act of parliament. In Scotland the appointment of regents was always either by the assent of a council or of parliament. Thus in 1315 the earl of Moray was ap- pointed regent by Robert I. in a council. At a later period appoint- ment by statute was the universal form. Thus by an act of 1542 the earl of Arran was declared regent during the minority of Mary. By an act of 1567 the appointment by Mary of the earl of Moray as regent was confirmed. As late as 1704 provision was made for a regency after the death of Anne. The earliest regency in England resting upon an express statute was that created by 28 Hen. VIII. c. 7, under which the king appointed his executors to exercise the authority of the crown till the successor to the crown should attain the age of eighteen if a male or sixteen if a female. They delegated their rights to the protector Somerset, with the assent of the lords spiritual and temporal. No other example of a statutory provision for a regency occurs till 1751. In that year the act of 24 Geo. II. c. 24 constituted the princess-dowager of Wales regent of the kingdom in case the crown should descend to any of her children before such child attained the age of eighteen. A council, called the council of regency, was appointed to assist the princess. A prescribed oath was to be taken by the regent and members of the council. Their consent was necessary for the marriage of a successor to the crown during minority. It was declared to be unlawful for the regent to make war or peace, or ratify any treaty with any foreign power, or prorogue, adjourn or dissolve any parliament without the consent of the majority of the council of regency, or give her assent to any bill for repealing or varying the Act of Settlement, the Act of Uniformity, or the Act of the Scottish parliament for securing the Protestant religion and Presbyterian church government in Scotland (1707, c. 6). The last is an invariable provision, and occurs in all subsequent Regency Acts. The reign of George III. affords examples of pro- vision for a regency during both the infancy and incapacity of a king. The act of 5 Geo. III. c. 27 vested in the king power to ap- point a regent under the sign manual, such regent to be one of certain named members of the royal family. The remaining pro- visions closely followed those of the act of George II. In 1788 the insanity of the king led to the introduction of a Regency bill. In the course of the debate in the House of Lords the duke of York disclaimed on behalf of the prince of Wales any right to assume the regency without the consent of parliament. Owing to the king's recovery the bill ultimately dropped. On a return of the malady in 1810 the act of 51 Geo. III. c. I was passed, appointing the prince of Wales regent during the king's incapacity. The royal assent was given by commission authorized by resolution of both Houses. By this act no council of regency was appointed. There was no restriction on the regent's authority over treaties, peace and war, or parliament, as in the previous acts, but his power of granting peerages, offices and pensions was limited. At the accession of William IV. the duchess of Kent was, by I Will. IV. c. 2, appointed regent, if necessary, until the Princess Victoria should attain the age of eighteen. No council of regency was appointed. By I Viet, c. 72 lords justices were nominated as a kind of regency council without a regent in case the successor to the crown should be out of the realm at the queen's death. They were restricted from granting peerages, and from dissolving parliament without direc- tions from the successor. By 3 & 4 Viet. c. 52 Prince Albert was appointed regent in case any of Queen Victoria's children should succeed to the crown under the age of eighteen. The only restraint on his authority was the usual prohibition to assent to any bill repealing the Act of Settlement, &c. When George V. came to the throne a Regency Bill was again required, as his eldest son was under age, and Queen Mary was appointed. By 10 Geo. IV. c. 7 the office of regent of the United Kingdom cannot be held by a Roman Catholic. A similar disability is imposed in most, if not all, Regency Acts. REGGIO CALABRIA (anc. Regium, q.v.), a town and archi- episcopal see of Calabria, Italy, capital of the province of Reggio, on the Strait of Messina, 248 in. S.S.E. from Naples by rail. Pop. (1906) 39,041 (town); 48,362 (commune). It is the terminus of the railways from Naples along the west coast, and from Metaponto along the east coast of Calabria. The straits are here about 7 m. wide, and the distance to Messina nearly 10 m. The ferryboats to Messina therefore cross by preference from Villa S. Giovanni, 8 m. N. of Reggio, whence the distance is only 5 m. In 1894 the town suffered from an earthquake, though less severely, than in 1783. It was totally destroyed, however, by the great earthquake of December 1908; in the centre of the town about 35,000 out of 40,000 persons perished. The cathedral, which dated from the I7th century, and the ancient castle which rose above it, were wrecked. Great damage was done by a seismic wave following the shock. The sea front was swept away, and the level of the land here- abouts was lowered. (See further MESSINA.) REGGIO NELL' EMILIA, a city and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, the capital of the province of Reggio nelT Emilia (till 1859 part of the duchy of Modena), 38 m. by rail N.W. of Bologna. Pop. (1906) 19,681 (town); 64,548 (commune). The cathe- dral, originally erected in the i2th century, was reconstructed in the 15th and i6th; the facade shows traces of both periods, the Renaissance work being complete only in the lower portion. S. Prospero, close by, has a facade of 1504, in which are incor- porated six marble lions belonging to the original Romanesque edifice. The Madonna della Ghiara, built in 1597 in the form of a Greek cross, and restored in 1900, is beautifully proportioned and finely decorated in stucco and with frescoes of the Bolognese school of the early 1 7th century. There are several good palaces of the early Renaissance, a fine theatre (1857) and a museum containing important palaeo-ethnological collections, ancient and medieval sculptures, and the natural history collection of Spallanzani. Lodovico Ariosto, the poet (1474-1533), was born in Reggio, and his father's house is still preserved. The industries embrace the making of cheese, objects in cement, matches, and brushes, the production of silkworms, and printing; and the town is the centre of a rich agricultural district. It lies on the main line between Bologna and Milan, and is con- nected by branch lines with Guastalla and Sassuolo (hence a line to Modena). Regium Lepidi or Regium Lepidum was probably founded by M. Aemilius Lepidus at the time of the construction of the Via Aemilia (187 B.C.). It lay upon this road, half-way between Mutina and Parma. It was during the Roman period a nourishing munici- pium, but perhaps never became a colony; and it is associated with no event more interesting than the assassination of M. Brutus, the father of Caesar's friend and foe. The bishopric dates perhaps from the 4th century A.D. Under the Lombards the town was the seat of dukes and counts; in the I2th and I3th centuries it formed a flourishing republic, busied in surrounding itself with walls (1229), controlling the Crostolo and constructing navigable canals to the Po, coining money of its own, and establishing prosperous schools. About 1290 it first passed into the hands of Obizzo d'Este, and the authority of the Este family was after many vicissitudes more formally recognized in 1409. In the contest for liberty which began in 1796 and closed with annexation to Piedmont in 1859, Reggio took vigorous part. REGICIDE (Lat. rex, a king, and caedere, to kill), the name given to any one who kills a sovereign. Regicides is the name given in English history at the Restoration of 1660 to those persons who were responsible for the execution of Charles I. On the 4th of April 1660 Charles II. in the Declaration of Breda promised a free pardon to all his subjects " excepting only such persons as shall hereafter be excepted by parliament," and on the i4th of May the House of Commons ordered the immediate arrest of " all those persons who sat in judgment upon the late king's majesty when sentence was pronounced." The number of regicides was estimated at 84, this number being composed of the 67 present at the last sitting of the court of justice, ii others who had attended earlier sittings, 4 officers of the court and the 2 executioners. Many of them were arrested or surrendered themselves, and the House of Commons in con- sidering the proposed bill of indemnity suggested that only twelve of the regicides, who were named, should forfeit their lives; but the House of Lords urged that all the king's judges, with three exceptions, and some others, should be treated in this way. Eventually a compromise was agreed upon, and the bill as passed on the 2gth of August 1660 divided the regicides into six classes for punishment: (l) Four of them, although dead — Cromwell, Ireton, Bradshaw and Pride — were to be attainted for high treason. (2) The estates of twenty others, also dead, were to be subjected to fine or forfeiture. (3) Thirty living regicides were excepted from all indemnity. (4) Nineteen living regicides were also excepted, but with a saving clause that their execution was to be suspended until a special act of parliament was passed for this purpose. (5) Six others were to be punished, but not capitally. (6) Two, Colonels Hutchinson and Thomas Lister, were simply declared incapable of holding any office. Two regicides — Ingoldsby, who declared he had only signed the warrant under compulsion, and Colonel Matthew Thomlinson — escaped without punishment. A court of thirty-four commissioners was then appointed to try the regicides, and the trial took place in October 1660. Twenty-nine were condemned to death, but only ten were actually executed, the remaining nineteen REGILLUS— REGIOMONTANUS 39 with six others being imprisoned for life. The ten who were exe- cuted at Charing Cross or Tyburn, London, in October 1660, were Thomas Harrison, John Jones, Adrian Scrppc, John Carew, Thomas Scot, and Gregory Clement, who had signed the death-warrant; the preacher Hugh Peters; Francis Hacker and Daniel Axtel, who commanded the soldiers at the trial and the execution of the king; and John Cook, the solicitor who directed the prosecution. In January 1661 the bodies of Cromwell, Ireton, and Bradshaw were exhumed and hanged at Tyburn, but Pride's does not appear to have been treated in this way. Of the nineteen or twenty regicides who had escaped and were living abroad, three, Sir John Barkstead, John Okcy and Miles Corbet, were arrested in Holland and executed in London in April 1662; and one, John Lisle, was murdered at Lausanne. The last survivor of the regicides was probably Edmund Ludlow, who died at Vevey in 1692. Ludlow's Memoirs, edited by C. H. Firth (Oxford, 1894), give interesting details about the regicides in exile. See also D. Masson, Life of Milton, vol. vi. (1880), and M. Noble, Lilies of the English Regicides (1798). (A. W. H.*) REGILLUS, an ancient lake of Latium, Italy, famous in the legendary history of Rome as the lake in the neighbourhood of which occurred (496 B.C.) the battle which finally decided the hegemony of Rome in Latium. During the battle, so runs the story, the dictator Postumius vowed a temple to Castor and Pollux, who were specially venerated in Tusculum, the chief city of the Latins (it being a Roman usage to invoke the aid of the gods of the enemy), who appeared during the battle, and brought the news of the victory to Rome, watering their horses at the spring of Juturna, close to which their temple in the Forum was erected. There can be little doubt that the lake actually existed. Of the various identifications proposed, the best is that of Nibby, who finds it in a now dry crater lake (Pantano Secco), drained by an emissarium, the date of which is uncertain, some 2 m. N. of Frascati. Along the south bank of the lake, at some 30 or 40 ft. above the present bottom, ran the aqueducts of the Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus. Most of the other sites proposed are not, as Regillus should be, within the limits of the territory of Tusculum. See T. Ashby in Rendiconti dei Lincei (1898), 103 sqq., andClassical Review, 1898. (T. As.) REGIMENT (from Late Latin regimentum, rule, regere, to rule, govern, direct), originally government, command or authority exercised over others, or the office of a ruler or sovereign; in this sense the word was common in the i6th century. The most familiar instance is the title of the tract of John Knox, the First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women. The term as applied to a large body of troops dates from the French army of the i6th century. In the first instance it implied " command," as nowadays we speak of " General A's command," meaning the whole number of troops under his command. The early regiments had no similarity in strength or organization, except that each was under one commander. With the regularization of armies the commands of all such superior officers were gradually reduced to uniformity, and a regiment came to be definitely a colonel's command. In the British infantry the term has no tactical significance, as the number of battalions in a regiment is variable, and one at least is theoretically abroad at all times, while the reserve or terri- torial battalions serve under a different code to that governing the regular battalions. The whole corps of Royal Artillery is called " the Royal Regiment of Artillery." In the cavalry a regiment is tactically as well as administratively a unit of four squadrons. On the continent of Europe the regiment of infantry is always together under the command of its colonel, and consists of three or four battalions under majors or lieutenant-colonels. REGINA, the capital city of the province of Saskatchewan, Canada, situated at 104° 36' W. and 50° 27' N., and 357 m. W. of Winnipeg. Pop. (1907) 9804. After the Canadian Pacific railway was completed in 1885, the necessity for a place of government on the railway line pressed itself upon the Dominion government. The North-West Territories were but little settled then, but a central position on the prairies was necessary, where the mounted police might be stationed and where the numerous Indian bands might be easily reached. The minister of the interior at Ottawa, afterwards Governor Dewdney, chose this spot, and for a number of years Regina was the seat of the Territorial government. The governor took up his abode on the adjoining plain, and the North-West Council met each year, with a show of constitutional government about it. On the formation of the province of Saskatchewan in 1905 the choice of capital was left to the first legislature of the province. Prince Albert, Moose Jaw and Saskatoon all advanced claims, but Regina was decided on as the capital. It probably doubled in population between 1905 and 1907. Its public buildings, churches and residences are worthy of a place of greater pre- tensions. It is the centre for a rich agricultural district, and for legislation, education, law and other public benefits. It remains the headquarters of the mounted police for the western provinces, and near it is an Indian industrial school of some note. REGINON, or REGINO OF PR^M, medieval chronicler, was born at Altripp near Spires, and was educated in the monastery of Priim. Here he became a monk, and in 892, just after the monastery had been sacked by the Danes, he was chosen abbot. In 899, however, he was deprived of this position and he went to Trier, where he was appointed abbot of St Martin's, a house which he reformed. He died in 91 5, and was buried in the abbey of St Maximin at Trier, his tomb being discovered there in 1581. Reginon wrote a Chronicon, dedicated to Adalberon, bishop of Augsburg (d. 909), which deals with the history of the world from the commencement of the Christian era to 906, especially the history of affairs in Lorraine and the neighbourhood. The first book (to 741) consists mainly of extracts from Bede, Paulus Diaconus and other writers; of the second book (741-906) the latter part is original and valuable, although the chronology is at fault and the author relied chiefly upon tradition and hearsay for his informa- tion. The work was continued to 967 by a monk of Trier, possibly Adalbert, archbishop of Magdeburg (d. 981). The chronicle was first published at Mainz in 1521; another edition is in Band I. of the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores (1826); the best is the one edited by F. Kurze (Hanover, 1890). It has been translated into German by W. Wattenbach (Leipzig, 1890). Reginon also drew up at the request of his friend and patron Radbod, archbishop of Trier (d. 915), a collection of canons, Libri duo de synodalibus causis et disciplinis ecclesiasticis, dedicated to Hatto I., archbishop of Mainz; this is published in Tome 132 of J. P. Migne's Palrologia Lalina. To Radbod he wrote a letter on music, Epistpla de harmonica institutione, with a Tonarius, the object of this being to improve the singing in the churches of the diocese. The letter is published in Tome I. of Gerbert's Scriptores ecclesiastic! de musica sacra (1784), and the Tonarius in Tome II. of Coussemaker's Scriptores de musica medii aevi. See also H. Ermisch, Die Chronik des Regino bis 813 (Gottingen, 1872); P. Schulz, Die Glaubwurdig- keit des Abtes Regino} von Prum (Hamburg, 1894); C. Wawra, De Reginone Prumensis (Breslau, 1901); A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, Tome I. (1901); and W. Wattenbach, DeutschlandsGeschichtsquellen, Band I. (1904). REGIOMONTANUS (1436-1476), German astronomer, was born at Konigsberg in Franconia on the 6th of June 1436. The son of a miller, his name originally was Johann Mu'ller, but he called himself, from his birthplace, Joh. de Monteregio, an appellation which became gradually modified into Regiomontanus. At Vienna, from 1452, he was the pupil and associate of George Purbach (1423-1461), and they jointly undertook a reform of astronomy rendered necessary by the errors they detected in the Alphonsine Tables. In this they were much hindered by the lack of correct translations of Ptolemy's works; and in 1462 Regiomontanus accompanied Cardinal Bessarion to Italy in search of authentic manuscripts. He rapidly mastered Greek at Rome and Ferrara, lectured on Alfraganus at Padua, and completed at Venice in 1463 Purbach's Epitome in Cl. Ptolemaei magnam compositionem (printed at Venice in 1496), and his own De Triangulis (Nuremberg, 1533), the earliest work treating of trigonometry as a substantive science. A quarrel with George of Trebizond, the blunders in whose translation of the Almagest he had pointed out, obliged him to quit Rome pre- cipitately in 1468. He repaired to Vienna, and was thence summoned to Buda by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, for the purpose of collating Greek manuscripts at a handsome salary. He also finished his Tabulae Directionum (Nuremberg, 1475), essentially an astrological work, but containing a valuable table of tangents. An outbreak of war, meanwhile, diverted REGISTER the king's attention from learning, and in 1471 Regiomontanus settled at Nuremberg. Bernhard Walther, a rich patrician, became his pupil and patron; and they together equipped the first European observatory, for which Regiomontanus himself constructed instruments of an improved type (described in his posthumous Scripta, Nuremberg, 1544). His observations of the great comet of January 1672 supplied the basis of modern cometary astronomy. At a printing-press established in Walther's house by Regiomontanus, Purbach's Theoricae planetarum novae was published in 1472 or 1473; a series of popular calendars issued from it, and in 1474 a volume of Ephemerides calculated by Regiomontanus for thirty-two years (1474-1506), in which the method of "lunar distances," for determining the longitude at sea, was recommended and explained. In 1472 Regiomontanus was summoned to Rome by Pope Sixtus IV. to aid in the reform of the calendar; and there he died, most likely of the plague, on the 6th of July 1476. AUTHORITIES. — P. Gassendi, Vita Jo. Regiomontani (Parisiis, !654) ; J. G. Doppelmayr, Historische Nachricht von den Nurn- bergischen Mathematicis, pp. 1-23 (1730); G. A. Will, Nurnber- gisckes Gelehrten-Lexikon, lii. 273 (1757); P. Niceron, Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des hommes Ulustres, xxxviii. 337 (1737); J. F. Weidler, Hist. Astronomiae, p. 313; A. G. Kastner, Geschichte der Mathematik, i. 556, 572; J. F. Montucla, Hist, des mathe- matiques, i. 541 ; E. F. Apelt, Die Reformation der Sternkunde, p. 34; M. Cantor, Vorlesungen uber Geschichte der Math., ii. 254- 264; M. Curtze, Urkunden zur Gesch. der Math., i. 187 (1902); Corr. Astr. vii. 21 (1822); G. H. Schubert, Peurbach und Regio- montan (Erlangen, 1828); A. Ziegler, Regiomontanus ein geistiger Vorldufer des Columbus (1874) ; J. B. J. Delambre, Hist, de Vastrono- mie au moyen age, p. 284; J. S. Bailly, Hist., de I'astr. moderne, i. 311; R. Wolf, Geschichte der Aslronomie, p. 87; S. Giinther, AUg. Deutsche Biog., Bd. xxii. p. 564; C. G. Tocher's Gelehrten- Lexikon, iii. 1959, and Fortsetzung, vi. 1551 (H. W. Rotermund, Bremen, 1819); Ersch-Gruber's Encyklopaedie, ii. th. xx. p. 205; C. T. von Murr, Memorabilia Bibliothecarum Norimbergensium, 1.74(1786). (A. M. C.) REGISTER, a record of facts, proceedings, acts, events, names, &c., entered regularly for reference in a volume kept for that purpose, also the volume in which the entries are made. The Fr. registre is taken from the Med. Lat. registrum for regisium, Late Lat. regesta, things recorded, hence list, catalogue, from regerere, to carry or bear back, to transcribe, enter on a roll. For the keeping of public registers dealing with various subjects see REGISTRATION and the articles there referred to, and for the records of baptisms, marriages and burials made by a parish clergyman, see section Parish Registers below. The keeper of a register was, until the beginning of the igth century, usually known as a " register," but that title has in Great Britain now been superseded by "registrar"; it still survives in the Lord Clerk Register, an officer of state in Scotland, nominally the official keeper of the national records, whose duties are per- formed by the Deputy Clerk Register. In the United States the title is still " register." The term " register " has also been applied to mechanical contrivances for the automatic registration or recording of figures, &c. (see CASH REGISTER), to a stop in an organ, to the compass of a voice or musical instrument, and also to an apparatus for regulating the in- and outflow of air, heat, steam, smoke or the like. Some of these instances of the application of the term are apparently due to a confusion in etymology, with Lat. regere, to rule, regulate. PARISH REGISTERS were instituted in England by an order of Thomas Cromwell, as vicegerent to Henry VIII., " supreme hedd undre Christ of the Church of Englande," in September 1538. The idea appears to have been of Spanish origin, Cardinal Ximenes having instituted, as archbishop of Toledo, registers of baptisms in 1497. They included, under the above order, baptisms, marriages and burials, which were to be recorded weekly. In 1597 it was ordered by the Convocation of Canterbury that parchment books should be provided for the registers and that transcripts should be made on parch- ment of existing registers on paper, and this order was repeated in the 7Oth canon of 1603. The transcripts then made now usually represent the earliest registers. It was further pro- vided at both these dates that an annual transcript of the register should be sent to the bishop for preservation in the diocesan registry, which was the origin of the " bishop's tran- scripts." The " Directory for the publique worship of God," passed by parliament in 1645, provided for the date of birth being also registered, and in August 1653, an Act of " Bare- bones' Parliament " made a greater change, substituting civil " parish registers " (sic) for the clergy, and ordering them to record births, banns, marriages and burials. The " register " was also to publish the banns and a justice to per- form the marriage. The register books were well kept under this civil system, but at the Restoration the old system was resumed. A tax upon births, marriages and burials imposed in 1694 led to the clergy being ordered to register all births, apart from baptisms, but the act soon expired and births were not again registered till 1836. Lord Hardwicke's Marriage Act (1754), by its rigid provisions, increased the registration of marriages by the parochial clergy and prescribed a form of entry. In 1812 parish registers became the subject of parlia- mentary enactment, owing to the discovery of their deficiencies. Rose's Act provided for their safer custody, for efficient bishops, transcripts, and for uniformity of system. This act continued to regulate the registers till their supersession for practical purposes, in 1837, by civil registration under the act of 1836. In age, completeness and condition they vary much. A blue book on the subject was published in 1833, but the returns it contains are often inaccurate. A few begin even earlier than Cromwell's order, the oldest being that of Tipton, Staffs, (1513). Between 800 and 900, apparently, begin in 1538 or 1539. The entries were originally made in Latin, but this usage died out early in the i7th century: decay and the crabbed handwriting of the time render the earlier registers extremely difficult to read. There is general agreement as to the shocking neglect of these valuable records in the past, and the loss of volumes appears to have continued even through the i gth century. Their custody is legally vested in the parochial clergy and their wardens, but several proposals have been made for their removal to central depositories. The fees for searching them are determined by the act of 1836, which prescribes half a crown for each certified extract, and sixpence a year for searching, with a shilling for the first year. The condition of the " bishops' transcripts " was, through- out, much worse than that of the parish registers, there being no funds provided for their custody. The report on Public Records in 1800 drew attention to their neglect, but, in spite of the provisions in Rose's Act (1812), little or nothing was done, and, in spite of their importance as checking, and even some- times supplementing deficient parish registers, they remained " unarranged, unindexed and unconsultable." Of recent years, however, some improvement has been made. It has also been discovered that transcripts from " peculiars " exist in other than episcopal registries. Outside the parochial registers, which alone were official in character, there were, till 1754, irregular marriage registers, of which those of the Fleet prison are the most famous, and also registers of private chapels in London. Those of the Fleet and of Mayfair chapel were deposited with the registrar- general, but not authenticated. The registers of dissenting chapels remained unofficial till an act of 1840 validated a number which had been authenticated, and was extended to many others in 1858. Useful information on these registers, now mostly deposited with the registrar-general, will be found in Sims' Manual, which also deals with those of private chapels, of English settlements abroad preserved in London, and with English Roman Catholic registers. These last, however, begin only under George II. and are restricted to certain London chapels. The printing of parish registers has of late made much progress, but the field is so vast that the rate is relatively slow. There is a Parish Register Society, and a section of the Harleian Society engaged on the same work, as well as some county societies and also one for Dublin. But REGISTRATION so many have been issued privately or by individuals that reference should be made to the lists in Marshall's Genealogist's Guide (1893) and Dr Cox's Parish Registers (1910), and even this last is not perfect. The Huguenot Society has printed several registers of the Protestant Refugees, and Mr Moens that of the London Dutch church. There are also several registers of marriages alone now in print, such as that of St Dunstan's, Stepney, in 3 vols. Colonel Chester's extensive MS. collection of extracts from parish registers is now in the College of Arms, London, and the parishes are indexed in Dr Marshall's book. MS. extracts in the British Museum are dealt with in Sims' Manual. In Scotland registers of baptisms and marriages were insti- tuted by the clergy in 1551, and burials were added by order of the Privy Council in 1616; but these were very imperfectly kept, especially in rural parishes. Yet it was not till 1854 that civil registration was introduced, by act of parliament, in their stead. Some 900 parish registers, beginning about 1563, have been deposited in the Register House, Edinburgh, under acts of parliament which apply to all those prior to 1819. Mr Hallen has printed the register of baptisms of Muthill Episcopal Church. In Ireland, parish registers were confined to the now dis- established church, which was that of a small minority, and were, as in Scotland, badly kept. Although great inconvenience was caused by this system, civil registration of marriages, when introduced in 1844, was only extended to Protestants, nor was it till 1864 that universal civil registration was intro- duced, great difficulty under the Old Age Pensions Act being now the result. No provision was made, as in Scotland, for central custody of the registers, which, both Anglican and Nonconformist, remain in their former repositories. Roman Catholic registers in Ireland only began, apparently, to be kept in the igth century. In France registers, but only of baptism, were first instituted in 1539. The Council of Trent, however, made registers both of baptisms and of marriages a law of the Catholic Church in 1563, and Louis XIV. imposed a tax on registered baptisms and marriages in 1707. See Burn, The History of Parish Registers (1829, 1862); Sims, Manual for the Genealogist (1856, 1888); Chester Waters, Parish Registers in England (1870, 1882, 1887); Marshall, Genealogist's Guide (1893); A. M. Burke, Key to the Ancient Parish Registers (1908) ; J. C. Cox, Parish Registers of England (1910) ; W. D. Bruce, Account . . . of the Ecclesiastical Courts of Record (1854); Bigland, Observations on Parochial Registers (1764); Report of the Commis- sioners on the state of Registers of Births, &c. (1838); Lists of Non- parochial Registers and Records in the custody of the Registrar- General (1841); Report on Non-parochial Registers (1857); Detailed List of the old Parochial Registers of Scotland (1872). (j. H. R.) REGISTRATION. In all systems of law the registration of certain legal facts has been regarded as necessary, chiefly for the purpose of ensuring publicity and simplifying evidence. Registers, when made in performance of a public duty, are as a general rule admissible in evidence merely on the production from the proper custody of the registers themselves or (in most cases) of examined or certified copies. The extent to which registration is carried varies very much in different countries. For obvious reasons, judicial decisions are registered in all countries alike. In other matters no general rule can be laid down, except perhaps that on the whole registration is not as fully enforced in the United Kingdom and the United States as in continental states. The most important uses of registra- tion occur in the case of judicial proceedings, land, ships, bills of sale, births, marriages and deaths, companies, friendly and other societies, newspapers, copyrights, patents, designs, trade marks and professions and occupations. In England registrars are attached to the privy council, the Supreme Court and the county courts. In the king's bench division (except in its bankruptcy jurisdiction) the duty of registrars is performed by the masters. Besides exercising limited judicial authority, registrars are responsible for the drawing up and recording of various stages of the proceedings from the petition, writ or plaint to the final decision.1 With them are filed affidavits, depositions, pleadings, &c., when such filing is necessary. The difference between filing and registration is that the documents filed are filed without alteration, while only an epitome is usually registered. The Judicature Act 1873 created district registries in the chief towns, the district registrar having an authority similar to that of a registrar of the Supreme Court. In the admiralty division cases of account are usually referred to the registrar and merchants. The registration in the central office of the supreme court of judgments affecting lands, writs of execution, recognizances and lites pendentes in England, and the registration in Scotland of abbreviates of adjudications and of inhibitions, are governed by special legislation. All these are among the incumbrances for which search is made on investigating a title. Decisions of criminal courts are said to be recorded, not registered, except in the case of courts of summary jurisdiction, in which, by the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1879, a register of convictions is kept. Probates of wills and letters of administration, which are really judicial decisions, are registered in the principal or district registries of the probate division. In Scotland registration is used for giving a summary remedy on obligations without action by means of the fiction of a judicial decision having been given establishing the obligation. See also the separate articles LAND REGISTRATION; SHIPPING; BILL OF SALE; COMPANIES; FRIENDLY SOCIETIES; BUILDING SOCIETIES; PRESS LAWS; COPYRIGHT; TRADE MARKS; PATENTS, &c. Registration of Voters. — Prior to 1832 Jhe right of parlia- mentary electors in England was determined at the moment of the tender of the vote at the election, or, in the event of a petition against the return, by a scrutiny, a committee of the House of Commons striking off those whose qualification was held to be insufficient, and, on the other hand, adding those who, having tendered their votes at the poll, with a good title to do so, were rejected at the time. A conspicuous feature of the Reform Act of that year was the introduction of a new mode of ascertaining the rights of electors by means of an entirely new system of pubb'shed lists, subject to claims and objections, and after due inquiry and revision forming a register of voters. Registration was not altogether unknown in Great Britain in connexion with the parliamentary franchise before the Reform Acts of 1832. Thus in the Scottish counties the right to vote depended on the voter's name being upon the roll of freeholders established by an act of Charles II.; a similar register existed in Ireland of freeholders whose free- holds were under £20 annual value; and in the universities of Oxford and Cambridge the rolls of members of Convocation and of the Senate were, as they still are, the registers of par- liamentary voters. But except in such cases as the above, the right of a voter had to be determined by the returning officer upon the evidence produced before him when the vote was tendered at a poll. This necessarily took time, and the result was that a contested election in a large constituency might last for weeks. The celebrated Westminster election of 1784, in which the poll began on the ist of April and ended on the 1 7th of May, may be mentioned as an illustration. More- over, the decision of the returning officer was not conclusive; the title of every one who claimed to vote was liable to be reconsidered on an election petition, or, in the case of a rejected vote, in an action for damages by the voter against the returning officer. The inconvenience of such a state of things would have been greatly aggravated had the old practice continued after the enlargement of the franchise in 1832. The establishment of a general system of registration was therefore a necessary and important part of the reform then effected. It has enabled an election in the most populous constituency to be completed in a single day. It has also been instrumental in the extinction 1 The antiquity of registration of this kind is proved by the age of the Registrum Brevium, or register of writs, called by Lord Coke " a most ancient book of the Common La\y " ,(Coke -upon -Littleton, c REGISTRATION of the " occasional voter," who formerly gave so much trouble to returning officers and election committees — the person, namely, who acquired a qualifying tenement with the view of using it for a particular election and then disposing of it. The period of qualification now required in all cases, being fixed with reference to the formation of the register, is neces- sarily so long anterior to any election which it could effect, that the purpose or intention of the voter in acquiring the qualifying tenement has ceased to be material, and is not inves- tigated. England. — The reform of parliamentary representation in 1832 was followed in 1835 by that of the constitution of municipal corporations, which included the -creation of a uniform quali- fication (now known as the old burgess qualification) for the municipal franchise. In 1888 the municipal franchise was enlarged, and was at the same time extended to the whole country for the formation of constituencies to elect county councils; and in 1894 parochial electors were called into existence for the election of parish councils and for other pur- poses. Inasmuch as provision was made for the registering of persons entitled to votes for the above purposes, there are now three registers of voters, namely, the parliamentary register, the local government register (i.e. in boroughs under the Municipal Corporation Acts, the burgess rolls, and elsewhere the county registers) and the register of parochial electors. Under the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 the registration of burgesses, though on similar lines to that of parliamentary voters, was entirely separate from it. Since, however, the qualification for the municipal franchise covered to a great extent the same ground as that for the parliamentary franchise in boroughs which sent members to parliament, a considerable number of voters in such boroughs were entitled in respect of the same tenement to be upon both parliamentary register and burgess roll. The waste of labour involved in settling their rights twice over was put an end to in 1878, when the system of parliamentary registration was extended to the boroughs in question for municipal purposes, and the lists were directed to be made out in such a shape that the portion common to the two registers could be detached and combined with the portion peculiar to each, so as to form the parliamentary register and the burgess roll respectively. This system of registration was extended to the non-parliamentary boroughs and to the whole country in 1888, the separate municipal registration being completely abolished. The procedure of parliamentary registration is to be found in its main lines in the Parliamentary Registration Act 1843, which Pro_ superseded that provided by the Reform Act of 1832, j" and has itself been considerably amended by later legis- lation. The acts applying and adapting the system to local government and parochial registration are the Parliamentary and Municipal Registration Act 1878, the County Electors Act 1888, and the Local Government Act 1894. Registration is carried out by local machinery, the common-law parish being taken as the registration unit; and the work of preparing and publishing the lists, which when revised are to form the register, is committed to the overseers. The selection of these officers was no doubt due to their position as the rating authority, and to their consequent opportunities for knowing the ownership and occupation of tene- ments within their parish. They do not always perform the duties themselves, other persons being empowered to act for them in many parishes by general or local acts of parliament ; but in all or almost all cases they are entitled to act personally if they think fit, they sign the lists, and the proceedings are conducted in their name. In order to render intelligible the following summary of the procedure, it will be necessary to divide the voters to be regis- tered into classes based on the nature of their qualification, since the practice differs in regard to each class. The classes are as follows: (i) Owners, including the old forty-shilling freeholders, and the copyholders, long leaseholders and others entitled under the Reform Act of 1832 to vote at parliamentary elections for counties; (2) occupiers, including those entitled to (a) the £10 occupation qualification, (b) the household qualification and (c) the old burgess qualification; (3) lodgers, subdivided into (a) old, i.e. those on the previous register for the same lodgings, and (6) new ; (4) those entitled to reserved rights, i.e. in addition to those (if .any stUl remain), who were entitled to votes before the Reform Act of 1832 in respect of qualifications abolished by that act, (a) free- hold and burgage tenants in Bristol, Exeter, Norwich, and Notting- ham, and (b) liverymen of the City of London and freemen of certain old cities and boroughs, whose right to the parliamentary franchise was permanently retained by the same act. In regard to these classes it may be said that the general scheme is that owners must make a claim in the first instance before they can get their names upon the register, but that, once entered on the register, the names will be retained from year to year until removed by the revising barrister; that the lists of occupiers and of freehold and burgage tenants are made out afresh every year by the over- seers from their own information and inquiries, without any act being required on the part of the voters, who need only make claims in case their names are omitted; that lodgers must make claims every year; and that liverymen and freemen are in the same posi- tion as occupiers, except that the lists of liverymen are made out by the clerks of the several companies, and those of freemen by the town clerks, the overseers having nothing to do with these voters, whose qualifications are personal and not locally connected with any parish. The overseers and other officers concerned are required to perform their duties in connexion with registration in accordance with the instructions and precepts, and to use the notices and forms pre- scribed by Order in Council from time to time. The Registration Order, 1895, directs the clerk of every county council, on or within seven days before the i;jth of April in every year, to send to the overseers of each parish in his county a precept with regard to the registration of ownership electors, and to every parish not within a parliamentary or municipal borough a precept with regard to the registration of occupation electors (which expression for this purpose includes lodgers as well as occupiers proper). The town clerk of every borough, municipal or parliamentary, is to send to the overseers of every parish in his borough a precept with regard to the registration of occupation electors. These precepts are set out in the Registration Order, and those issued by the town clerks differ according as the borough is parliamentary only, or municipal only, or both parliamentary and municipal; in the cases of Bristol, Exeter, Norwich and Nottingham they contain direc- tions as to freehold and burgage tenants. The duties of the over- seers in regard to registration are set out in detail in the precepts. Along with the precepts are forwarded forms of the various lists and notices required to be used, and with the ownership precept a certain number of copies of that portion of the parliamentary register of the county at the time in force which contains the ownership voters for the parish, the register being so printed that the portion relating to each parish can be detached. It is the duty of the overseers to publish on the 2Oth of June, in manner hereinafter described, the portion of the register so received, together with a notice to owners not already registered to send in claims by the 2oth of July. Mean- while the overseers are making the inquiries necessary for the preparation of the occupier list. For this purpose they may require returns to be furnished by owners of houses let out in separate tenements, and by employers who have servants entitled to the service franchise. The registrars of births, deaths and marriages are required to furnish the overseers with returns of deaths, as must the assessed tax collectors with returns of defaulters; the relieving officers are to give information as to recipients of parochial relief. On or before the 3ist of July the overseers are to make out and sign the lists of voters. These are the following: the list of ownership electors, consisting of the portion of the register previously published with a supplemental list of those who have sent in claims by the 2Oth of July; the occupier list; and the old lodger list, the last being formed from claims sent in by the 25th of July. The overseers do not select the names in the first and last of these lists ; they take them as supplied in the register and claims. It is, however, their duty to write dead " or " objected " in the margin against the names of persons whom they have reason to believe to be dead or not entitled to vote in respect of the qualifica- tion described. The ownership and old lodger lists will be divided into two parts, if the register contains names of owners entitled to a parochial vote only, or if claims by owners or old lodgers have been made limited to that franchise. The occupier list contains the names of persons whom the overseers believe to be qualified, and no others, and therefore will be free from marginal objections. Except in the administrative county of London, it is made out in three divisions — division I giving the names of occupiers of pro- perty qualifying for both parliamentary and local government votes, divisions 2 and 3 those of occupiers of property qualifying only for parliamentary and only for local government votes respec- tively. It happens so frequently that a tenement, if not of sufficient value to qualify for the £10 occupation franchise (parliamentary and local government), qualifies both for the household franchise (parliamentary) and for the old burgess franchise (local govern- ment), that division I would in most cases be the whole list, but for two circumstances. The service franchise is a special modification of the household franchise only; and the service occupants, being therefore restricted to the parliamentary vote, form the bulk of division 2; while peers and women, being excluded from the parliamentary vote, are consequently relegated to division 3. In the administrative county of London the local government register, being coextensive with the register of parochial electors, includes REGISTRATION 43 the whole of the parliamentary register. The occupier lists are consequently there made out in two divisions only, the names which would elsewhere appear in division 2 being placed in division I. The lists of freehold and burgage tenants in Bristol, Exeter, Norwich and Nottingham are to be made out and signed by the same date. The overseers have also to make out and sign a list of persons qualified as occupiers to be elected aldermen or councillors, but as non-residents disqualified from being on the local government register. By the same date also the clerks of the livery companies are to make out, sign and deliver to the secondary (who performs in the City of London the registration duties which elsewhere fall on the town clerk) the lists of liverymen entitled as such to the parliamentary vote; and the town clerks are to make out and sign the lists of freemen so entitled in towns where this franchise exists. On the ist of August all the above lists are to be published, the livery lists by the secondary, lists of freemen by the town clerks and the rest by the overseers. In addition the overseers may have to publish a list of persons disqualified by having been found guilty of corrupt or illegal practices; this list they will receive, when it exists, from the clerk of the county council or town clerk with the precept. Publication of lists and notices by overseers is made by affixing copies on the doors of the church and other places of worship of the parish (or, if there be none, in some public or conspicuous situation in the parish), and also, with the exception to be men- tioned, in the case of a parish wholly or partly within a municipal borough or urban district, in or near every public or municipal or parochial office and every post and telegraph office in the parish. The exception is that lists and notices relating to ownership electors need not be published at the offices mentioned when the parish is within a parliamentary borough. Publication by the secondary is made by affixing copies outside the Guildhall and Royal Exchange ; publication by town clerks is made by affixing copies outside their town hall, or, where there is none, in some public or conspicuous place in their borough. From the ist to the 2Oth of August inclusive is allowed for the sending in of claims and objections. Those whose names have been omitted from the occupier or reserved rights lists, or the non-resident list, or whose names, place of abode or particu- lars of qualification have been incorrectly stated in such lists, may send in claims to have their names registered; lodgers who are not qualified as old lodgers, or who have omitted to claim as such, may claim as new lodgers; persons whose names are on the corrupt and illegal practices list may claim to have them omitted. Any person whose name is on the list of parliamentary, local government or parochial electors for the same parliamentary county, administrative county, borough or parish, may object to names on the same lists. Notices of claim and objection in the case of liverymen and freemen are to be sent to the secondary and town clerk, and in other cases to the overseers ; and notices of objection must also in all cases be sent to the person objected to. All notices must be sent inby the 2Oth of August, and on or before the 25th of August the overseers, secondary and town clerks are to make out, sign and publish lists of the claimants and persons objected to. It remains to be added that any person on a fist of voters (i.e. on one of the lists published on the 1st of August) may make a declaration before a magistrate or commissioner for oaths correcting the entry relating to him. In the case of ownership electors the correction can only deal with the place of abode ; in the case of other lists it extends to all particulars stated, and is useful inasmuch as it enables the revising barrister to make corrections as to the qualification which he could not make in the absence of a declaration. The declarations must be delivered to the clerk of the county council or town clerk on or before the 5th of September. The next stage is the revision of the lists. For this purpose revising barristers are appointed yearly. The period within which revision courts can be held is from the 8th of September Revising to tne J2J.JJ 0{ October, both days inclusive. The clerk of the county council attends the first court held for each ers' parliamentary division of his county, and the town clerk the first court held for his city or borough; and they respectively produce all lists, notices and declarations in their custody, and answer any questions put to them by the revising barrister. The overseers also attend the courts held for their parish, produce the rate books, original notices of claim and objection, &c., and answer questions. The claimants, objectors and persons objected to appear personally or by representative to support their several conten- • tions. Any person qualified to be an objector may also appear to oppose any claims, upon giving notice to the barrister before such claims are reached. The powers of the revising barristers are as follows: As regards persons whose names are on the lists of voters published on the ist of August, he is to expunge the names, whether objected to or not, of those who are dead or subject to personal in- capacity, such as infants and aliens, and for parliamentary purposes peers and women. If an entry is imperfect, the name must be removed, unless the particulars necessary for completing it are supplied to the barrister. All names marginally objected to by over- seers must be expunged, unless the voters prove to the barrister that they ought to be retained. Objections made by other objectors must be supported by prima facie proof, and if this is not rebutted the name is struck out. Claimants must be ready to support their claims. The declaration attached to a lodger claim is indeed prima facie proof of the Tacts stated in it, but other claimants require evidence to make out even a prima facie case, and if they fail to produce it their claims will be disallowed. The barrister is required to correct errors in the lists of voters, and has a discretion to rectify mistakes in claims and objections upon evidence produced to him, although his power in this respect is limited. Lastly, the barrister has to deal with duplicates, as a voter is entitled to be on the register once, but not more than once, as a parliamentary voter for each parliamentary county or borough, as a burgess for each municipal borough, as a county elector for each electoral division, and as a parochial elector for each parish in which he holds a qualification. Consequently, he deals with duplicate entries by expunging or trans- ferring them to separate parochial lists. The decision of the re- vising barrister is final and conclusive on all questions of fact ; but an appeal lies from him on questions of law at the instance of any person aggrieved by the removal of his name from a list of voters, by the rejection of his claim or objection or by the allowance of a claim which he has opposed. Notice of the intention to appeal must be given to the barrister in writing on the day when his decision is given. The barrister may refuse to state a case for appeal; but if he does so without due cause he may be ordered by the High Court to state a case. The appeal is heard by a divisional court, from whose decision an appeal lies (by leave either of the divisional court or of the court of appeal) to the court of appeal, whose decision is final. On the completion of the revision the barrister hands the county and borough lists (every page signed and every alteration initialled by him) to the clerk of the county council and the town clerk re- spectively, to be printed. With the following exceptions the revised lists are to be made up and printed by the 2Oth of December, and come into force as the register for all purposes on the ist of January. In the boroughs created by the London Government Act 1899, the whole register is to be made up and printed by the 2Oth of October, and to come into force for the purpose of borough elections under the act on the 1st of November. In boroughs subject to the Muni- cipal Corporations Acts, divisions I and 3 of the occupiers' list are to be made up and printed by the 2Oth of October, and come into force for the purpose of municipal and county council elections on the ist of November. Corrections ordered in consequence of a successful appeal from a revising barrister are to be made by the officers having the custody of the registers, but a pending appeal does not affect any right of voting. The register in its final form will consist of the lists published on the 1st of August as corrected, with the claims which have been allowed on revision incorporated with them. It is printed in such form that each list and each division of a list for every parish can be separated from the rest for the purpose of making up the parliamentary, local government and parochial registers respectively. The alphabetical order is followed, except in London and some other large towns, where street order is adopted for all except the ownership lists and lists of liverymen and freemen. The parliamentary register for a parliamentary county will consist of the ownership lists for all parishes in the county, and of the lodger lists and divisions I and 2 of the occupier lists for parishes within the county and not within a parliamentary borough. The parliamentary register for a parliamentary borough will consist of the lodger lists, of the lists of freehold and burgage tenants (if any), and of divisions I and 2 of the occupier lists for all parishes within the borough, and also of the borough lists (if any) of liverymen or freemen. The local government register for an administrative county will consist of divisions I and 3 of the occupier lists for all parishes in the county, and the burgess roll for a municipal borough of divisions I and 3 of the occupier lists for all parishes in the borough. It will be seen, therefore, that, except in county boroughs, the burgess roll is also a part of the local government register of the administrative county within which the borough is situate. The register of parochial electors consists of the complete set of lists for each parish; but this does not include the lists of liverymen and freemen, which, as has been stated, are not parish lists. No one whose name is not on the register can vote at an election. The fact that a man's name is on the register is now so far con- clusive of his right that the returning officer is bound to receive his vote. Only two questions may be asked of him when he tenders his vote, namely, whether he is the person whose name is on the register, and whether he has voted before at the election. The Reform Act 1832 allowed him to be asked at parliamentary elections whether he retained the qualification for which he had been registered; but the Registration Act 1843 disallowed the question, and made the register conclusive as to the retention of the qualification. When, however, a petition is presented against an election, the register, although conclusive as to the retention of the qualification, does not prevent the court from inquiring into the existence of personal incapacities, arising in connexion with the election or otherwise, and striking off on scrutiny the votes of persons subject thereto, e.g. aliens, infants, or in parliamen- tary elections peers, &c. The City of London is not within the Municipal Corporations Acts, and is not subject to the general registration law in the formation of its roll of citizens for municipal purposes. But a register of parliamentary, county and parochial electors is made in 44 REGIUM the "ordinary way.' The universities are also exempt from the general law of registration. At Oxford and Cambridge the members of Convocation and the Senate respectively have always formed the parliamentary constituencies; and, as has been already stated, the registers of those members were before 1832, and still are, the parliamentary registers. Similarly, the Reform Act of 1867, which gave parliamentary representation to the university of London, simply enacted that the register of graduates constituting the Convocation should be the parliamentary register of that body. Scotland. — In Scotland the qualifications for local government and parish electors are the same as those for parliamentary voters, the only difference in the registers being in respect of personal incapacities for the parliamentary franchise, incapacity for the other franchises by reason of non-payment of rates, and duplicates. The principal act regulating registration in burghs is 19 & 20 Viet, c. 58, amended in some particulars as to dates by 31 & 32 Viet. c. 48, § 20. County registration, formerly regulated by 24 & 25 Viet. c. 83, has been assimilated to burgh registration by 48 & 49 Viet. c. 3, § 8 (6). The procedure consists, as in England, of the making and publication of lists of voters, the making of claims and objections and the holding of revision courts; but there are im- portant differences of detail. Though the parish is the registration unit, parochial machinery is not used for the formation of the register. The parliamentary lists for a county are made up yearly by one or more of the assessors of the county, and those for a burgh by one or more of the assessors for the burgh, or by the clerk of the commissioners. They are published on the 1 5th of September; and claims and objections must be sent in by the 2 1st and are published on the 25th of the same month. Publication is made in burghs by posting on or near the town hall, or in some other conspicuous place, in counties by posting the part relating to each parish on the parish church door, and in both cases giving notice by newspaper advertisement of a place where the lists may be perused. The revision is conducted by the sheriff, the time within which bis courts may be held being from the 25th of September to the i6th of October, both days inclusive. An appeal lies to three 1'udges of the Court of Session, one taken from each division of the nner House, and one from the Lords Ordinary of the Outer House. The revised lists are delivered in counties to the sheriff clerk, in burghs to the town clerk, or person to whom the registration duties of town clerk are assigned. The register comes into force for all purposes on the 1st of November. The municipal register of a royal burgh which is coextensive, or of that part of a royal burgh which is coextensive with a parlia- mentary burgh, consists of the parliamentary register with a supple- mental list of women who but for their sex would be qualified for the parliamentary vote. The municipal register for a burgh, or for that part of one which is not within a parliamentary burgh, consists of persons possessed of qualifications within the burgh which, if within a parliamentary burgh, would entitle them, or but for their sex would entitle them, to the parliamentary vote. The register of county electors consists of the parliamentary register for a county with the supplemental list hereafter mentioned; but inasmuch as exemption from or 'failure to pay the consolidated county rate is a disqualification for the county electors' franchise, the names of persons so disqualified are to be marked with a dis- tinctive mark on the register; as are also the names of persons whose qualifications are situated within a burgh, such marks indi- cating that the persons to whose names they are attached are not entitled to vote as county electors. Every third year, in prepara- tion for the triennial elections of county and parish councils (casual vacancies being filled up by co-optation), a supplemental list is to be made of peers and women possessed of qualifications which but for their rank and sex would entitle them to parlia- mentary votes. The register of county electors in a county and the municipal register in a burgh form the registers of parish electors for the parishes comprised in each respectively. Inasmuch, how- ever, as a man is entitled to be registered as a parish elector in every parish where he is qualified, duplicate entries are, when required, to be made in the register, with distinctive marks to all but one, to indicate that they confer the parish vote only. These dis- tinctive marks and those previously mentioned are to be made in the lists by the assessors, subject to revision by the sheriff. The register is conclusive to the same extent as in England, except that the vote of a parish elector who is one year in arrear in payment of a parish rate is not to be received. The clerk of the parish council is_to furnish the returning o_fficer one week before an election with the names of persons so in arrear; and the returning officer is to reject their votes except upon the production of a written receipt. Provision is made by 31 & 32 Viet. c. 48, §§ 27-41, for the formation of registers of parliamentary electors for the universities. The register for each university is to be made annually by the university registrar, with the assistance of two members of. the council, from whose decisions an appeal lies to the university court. Ireland. — There are no parish councils in Ireland, and no par- ochial electors. There are therefore but two registers of voters, the parliamentary and the local government registers, the latter of which consists of the former with a local government supplement containing the names of those excluded from the parliamentary register by reason of their being peers or women, and duplicate entries relating to those whose names are registered elsewhere for the same parliamentary constituency. The principal acts regula- ting registration are 13 & 14 Viet. c. 69, 31 & 32 Viet. c. 1 12, 48 & 49 Viet. c. 17, and 61 & 62 Viet. c. 2. The lord lieutenant is empowered to make by Order in Council rules for registration, and to prescribe forms; and under this power has made the Regis- tration (Ireland) Rules 1899, now in force. The registration unit is not the parish, but the district electoral division, except where such division is subdivided into wards, or is partly within and partly without any town or ward of a borough or town, in which cases each ward of the division or part of a division is a separate registration unit. The procedure is as follows, subject to variation in cases where there are clerks of unions who held office on the 3ist of March 1898, and have not agreed to transfer their registration duties. The clerk of the peace sends out on the 1st of June a precept in the form prescribed for county registration to the secretary of the county council and clerks of urban district councils, together with a copy of the existing register for their county or district; and a precept in the form prescribed for borough registration to town clerks of boroughs. As regards registration units not in a parliamentary or municipal borough, the secretary of the county council or clerk of the urban district council is to put marginal objections, " dead " or " objected," where required, to £10 occupiers and householders in the copy of the register, both in the parliamentary list and in the local government supplement. He is also to make out supple- mental parliamentary and local government lists of £10 occupiers and householders not on the existing register, and to put marginal objections where required to these. He is to verify on oath before a magistrate the copy of the register and supplemental lists, and to return them to the clerk of the peace by the 8th of July. As regards registration units in a parliamentary borough, but outside a municipal borough, the secretary of the county council or clerk of the urban district council is to make out lists of £10 occupiers and householders with local government supplement, and transmit them to the town clerk of the municipal borough or town. The clerk of the peace is to publish the copy of the register, after himself placing marginal objections where required to voters other than £10 occupiers and householders, and the supplemental lists as re- ceived, and also the corrupt and illegal practices list, if any, on the 22nd of July. On the same day the town clerk will publish the lists received as aforesaid for registration units outside the muni- cipal borough, and the lists, which he will have made out himself for the municipal borough, including the freemen's list and corrupt and illegal practices list. Freemen being entitled to the local government vote will, if resident, be placed on the list of the regis- tration unit where they reside, and will, if non-resident, be allotted by the revising barrister among the registration units of the borough for local government purposes in proportion to the number of electors in each registration unit. Claims are to be sent in to the clerk of the peace and town clerk by the 4th of August, including old lodger claims and, in the case of the clerk of the peace, owner- ship claims. Lists of claimants with marginal objections, where required, are to be published by the clerk of the peace and town clerk by the nth of August. Notices of objection to voters or claimants may be given by the 2Oth of August ; and lists of persons objected to are to be published by the clerk of the peace and town clerk by the 24th of the same month. Publication of lists and notices by a clerk of the peace is made by posting copies of those relating to each registration unit outside every court-house, petty sessions court, and other public offices in the unit; publication by a town clerk is made by posting copies outside the town hall, or, if there be none, in some public and conspicuous place in the borough. Revising barristers are specially appointed for the county and city of Dublin by the lord lieutenant; elsewhere the county court judges and chairmen of quarter sessions act as such ex officio, assisted, when necessary, by additional barristers appointed by the lord lieutenant. The time for the holding of revision courts is from the 8th of September to the 25th of October inclusive. An appeal lies to the court of appeal, whose decision is final. The revised lists are handed to the clerk of the peace; they are to be made up by him by the 3ist of December, and come into force on the 1st of January. The registrar of the university of Dublin is to make out in December a list of the persons entitled to the parliamentary vote for the university, and to print the same in January, and to publish a copy in the university calendar, or in one or more public journals circulating in Ireland. He is to revise the list annually, and ex- punge the names of those dead or disqualified; but an elector whose name has been expunged because he was supposed to be dead is entitled, if alive, to have his name immediately restored and to vote at any election. (L. L. S.) REGIUM (Gr. 'Priyiov. in Latin the aspirate is omitted) , a city of the territory of the Bruttii in South Italy, on the east side of the strait between Italy and Sicily (Strait of Messina). REGIUM DONUM— REGNARD 45 A colony, mainly of Chalcidians, partly of Messenians from the Peloponnesus, settled at Regium in the 8th century B.C. About 494 B.C. Anaxilas, a member of the Messenian party, made him- self master of Regium (apparently — from numismatic evidence, for the coins assignable to this period are modelled on Samian types — with the help of the Samians: see MESSINA) and about 488 joined with them in occupying Zancle (Messina). Here they remained. (See C. H. Dodd in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xxviii. (1908) 56 sqq.) This coinage was resumed after the establishment of the democracy about 461 B.C., when Anaxilas' sons were driven out. In 433 Regium made a treaty with Athens, and in 427 joined the Athenians against Syracuse, but in 415 it remained neutral. An attack which it made on Dionysius I. of Syracuse in 399 was the beginning of a great struggle which in 387 resulted in its complete destruction and the dispersion of its inhabitants as slaves. Restored by the younger Dionysius under the name of Phoebias, the colony soon recovered its prosperity and resumed its original designation. In 280, when Pyrrhus invaded Italy, the Regines admitted within their walls a Roman garrison of Campanian troops; these mercenaries revolted, massacred the male citizens, and held the city till in 270 they were besieged and put to death by the Roman consul Genucius. The city remained faithful to Rome throughout the Punic wars, and Hannibal never succeeded in taking it. Up till the Social War it struck coins of its own, with Greek legends. Though one of the cities promised by the triumvirs to the veterans, Regium escaped through the favour of Octavius (hence it took the name Regium Julium). It continued, however, to be a Greek city even under the Empire, and never became a colony. Towards the end of the Empire it was made the chief city of the Bruttii. Of ancient buildings hardly anything remains at Regium, and nothing of the archaic Greek period is in situ, except possibly the remains of a temple of Artemis Phacelitis, which have not yet been explored, though various inscriptions relative to it have been found. The museum, however, contains a number of terra-cottas, vases, inscriptions, &c., and a number of Byzantine lead seals. Several baths of the Greek period, modified by the Romans, have been found, and the remains of one of these may still be seen. A large mosaic of the 3rd or 4th century A.D. with representations of wild animals and the figure of a warrior in the centre was found in 1904 and covered up again. The aqueduct and various cisterns connected with it have been traced, and some tombs of the 5th or 4th century B.C. (or even later) were found in 1907. See Noli-ie degli scavi, passim; P. Larizza, Rhegium Chalcidense (Rome, 1905). (T As ) REGIUM DONUM, or ROYAL GIFT, an annual grant formerly made from the public funds to Presbyterian and other Non- conformist ministers in Great Britain and Ireland. It dates from the reign of Charles II., who, according to Bishop Burnet, after the declaration of indulgence of 1672 ordered sums of money to be paid to Presbyterian ministers. These gifts or pensions were soon discontinued, but in 1690 William III. made a grant of £i 200 a year to the Presbyterian ministers in Ireland as a reward for their services during his struggle with James II. Owing to the opposition of the Irish House of Lords the money was not paid in 1711 and some subsequent years, but it was revived in 1715 by George I., who increased the amount to £2000 a year. Further additions were made in 1784 and in 1792, and in 1868 the sum granted to the Irish Presbyterian ministers was £45,000. The Regium Donum was withdrawn by the act of 1869 which disestablished the Irish church. Pro- vision was made, however, for existing interests therein, and many Presbyterian ministers commuted these on the same terms as the clergy of the church of Ireland. In England the Regium Donum proper dates from 1721, when Dr Edmund Calamy (1671-1732) received £500 from the royal bounty " for the use and behalf of the poor widows of dissenting ministers." Afterwards this sum was increased to £1000 and was made an annual payment " for the assisting either ministers or their widows," and later it amounted to £1695 per annum. It was given to distributors who represented the three denomina- tions, Presbyterians, Baptists and Independents, enjoying the grant. Among the Nonconformists themselves, however, or at least among the Baptists and the Independents, there was some objection to this form of state aid, and in 1851 the chancellor of the exchequer announced that it would be withdrawn. This was done six years later. See J. Stoughton, History of Religion in England (1901) ; J. S. Reid, History of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland (Belfast, 1867) ; and E. Calamy, Historical Account of my own Life, edited by J. T. Rutt (1829-30). REGLA, formerly an important suburb of Havana, Cuba, opposite that city, on the bay; now a part of Havana. Pop. (1899) 11,363. It was formerly the scene of the Havana bull- fights. The church is one of the best in Cuba; the building dates substantially from 1805, but the church settlement goes back to a hermitage established in 1690. Regla is the shipping- point of the Havana sugar trade. It has enormous sugar and tobacco warehouses, fine wharves, a dry dock, foundries and an electric railway plant. It is the western terminus of the eastern line of the United Railways of Havana, and is connected with the main city of Havana by ferry. A fishing village was estab- lished here about 1733. At the end of the i8th century Regla was a principal centre of the smuggling trade, and about 1820 was notorious as a resort of pirates. It first secured an ayuntamiento (city council) in 1872, and after 1899 was annexed to Havana. REGNARD, JEAN FRANCOIS (1655-1709), French comic dramatist, was born in Paris on the 7th of February 1655. His father, a rich shopkeeper, died when Regnard was about twenty, leaving him master of a considerable fortune. He set off at once for Italy, and, after a series of romantic adventures, he journeyed by Holland, Denmark and Sweden to Lapland, and thence by Poland, Turkey, Hungary and Germany back to France. He returned to Paris at the end of 1683, and bought the place of treasurer of France in the Paris district; he had a house at Paris in the Rue Richelieu; and he acquired the small estate of Grillon near Dourdan in the department of Seine-et-Oise, where he hunted, feasted and wrote comedies. This latter amusement he began in 1688 with a piece called Le Divorce, which was performed at the Theatre Italien. In four slight pieces of the same nature he collaborated with Charles Riviere Dufresny. He gained access to the Theatre Francais on the 1 9th of May 1694 with a piece called Attendez-moi sous I'orme, and two years later, on the I9th of December 1696, he produced there the masterly comedy of Le Joueur. The idea of the play was evolved in collaboration with Dufresny, but the authors disagreed in carrying it out. Finally they each produced a comedy on the subject, Dufresny in prose, and Regnard in verse. Each accused the other of plagiarism. The plot of Regnard's piece turns on the love of two sisters for Valere, the gambler, who loves one and pretends to love the other, really deceiving them both, because there is no room for any other passion in his character except the love of play. Other of his plays were La Serenade (1694), Le Bourgeois de Falaise (1696), Le Distrait (1697), DSmocrite (1700), Le Retour imprevu (1700), Les Folies amoureuses (1704), Les Menechmes (1705), a clever following of Plautus, and his masterpiece, Le Lfgataire universel (1708). Regnard's death on the 4th of September 1709 renews the doubtful and romantic circumstances of his earlier life. Some hint at poison, but the truth seems to be that his death was hastened by the rate at which he lived. Besides the plays noticed above and others, Regnard wrote miscellaneous poems, the autobiographical romance of La Provenyde, and several short accounts in prose of his travels, published pos- thumously under the title of Voyages. Regnard had written a reply to the tenth satire of Boileau, Contre les femmes, and Boileau had retorted by putting Regnard among the poets depreciated in his epistle Sur mes vers. After the appearance of Le Joueur the poet altered his opinion and cut out the allusion. The saying attributed to Boileau when some one, thinking to curry favour, remarked that Regnard was only a mediocre poet, " // n'est pas mediocrement gai," is both true and very appropriate. His French style, especially in his purely prose works, is not considered faultless. He is often un- original in his plots, and, whether Dufresny was or was not justified in his complaint about Le Joueur, it seems likely that Regnard owed not a little to him and to others; but he had a thorough grasp of 46 REGNAULT, H.— REGNAULT DE SAINT JEAN D'ANGELY comic situation and incident, and a most amusing faculty of dia- logue. The first edition of Regnard's works was published in 1731 (5 vols., Rouen and Paris). There is a good selection of almost every- thing important in the Collection Didot (4 vols., 1819), but there is no absolutely complete edition. The best is that published by Crapelet (6 vols., Paris, 1822). A selection by L. Moland appeared in 1893. See also a Bibliographic et iconographie des ceuvres de J. F. Regnard (Paris, Rouquette, 1878); Le Poete J. F. Regnard en son chasteau de Grillon, by J. Guyot (Paris, 1907). REGNAULT, HENRI (1843-1871), French painter, born at Paris on the 3ist October 1843, was the son of Henri Victor Regnault (pi]v, the midriff), or the place where the kidneys are situated, hence the loins, also, figuratively, the seat of the emotions or affections, must be distinguished. REINACH, JOSEPH (1856- ), French author and politician, was born in Paris on the soth of September 1856. After leaving the Lycee Condorcet he studied for the bar, being called in 1887. He attracted the attention of Gambetta by articles on Balkan politics published in the Revue bleue, and joined the staff of the Republique franQaise. In Gambetta's grand ministere M. Reinach was his secretary, and drew up the case for a partial revision of the constitution and for the electoral method known as the scrutin de lisle. In the Republique franc,aise he waged a steady war against General Boulanger which brought him three duels, one with Edmond Magnier and two with Paul Deroulede. Between 1889 and 1898 he sat for the Chamber of Deputies for Digne. As member of the army commission, reporter of the budgets of the ministries of the interior and of agriculture he brought forward bills for the better treatment of the insane, for the establishment of a colonial ministry, for the taxation of alcohol, and for the repara- tion of judicial errors. He advocated complete freedom of the theatre and the press, the abolition of public executions, and denounced political corruption of all kinds. He was indirectly implicated in the Panama scandals through his father-in-law, Baron de Reinach, though he made restitution as soon as he learned that he was benefiting by fraud. But he is best known as the champion of Captain Dreyfus. At the time of the original trial he attempted to secure a public hearing of the case, and in 1897 he allied himself with Scheurer-Kestner to demand its revision. He denounced in the Siecle the Henry forgery, and Esterhazy's complicity. His articles in the Siecle aroused the fury of the anti-Dreyfusard party, especially as he was himself a Jew and therefore open to the charge of having undertaken to defend the innocence of Dreyfus on racial grounds. He lost his seat in the Chamber of Deputies, and, having refused to fight Henri Rochefort, eventually brought an action for libel against him. Finally, the " affaire " being terminated and Dreyfus pardoned, he undertook to write the history of the case, the first four volumes of which appeared in 1901. This was completed in 1905. In 1906 M. Reinach was re-elected for Digne. In that year he became member of the commission of the national archives, and next year of the council on prisons. Reinach was a voluminous writer on political subjects. On Gambetta he published three volumes in 1884, and he also edited his speeches. For the criticisms of the anti-Dreyfusard press see Henri Dutrait-Croyon, Joseph Reinach, historien (Paris, 1905), a violent criticism in detail of Reinach's history of the " affaire." His brother, the well-known savant, SALOMON REINACH (1858- ), born at St Germain-en-Laye on the 2gth of August 1858, was educated at the Ecole normale superieure, and joined the French school at Athens in 1879. He made valuable archaeological discoveries at Myrina near Smyrna in 1880-82, at Cyme in 1881, at Thasos, Imbros and Lesbos (1882), at Carthage and Meninx (1883-84), at Odessa (1893) and else- where. He received honours from the chief learned societies of Europe, and in 1886 received an appointment at the National Museum of Antiquities at St Germain; in 1893 he became assistant keeper, and in 1902 keeper of the national museums. In 1903 he became joint editor of the Revue archeologique, and in the same year officer of the Legion of Honour. The lectures he delivered on art at the Ecole du Louvre in 1902-3 were pub- lished by him under the title of Apollo. This book has been translated into most European languages, and is one of the most compact handbooks of the subject. His first published work was a translation of Schopenhauer's Essay on Free Will (1877), which passed through many editions. This was followed by many works and articles in the learned re- views of which a list — up to 1903 — is available in Bibliographic de S. R. (Angers, 1003). His Manuel de philologie classique (1880- 1884) was crowned by the French association for the study of Greek; his Grammaire latine (1886) received a prize from the Society of Secondary Education; La Necropole de Myrina (1887), written with E. Pottier, and Antiquites nationales were crowned by the Academy of Inscriptions. He compiled an important Re- pertoire de la statuaire grecque et romaine (3 vols., 1897-98); also Repertoire de peintures du ntoyen age et de la Renaissance 1280-1580 (1905, &c.); Repertoire des vases feints grecs et etrusques (190°)- In 1905 he began his Cultes, mythes et religions; and in 1009 he published a general sketch of the history of religions under the title of Orpheus. He also translated from the English H. C. Lea's History of the Inquisition. A younger brother, THEODORE REINACH (1860- ), also had a brilliant career as a scholar. He pleaded at the Parisian bar in 1881-86, but eventually gave himself up to the study of numismatics. He wrote important works on the ancient kingdoms of Asia Minor — Trois royaumes de I'Asie Mineure, Cappadoce, Bithynie, Pont (1888), Mithridate Eupator (1890); also a critical edition and translation with H. Weil of Plutarch's Treatise on Music; and an Histoire des Israelites depuis la ruine de lew independance nalionale jusqu'a nos jours (2nd ed., 1901). From 1888 to 1897 he edited the Revue des etudes grecques. REINAUD, JOSEPH TOUSSAINT (1793-1867), French orien- talist, was born on the 4th of December 1795 at Lambesc, Bouches du Rhone. He came to Paris in 1815, and became a pupil of Silvestre de Sacy. In 1818-19 ne was at Rome as an attache to the French minister, and studied under the Maronites of the Propaganda, but gave special attention to Mahommedan coins. In 1824 he entered the department of oriental MSS. in the Royal Library at Paris, and in 1838, on the death of De Sacy, he succeeded to his chair in the: school of living oriental languages. In 1847 he became president of the Societe Asiatique, and in 1858 conservator of oriental MSS. in the Imperial Library. His first important work was his classical description of the collections of the due de Blacas (1828). To history he contributed an essay on the Arab in- vasions of France, Savoy, Piedmont and Switzerland (1836), and various collections for the period of the crusades; he edited (1840) and in part translated (1848) the geography of Abulfeda; to him too is due a useful edition of the very curious records of early Arab intercourse with China of which Eusebe Renaudot had given but an imperfect translation (Re- lation des voyages, &c., 1845), and various other essays illus- trating the ancient and medieval geography of the East. Reinaud died in Paris on the I4th of May 1867. REINDEER, in its strict sense the title of a European deer distinguished from all other members of the family Cervidae (see DEER), save those of the same genus, by the presence of antlers in both sexes; but, in the wider sense, including Asiatic and North American deer of the same general type, the latter of which are locally designated caribou. Reindeer, or caribou, constitute the genus -Rangifer, and are large clumsily built deer, inhabiting the sub- Arctic and Arctic regions of both hemispheres. As regards their distinctive features, the antlers are of a complex type and situated close to the occipital ridge of the skull, and thus far away from the sockets of the eyes, with the brow-tines in adult males palmated, laterally compressed, deflected towards the middle of the face, and often unsymmetrically developed. Above the brow-tine is developed a second palmated tine, REINECKE— REINHOLD which appears to represent the bez-tine of the red-deer; there is no trez-tine, but some distance above the bez the beam is suddenly bent forward to form an " elbow," on the posterior side of which is usually a short back-tine; above the back-tine the beam is continued for some distance to terminate in a*large expansion or palmation. The antlers of females are simple and generally smaller. The muzzle is entirely hairy; the ears and tail are short; and the throat is maned. The coat is unspotted at all ages, with a whitish area in the region of the tail. The main hoofs are short and rounded and the lateral hoofs very large. There is a tarsal, but no metatarsal gland and tuft. In the skull the gland-pit is shallow, and the vacuity of moderate size; the nasal bones are well developed, and much expanded at the upper end. Upper canines are wanting; the cheek-teeth are small and low-crowned, with the third lobe of the last molar in the lower jaw minute. The lateral metacarpal bones are represented only by their lower extremities; the importance of this feature being noticed in the article DEER. In spite of the existence of a number of more or less well-marked geographical forms, reindeer from all parts of the northern hemi- sphere present such a marked similarity that it seems preferable to regard them as all belonging to a single widespread species, of which most of the characters will be the same as those of the genus. American naturalists, however, generally regard these as distinct species. The coat is remarkable for its density and compactness; the general colour of the head and upper parts being clove-brown, with more or less white or whitish grey on the under parts and inner surfaces of the limbs, while there is also some white above the hoofs and on the muzzle, and there may be whitish rings round the eyes; there is a white area in the region of the tail, which includes the sides but not the upper surface of the latter ; and the tarsal tuft is gener- ally white. The antlers are smooth, and brownish white in colour, but the hoofs jet black. Albino varieties occasionally occur in the wild state. A height of 4 ft. 10 in. at the shoulder has been re- corded in the case o4 one race. The wild Scandinavian reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) may be re- garded as the typical form of the species. It is a smaller animal than the American woodland race, with antlers approximating to those of the barren-ground race, but less elongated, and with a distinct back-tine in the male, the brow-tines moderately palmated and frequently nearly symmetrical, and the bez-tine not exces- sively expanded. Female antlers are generally much smaller than those of males, although occasionally as large, but with much fewer points. The antlers make their appearance at an unusually early age. Mr Madison Grant considers that American reindeer, or caribou, may be grouped under two types, one represented by the barren- ground caribou R. tarandus arctir.us, which is a small animal with immense antlers characterized by the length of the beam, and the consequent wide separation of the terminal palmation from the brow-tine; and the other by the woodland-caribou (R. t. caribou), which is a larger animal with shorter and more massive antlers, in which the great terminal expansions are in approximation to the brow-tine owing to the shortness of the beam. Up to 1902 seven other American races had been described, four of which are grouped by Grant with the first and three with the second type. Some of these forms are, however, more or less intermediate between the two main types, as is a pair of antlers from Novaia Zemlia described by the present writer as R. t. pearsoni. The Scandinavian reindeer is identified by Mr Grant with the barren-ground type. Reindeer are domesticated by the Lapps and other nationalities of northern Europe and Asia, to whom these animals are all-im- portant. Domesticated reindeer have also been introduced into Alaska. See Madison Grant, " The Caribou," ?th Annual Report, New York Zoological Society (1902); J. G. Millais, Newfoundland and its Untrodden Ways (1908). (R. L.*) REINECKE, CARL HEINRICH CARSTEN (1824-1910), German composer and pianist, was born at Altona on the 23rd of June 1824; his father, Peter Reinecke (who was also his teacher), being an accomplished musician. At the age of eleven he made his first appearance as a pianist, and when scarcely eighteen he went on a successful tour through Denmark and Sweden. After a stay in Leipzig, where he studied under Mendelssohn and under Schumann, Reinecke went on tour with Konigslow and Wasielewski, Schumann's biographer, in North Germany and Denmark. From 1846 to 1848 Reinecke was court pianist to Christian VIII. of Denmark. After resigning this post he went first to Paris, and next to Cologne, as professor in the Con- servatorium. From 1854 to 1859 he was music director at Barmen, in the latter year filling this post at Breslau University; in 1860 he became conductor of the famous Leipzig Gewandhaus, a post which (together with that of professor at the Conserva- torium) he held with honour and distinction for thirty-five years. He finally retired into private life in 1902 and died in March 1910. During this time Reinecke continually made concert tours to England and elsewhere. His pianoforte playing belonged to a school now almost extinct. Grace and neatness were its characteristics, and at one time Reinecke was probably unrivalled as a Mozart player and an accompanist. His grand opera Konig Manfred, and the comic opera Auf hohen Befehl, were at one time frequently played in Germany; and his cantata Hakon Jarl is melodiously beautiful, as are many of his songs; while his Friedensfeier overture was once quite hack- neyed. By far his most valuable works are those written for educational purposes. His sonatinas, his " Kinder- garten " and much that he has ably edited will keep his name alive. REINHART, CHARLES STANLEY (1844-1896), American painter and illustrator, was born at Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, and after having been employed in railway work and at a steel factory, studied art in Paris and at the Munich Academy under Straehuber and Otto. He afterwards settled in New York, but spent the years 1882-1886 in Paris. He was a regular exhibitor at the National Academy in New York, and contri- buted illustrations in black and white and in colours to the leading American periodicals. He died in 1896. Among his best-known pictures are: " Reconnoitring," " Caught Napping," " September Morning," " Mussel Fisherwoman," " At the Ferry," " Normandy Coast," " Gathering Wood," " The Old Life Boat," " Sunday," and " English Garden "; but it is as an illustrator that he is best known. REINHART, JOACHIM CHRISTIAN (1761-1847), German painter and etcher, was born at Hof in Bavaria in 1761, and studied under Oeser at Leipzig and under Klingel at Dresden. In 1789 he went to Rome, where he became a follower of the classicist German painters Carstens and Koch. He devoted himself more particularly to landscape painting and to aquatint engraving. Examples of his landscapes are to be found at most of the important German galleries, notably at Frankfort, Munich, Leipzig and Gotha. In Rome he executed a series of landscape frescoes for the Villa Massimi. He died in Rome in 1847. REINHOLD, KARL LEONHARD (1758-1823), German philosopher, was born at Vienna. At the age of fourteen he entered the Jesuit college of St Anna, on the dissolution of which (1774) he joined a similar college of the order of St Barnabas. Finding himself out of sympathy with monastic life, he fled in 1783 to North Germany, and settled in Weimar, where he became Wieland's collaborates on the German Mercury, and eventually his son-in-law. In the German Mercury he published, in the years 1786-87, his Briefe iiber die Kantische Philosophie, which were most important in making Kant known to a wider circle of readers. As a result of the Letters, Reinhold received a call to the university of Jena, where he taught from 1787 to 1794. In 1789 he published his chief work, the Versuch einer neuen Theorie des menschlichen Vorstellungsvermogens, in which he attempted to simplify the Kantian theory and make it more of a unity. In 1794 he accepted a call to Kiel, where he taught till his death in 1823, but his independent activity was at an end. In later life he was powerfully influenced by Fichte, and subsequently, on grounds of religious feeling, by Jacobi and Bardili. His historical importance belongs entirely to his earlier activity. The development of the Kantian standpoint contained in the " New Theory of Human Understanding " (1789), and in the Fundament des philosophischen Wissens (1791), was called by its author Elementarphilosophie. . " Reinhold lays greater emphasis than Kant upon the unity and activity of consciousness. The principle of consciousness tells us that every idea is related both to an object and a subject, and is partly to be distinguished, partly united to both. Since form cannot produce matter nor subject object, we are forced to assume a thing-in-itself. But this is a notion which is self-contradictory if consciousness be essentially a relating activity. There is there- REINKENS— REISKE 57 fore something which must bethought and yet cannot be thought" (Hoffding, History of Modern Philosophy, Eng. trans., vol. ii.). See R. Keil, Wieland und Reinhold (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1890); J. E. Erdmann, Grundriss der Geschichle der Philosophic (Berlin, 1866); histories of philosophy by R. Folckenberg and W. Windel- band. REINKENS, JOSEPH HUBERT (1821-1896), German Old Catholic bishop, was born at Burtscheid, near Aix-la-Chapelle, on the ist of March 1821, his father being a gardener. In 1836, on the death of his mother, he took to manual work in order to support his numerous brothers and sisters, but in 1840 he was able to go to the gymnasium at Aix, and he after- wards studied theology at the universities of Bonn and Munich. He was ordained priest in 1848, and in 1849 graduated as doctor in theology. He was soon appointed professor of ecclesi- astical history at Breslau, and in 1865 he was made rector of the university. During this period he wrote, among other treatises, monographs on Clement of Alexandria, Hilary of Poitiers and Martin of Tours. In consequence of an essay on art, especially in tragedy, after Aristotle, he was made doctor in philosophy in the university of Leipzig. When, in 1870, the question of papal infallibility was raised, Reinkens attached himself to the party opposed to the proclamation of the dogma. He wrote several pamphlets on church tradition relative to infallibility and on the procedure of the Council. When the dogma of infallibility was proclaimed, Reinkens joined the band of influential theologians, headed by Dollinger, who resolved to organize resistance to the decree. He was one of those who signed the Declaration of Nuremberg in 1871, and at the Bonn conferences with Orientals and Anglicans in 1874 and 1875 he was conspicuous. The Old Catholics having decided to separate themselves from the Church of Rome, Reinkens was chosen their bishop in Germany at an enthusiastic meeting at Cologne in 1873 (see OLD CATHOLICS). On the nth of August of that year he was consecrated by Dr Heykamp, bishop of Deventer. Reinkens devoted himself zealously to his office, and it was due to his efforts that the Old Catholic movement crystallized into an organized church, with a definite status in the various German states. He wrote a number of theological works after his consecration, but none of them so important as his treatise on Cyprian and the Unity of the Church (1873). The chief act of his episcopal career was his consecration in 1876 of Dr Edward Herzog to preside as bishop over the Old Catholic Church in Switzerland. In 1881 Reinkens visited England, and received Holy Communion more than once with bishops, clergy and laity of the Church of England, and in 1894 he defended the validity of Anglican orders against his co-religionists, the Old Catholics of Holland. He died at Bonn on the 4th of January 1896. See Joseph Hubert Reinkens, by his nephew, J. M. Reinkens (Gotha, 1906). REISKE, JOHANN JACOB (1716-1774), German scholar and physician, was born on the 25th of December 1716 at Zorbig in Electoral Saxony. From the Waisenhaus at Halle he passed in 1733 to the university of Leipzig, and there spent five years. He tried to find his own way in Greek literature, to which German schools then gave little attention; but, as he had not mastered the grammar, he soon found this a sore task and took up Arabic. He was very poor, having almost nothing beyond his allowance, which for the five years was only two hundred thalers. But everything of which he could cheat his appetite was spent on Arabic books, and when he had read all that was then printed he thirsted for manuscripts, and in March 1738 started on foot for Hamburg, joyous though totally unprovided, on his way to Leiden and the treasures of the Warnerianum. At Hamburg he got some money and letters of recommendation from the Hebraist Wolf, and took ship to Amsterdam. Here d'Orville, to whom he had an intro- duction, proposed to retain him as his amanuensis at a salary of six hundred guilders. Reiske refused, though he thought the offer very generous; he did not want money, he wanted manuscripts. When he reached Leiden (June 6, 1738) he found that the lectures were over for the term and that the MSS. were not open to him. But d'Orville and A. Schultens helped him to private teaching and reading for the press, by which he was able to live. He heard the lectures of A. Schultens, and practised himself in Arabic with his son J. J. Schultens. Through Schultens too he got at Arabic MSS., and was even allowed sub rosa to take them home with him. Ultimately he seems to have got free access to the collection, which he re-catalogued — the work of almost a whole summer, for which the curators rewarded him with nine guilders. Reiske's first years in Leiden were not unhappy, till he got into serious trouble by introducing emendations of his own into the second edition of Burmann's Petronius, which he had to see through the press. His patrons withdrew from him, and his chance of perhaps becoming professor was gone; d'Orville indeed soon came round, for he could not do without Reiske, who did work of which his patron, after dressing it up in his own style, took the credit. But A. Schultens was*iever the same as before to him; Reiske indeed was too independent, and hurt him by his open criticisms of his master's way of making Arabic mainly a handmaid of Hebrew. Reiske, however, himself admits that Schultens always behaved honourably to him. In 1742 by Schultens's advice Reiske took up medicine as a study by which he might hope to live if he could not do so by philology. In 1746 he graduated as M.D., the fees being remitted at Schultens's intercession. It was Schultens too who conquered the difficulties opposed to his graduation at the last moment by the faculty of theology on the ground that some of his theses had a materialistic ring. ' On the icth of June 1746 he left Holland and settled in Leipzig, where he hoped to get medical practice. But his shy, proud nature was not fitted to gain patients, and the Leipzig doctors would not recommend one who was not a Leipzig graduate. In 1747 an Arabic dedication to the electoral prince of Saxony got him the title of professor, but neither the faculty of arts nor that of medicine was willing to admit him among them, and he never delivered a course of lectures. He had still to go on doing literary task-work, but his labour was much worse paid in Leipzig than in Leiden. Still he could have lived and sent his old mother, as his custom was, a yearly present of a piece of leather to be sold in retail if he had been a better manager. But, careless for the morrow, he was always printing at his own cost great books which found no buyers. His academical colleagues were hostile; and Ernesti, under a show of friendship, secretly hindered his promotion. His unsparing reviews made bad blood with the pillars of the university. At length in 1758 the magistrates of Leipzig rescued him from his misery by giving him the rectorate of St Nicolai, and, though he still made no way with the leading men of the university and suffered from the hostility of men like Ruhnken and J. D. Michaelis, he was compensated for this by the esteem of Frederick the Great, of Lessing, Karsten Niebuhr, and many foreign scholars. The last decade of his life was made cheerful by his marriage with Ernestine Mtiller, who shared all his interests and learned Greek to help him with collations. In proof of his gratitude her portrait stands beside his in the first volume of the Oratores Graeci. Reiske died on the I4th of August 1774, and his MS. remains passed, through Lessing's mediation, to the Danish minister Suhm, and are now in the Copenhagen library. Reiske certainly surpassed all his predecessors in the range and quality of his knowledge of Arabic literature. It was the history, the realia of the literature, that always interested him; he did not care for Arabic poetry as such, and the then much praised Hariri seemed to him a grammatical pedant. He read the poets less for their verses than for such scholia as supplied historical notices. Thus for example the scholia on Jarir furnished him with a remarkable notice of the prevalence of Buddhist doctrine and asceticism in 'Irak under the Omayyads. In the Adnotationes historicae to his Abulfeda (Abulf. Annales Moslemici, 5 vols., Copenhagen, 1789-91), he collected a veritable treasure of sound and original research ; he knew the Byzantine writers as thoroughly as the Arabic authors, and was alike at home in modern works of travel in all languages and in ancient and medieval authorities. He was interested too in REJANE— RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE numismatics, and his jetters on Arabic coinage (in Eichhorn]s Repertorium, vols. ix.-xi.) form, according to De Sacy, the basis of that branch of study. To comprehensive knowledge and very wide reading he added a sound historical judgment. He was not, like Schultens, deceived by the pretended antiquity of the Yemenite Kasidas.1 Errors no doubt he made, as in the attempt to ascertain the date of the breach of the dam of Marib. Though Abulfeda as a late epitomator did not afford a starting- point for methodical study of the sources, Reiske's edition with his version and notes certainly laid the foundation for research in Arabic history. The foundation of Arabic philology, however, was laid not by him but by De Sacy. Reiske's linguistic knowledge was great, but he used it only to understand his authors; he had no feeling for form, for language as language, or for metre. In Leipzig Reiske worked mainly at Greek, though he continued to draw on his Arabic stores accumulated in Leiden. Yet his merit as an Arabist was sooner recognized than the value of his Greek work. Reiske the Greek scholar has been rightly valued only in recent years, and it is now recognized that he was the first German since Sylburg who had a living knowledge of the Greek tongue. His reputation, does not rest on his numerous editions, often hasty or even made to booksellers' orders, but in his remarks, especially his conjectures. He himself designates the Animadversationes in Scriptores Graecos as ftps ingenii sui, and in truth these thin booklets outweigh his big editions. Closely following the author's thought he removes obstacles whenever he meets them, but he is so steeped in the language and thinks so truly like a Greek that the difficulties he feels often seem to us to lie in mere points of style. His criticism is empirical and unmethodic, based on immense and careful reading, and applied only when he feels a difficulty ; and he is most successful when he has a large mass of tolerably homogeneous^literature to lean on, whilst on isolated points he is often at a loss. His corrections are often hasty and false, but a surprisingly large proportion of them have since received confirmation from MSS. And, though his merits as a Grecian lie mainly in his conjectures, his realism is felt in this sphere also ; his German translations especially show more freedom and practical insight, more feeling for actual life, than is common with the scholars of that age.2 For a list of Reiske's writings see Meusel, xi. 192 seq. His chief Arabic works (all posthumous) have been mentioned above. In Greek letters his chief works are Constantini Porphyrogeniti libri II. de ceremoniis aulae Byzant., vols. i. ii. (Leipzig, 1751-66), vol. iii. (Bonn, 1829) ; A nimadv. ad Graecos auctores (5 vols., Leipzig, 1751-66) (the rest lies unprinted at Copenhagen) ; Oratorum Grace, quae supersunt (8 vols., Leipzig, 1770-73); App. crit. ad Demosthenem (3 vols., ib., 1774-75) ; Maximus Tyr. (ib., 1774) ; Plutarchus (i I vols., ib., 1774-79) ; Dionys Italic. (6 vols., ib., 1774-77) ; Libanius (4 vols., Altenburg, 1784-97). Various reviews in the Ada eruditorum and Zuverl. Nachrichten are characteristic and worth reading. Compare D. Johann Jacob Reiskens von ihm selbst aufgesetzte Lebensbe- schreibung (Leipzig, 1783). (J. WE.) REJANE, GABRIELLE [CHARLOTTE REJU] (1857- ), French actress, was born in Paris, the daughter of an actor. She was a pupil of Regnier at the Conservatoire, and took the second prize for comedy in 1874. Her debut was made the next year, during which she played attractively a number of light — especially soubrette — parts. Her first great success was in Henri Meilhac's Ma camarade (1883), and she soon became known as an emotional actress of rare gifts, notably in Decore, Germinie Lacerteux, Ma cousine, Amour euse and Lysistrata . In 1892 she married M. Porel, the director of the Vaudeville theatre, but the marriage was dissolved in 1905. Her per- formances in Madame Sans Gene (1893) made her as well known in England and America as in Paris, and in later years she appeared in characteristic parts in both countries, being particularly successful in Zaza and La Passerelle. She opened the Theatre Rejane in Paris in 1906. The essence of French vivacity and animated expression appeared to be concentrated in Madame ^Rejane's acting, and made her unrivalled in the parts which she had made her own. RELAND, ADRIAN (1676-1718), Dutch Orientalist, was born at Ryp, studied at Utrecht and Leiden, and was professor of Oriental languages successively at Harderwijk (1699) and Utrecht (1701). His most important works were Palaestina ex veteribus monumentis illustrata (Utrecht, 17 14), and Anliquitates sacrae velerum Hebraeorum. (See also Burman, Traj. Erud., p. 296 seq.). 1 " Animadvers. criticae in Hamzae hist, regni Joctanidarum," in Eichhorn's Man. Ant. Hist. Ar.*iTj$. * For this estimate of Reiske as a Greek scholar the writer is in- debted to Prof. U. v. Wilamowitz-Moellendorff. RELAPSING FEVER (Febris recurrens), the name given to a specific infectious disease occasionally appearing as an epidemic in communities suffering from scarcity or famine. It is char- acterized mainly by its sudden invasion, with violent febrile symptoms, which continue for about a week and end in a crisis, but are followed, after another week, by a return of the fever. This disease has received many other names, the best known of which are famine fever, seven-day, bilious relapsing fever, and spirillum fever. As in the case of typhoid, relapsing fever was long believed to be simply a form of typhus. The distinction between them appears to have been first clearly established in 1826, in connexion with an epidemic in Ireland. Relapsing fever is highly contagious. With respect to the nature of the contagion, certain important observations have been made (see also PARASITIC DISEASES). In 1873 Obermeier discovered in the blood of persons suffering from relapsing fever minute organisms in the form of spiral filaments of the genus Spirochaele, measuring in length ffa to -^3 inch and in breadth nitre to snips inch, and possessed of rotatory or twisting movements. This organism received the name of Spirillum obermeieri. Fritz Schaudinn has brought forward evidence that it is an animal parasite. The most constantly recognized factor in the origin and spread of relapsing fever is destitution; but this cannot be regarded as more than a predisposing cause, since in many lands widespread and destructive famines have prevailed without any outbreak of this fever. In- stances, too, have been recorded where epidemics were distinctly associated with overcrowding rather than with privation. Relapsing fever is most commonly met with in the young. One attack does not appear to protect from others, but rather, according to some authorities, engenders liability. The incubation of the disease is about one week. The symptoms of the fever then show themselves with great abruptness and violence by a rigor, accompanied with pains in the limbs and severe head- ache. The febrile phenomena are very marked, and the tempera- ture quickly rises to a high point (iO5°-iO7° Fahr.), at which it con- tinues with little variation, while the pulse is rapid (100-140), full and strong. There is intense thirst, a dry brown tongue, bilious vomiting, tenderness over the liver and spleen, and occa- sionally jaundice. Sometimes a peculiar bronzy appearance of the skin is noticed, but there is no characteristic rash as in typhus. There is much prostration of strength. After the continuance of these symptoms for a period of from five to seven days, the tem- perature suddenly falls to the normal point or below it, the pulse becomes correspondingly slow, and a profuse perspiration occurs, while the severe headache disappears and the appetite returns. Except for a sense of weakness, the patient feels well and may even return to work, but in some cases there remains a condition of great debility, accompanied with rheumatic pains in the limbs. This state of freedom from fever continues for about a week, when there occurs a well-marked relapse with scarcely less abruptness and severity than in the first attack, and the whole symptoms are of the same character, but they do not, as a rule, continue so long, and they terminate in a crisis in three or four days, after which convalescence proceeds satisfactorily. Second, third and even fourth relapses, however, may occur in exceptional cases. The mortality in relapsing fever is comparatively small, about 5% being the average death-rate in epidemics (Murchison). The fatal cases occur mostly from the complications common to continued fevers. The treatment is essentially the same as that for typhus fever. Lowenthal and Gabritochewsky by using the serum of an immune horse succeeded in averting the relapse in 40 % of cases. RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE, a philosophic term which was much used by the philosophers of the middle of the igth century, and has since fallen largely into disuse. It deserves explanation, however, not only because it has occupied so large a space in the writings of some great British thinkers, but also because the main question for which it stands is still matter of eager debate. We get at the meaning of the term most easily by considering what it is that " relativity " is opposed to. " Relativity " of knowledge is opposed to absoluteness or positiveness of knowledge. Now there are two senses in which knowledge may claim to be absolute. The knower may say, " I know this absolutely ,y> or he may say, "I know this absolutely." With the emphasis upon the " know " he asserts that his know- ledge of the matter in question cannot be affected by anything whatever. " I know absolutely that two and two are four " makes an assertion about the knower's intellectual state: he is convinced that his certain knowledge of the result of adding two to two is independent of any other piece of knowledge. With RELEASE— RELICS 59 the emphasis upon the object of knowledge, " I know this ," we have the other sense of absoluteness of knowledge: it is an assertion that the knower knows the " this," whatever it may be, in its essence or as it truly is in itself. The phrase " relativity of knowledge " has therefore two meanings: (a) that no portion of knowledge is absolute, but is always affected by its relations to other portions of knowledge; (b) that what we know are not absolute things in themselves, but things conditioned in their quality by our channels of knowledge. Each of these two propositions must command assent as soon as uncritical ignorance gives place to philosophic reflection; but each may be exaggerated, indeed has currently been exaggerated, into falsity. The simplest experience — a single note struck upon the piano — would not be what it is to us but for its relation by contrast or comparison with other experiences. This is true; but we may easily exaggerate it into a falsehood by saying that a piece of experience is entirely constituted by its relation to other experiences. Such an extreme relativity, as advocated by T. H. Green in the first chapter of his Prolegomena to Ethics, involves the absurdity that our whole experience is a tissue of relatioas with no points of attachment on which the relations depend. The only motive for advocating it is the prejudice of absolute idealism which would deny that sensation has any part whatever in the constitution of experience. As soon as we recognize the part of sensation, we have no reason to deny the common-sense position that each piece of experience has its own quality, which is modified indefinitely by the relations in which it stands. The second sense of relativity, that which asserts the impossi- bility of knowing things except as conditioned by our perceptive faculties, is more important philosophically and has had a more interesting history. To apprehend it is really the first great step in philosophical education. The unphilosophical person assumes that a tree as he sees it is identical with the tree as it is in itself and as it is for other percipient minds. Reflection shows that our apprehension of the tree is conditioned by the sense-organs with which we have been endowed, and that the apprehension of a blind man, and still more the apprehension of a dog or horse, is quite different from ours. What the tree is in itself — that is, for a perfect intelligence — we cannot, know, any more than a dog or horse can know what the tree is for a human intelligence. So far the relativist is on sure ground; but from this truth is developed the paradox that the tree has no objective existence at all and consists entirely of the conscious states of the perceiver. Observe the parallelism of the two paradoxical forms of relativity: one says that things are relations with nothing that is related; the other says that things are perceptive conditions with nothing objective to which the conditions apply. Both make the given nothing and the work of the mind everything. To see the absurdity of the second paradox of relativity is easier than to refute it. If nothing exists but the conscious states of the perceiver, how does he come to think that there is an objective tree at all ? Why does he regard his conscious states as produced by an object ? And how does he come to imagine that there are other minds than his own ? In short, this kind of relativity leads straight to what is generally known as " the abyss of solipsism." But, like all the great paradoxes of philosophy, it has its value in directing our attention to a vital, yet much neglected, element of experience. We cannot avoid solipsism (q.v.) so long as we neglect the element of force or power. If, as Hegel asserted, our experience is all knowledge, and if knowledge is indefinitely transformed by the conditions of knowing, then we are tempted to regard the object as super- fluous, and to treat our innate conviction that knowledge has reference to objects as a delusion which philosophical reflection is destined to dispel. The remedy for the paradox is to recognize that the foundation for our belief in the existence of objects is the force which they exercise upon us and the resistance which they offer to our will. What the tree is in regard to its specific qualities depends on what faculties we have for perceiving it. But, whatever specific qualities it may have, it will still exist as an object, so long as it comes into dynamic relations with our minds. In the history of thought the relativity of knowledge as just described begins with Descartes, the founder of modern philosophy: the characteristic of modern philosophy is that it lays more stress upon the subjective than upon the objective side of experience. It is a mistake to refer it back to the Greeks. The maxim of Protagoras, for example, " Man is the measure of all things," has a different purpose; it was meant to point to the truth that man rather than nature is the primary object of human study: it -is a doctrine of humanism rather than of relativism. To appreciate the relativistic doctrines we find in various thinkers we must take account of the use to which they were put. By Descartes the principle was used as an instrument of scepticism, the beneficent scepticism of pulling down medieval philosophy to make room for modern science; by Berkeley it was used to combat the materialists; by Hume in the cause of scepticism once more against the intellectual dogmatists; by Kant to prepare a justification for a noumenal sphere to be apprehended by faith; by J. S. Mill and Herbert Spencer to support their derivation ol all pur experience from sensation. It is in Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy that the classical statement of the Relativity of Knowledge is to be found. The second chapter of that book sets forth the various forms of the , doctrine with admirable lucidity and precision, and gives many references to other writers. For the sake of clearness it seems desirable to keep for the future the term " relativity of knowledge " to the first meaning explained above: for the second meaning it has been superseded in contem- porary philosophizing by the terms " subjectivism," " subjective idealism," and, for its extreme form, " solipsism " (q.v.). (H. ST.) RELEASE (O.Fr. reles, variant of relais, from relaisser, to release, let go, Lat. relaxare), freedom or deliverance from trouble, pain or sorrow, the freeing or discharge from some obligation or debt, the action of letting go or releasing something fixed or set in position. In law, the term is applied to the discharge of some obligation, by which it is extinguished (see DEBT), and to the conveyance of an estate or interest in real or personal property to one who has already some estate or interest therein. For the special form of conveyancing known as " lease and release," see CONVEYANCING. RELICS (Lat, reliquiae, the equivalent of the English " remains " in the sense of a dead body), the name given in the Catholic Church to,(i) the bodies of the saints, or portions of them,(2) such objects as the saints made use of during their lives, or as were used at their martyrdom. These objects are held by the Church in religious veneration, and by their means it hopes to obtain divine grace and miraculous benefits (Cone. Trid. sess. 24). These ideas had taken shape, in all essentials, during the early days of the Church, underwent further development in the middle ages, and were maintained by the Catholic Church in the face of the opposition of the Reformers, while all the Protestant Churches rejected them. The origins of the veneration of relics lie in the anxiety for the preservation of the bodies of the martyrs. Nothing is more natural than that the pious solicitude felt by all men for the bodies of their loved ones should in the primitive Christian Churches have been turned most strongly towards the bodies of those who had met with death in confessing their faith. The account given by the church at Smyrna of the death of their bishop Polycarp (155) gives us an insight into these feelings. The church collected and buried the remains of the martyr, who had been burnt, in order duly to celebrate the anniversary of the martyrdom at the place of burial. The possession of the relics seemed to assure the continuation of the common life of the church with their bishop, of the living with the dead (Mart. Polyc. c. 17). The custom of which we have here for the first time an account had become universal by the $rd century. In all parts the Christians assembled on the anniversary of the martyrs' death at their graves, to celebrate the Agape and the Eucharist at this spot. It was a favourite custom to bury the dead near the graves of the martyrs; and it was the highest wish of many to " rest with the saints." It was the body lying in the tomb which was venerated (see Euseb. Hist. ecd. vii. n, 24; viii. 6, 7). But these customs soon underwent a further development. About the end of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th century 6o RELICS it became customary for the bodies of the martyrs not to be buried, but preserved for the purpose of veneration. Already individual Christians began to possess themselves of portions of the bodies of martyrs, and to carry them about with them. Both these practices met with criticism and opposition, especially from the leading men of the Church. According to the testi- mony of Athanasius of Alexandria, the hermit Anthony decided that it should be held to be unlawful and impious to leave the bodies of the martyrs unburied (Vita Ant. 90). In Carthage the archdeacon and later the bishop Caecilianus severely blamed a certain Lucilla for carrying about with her a relic which she used to kiss before receiving the Eucharist (Optatus, De schism, Donat. i. 1 6). The compiler of the Ada S. Fructuosi, a Spanish ecclesi- astic, represents the martyred bishop as himself requesting the burial of his relics. But energetic as the opposition was, it was unsuccessful, and died out. For in the meantime opinion as to the efficacy of relics had undergone a transformation, parallel with the growth of the theory, which soon predominated in the Church, that material instruments are the vehicles of divine grace. When the Christians of Smyrna decided that the bones of the martyrs were of more worth than gold or gems, and when Origen (Exh. ad mart. 50) spoke of the precious blood of the martyrs, they were thinking of the act of faith which the martyrs had accomplished by the sacrifice of their life. Now, on the other hand, the relic came to be looked upon as in itself a thing of value as the channel of miraculous divine powers. These ideas are set forth by Cyril of Jerusalem. He taught that a certain power dwelt in the body of the saint, even when the soul had departed from it; just as it was the instrument of the soul during life, so the power passed permanently into it (Cat. xviii. 16). This was coming very near to a belief that objects which the saints had used during their life had also a share in their miraculous powers. And this conclusion Cyril had already come to (loc. cit.). We can see how early this estimate of relics became general from the fact that the former hesitation as to whether they should be venerated as sacred died out during the 4th century. The Fathers of the Greek Church especially were united in recommending the veneration of relics. All the great theologians of the 4th and sth centuries may be quoted as evidence of this: Eusebius of Caesarea (Praep. Ev. xiii.n), Gregory of Nazianzus (Oral, in Cypr. 17), Gregory of Nyssa (Oral, de S. Theod. mart.), Basil of Caesarea (Ep. ii. 197), Chrysostom (Laud. Drosidis), Theodoret of Cyrus (Inps. 67, n), &c. John of Damascus, the great exponent of dogma in the Sth century, gave expression to the result of a uniform development which had been going on for centuries when he taught that Christ offers the relics to Christians as means of salvation. They must not be looked upon as something that is dead; for through them all good things come to those who pray with faith. Why should it seem impossible to believe in this power of the relics, when water could be made to gush from a rock in the desert? (De fide orlhod. iv. 15). Such was the theory; and the practice was in harmony with it. Throughout the whole of the Eastern Church the veneration of relics prevailed. Nobody hesitated to divide up the bodies of the saints in order to afford as many portions of them as possible. They were shared among the inhabitants of cities and villages, Theodoret tells us, and cherished by everybody as healers and physicians for both body and soul (Decur.Graec. off. 8). The transition from the true relic to the hallowed object was especially common. Jerusalem, as early as the time of Eusebius, rejoiced in the possession of the .episcopal chair of James the Just (Hist. eccl. vii. 19) ; and as late as the 4th century was discovered the most important of the relics of Christ, the cross which was alleged to have been His. Cyril of Jerusalem already remarks that the whole world was filled with portions of the wood of the cross (Cat. iv. 10). The development which the veneration of relics underwent in the West did not differ essentially from that in the East. Here also the idea came to prevail that the body of the saint, or a portion of it^was possessed of healing and protective power (Paulinus of Nola, Poem. xix. 14 et seq., xxvii. 443). The objection raised by the Aquitanian presbyter Vigilantius (c. 400) to the belief that the souls of the martyrs to a certain extent clung to their ashes, and heard the prayers of those who ap- proached them, appeared to his contemporaries to be frivolous; and he nowhere met with any support. The only doubt which was felt was as to whether the bodies of the saints should be divided, and removed from their original resting-place. Both practices were forbidden by law under the emperor Theodosius I. (Cod. Theodos. ix. 17, 7), and the division of the bodies of martyrs into pieces was prohibited for centuries. Even Pope Gregory I., in a letter to the empress Constantia, disapproved it (Ep. iv. 30). Ambrose of Milan, by the discovery of the relics of Protasius and Gervasius (cf. Ep. 22 and Augustine, Confess, ix. 7), started in the West the long series of discoveries and translations of hitherto unknown relics. His example was followed, to name only the best known instances, by Bishop Theodore of Octodurum (now Martigny in the Vaud), who discovered the relics of the Theban legion which was alleged to have been destroyed by the emperor Maximian on account of its belief in the Christian faith (see Passio Acaun. Mart. 16), and by Clematius, a citizen of Cologne, to whom the virgin martyrs of this city revealed themselves (Kraus, Inschriften der Rheinlande, No. 294), after- wards to be known as St Ursula and her eleven thousand virgins. The West was much poorer in relics than the East. Rome, it is true, possessed in the bodies of Peter and Paul a treasure the virtue of which outshone all the sacred treasures of the East. But many other places were entirely wanting in relics. By the discoveries which we have mentioned their number was notably increased. But the longing for these pledges of the divine assistance was insatiable. In order to satisfy it relics were made by placing pieces of cloth on the graves of the saints, which were afterwards taken to their homes and venerated by the pilgrims. The same purpose was served by oil taken from the lamps burning at the graves, flowers from the altars, water from some holy well, pieces of the garments of saints, earth from Jerusalem, and especially keys which had been laid on the grave of St Peter at Rome. All these things were not looked upon as mementoes, but the conviction pre- vailed that they were informed by a miraculous power, which had passed into them through contact with that which was originally sacred (cf. Greg. Tur. De Glor. mart. i. 25; Greg. I. Ep. iv. 29, No. 30). A dishonest means of satisfying the craving for relics was that of forging them, and how common this became can be gathered from the many complaints about spurious reh'cs (Sulp. Sev. Vita Mart. 8; Aug. De op. man. 28; Greg. I. Ep. iv. 30, &c.). But in the long run these substitutes for relics did not satisfy the Christians of the West, and, following the example of the Eastern Church, they took to dividing the bodies of the saints. Medieval relics in the West also were mostly portions of the bodies of saints or of things which they had used during their lives. The veneration of relics also received a strong impulse from the fact that the Church required that a relic should be deposited in every altar. Among the first of those whom we know to have attached importance to the placing of relics in churches is Ambrose of Milan (Ep. 22), and the 7th general council of Nicaea (787) forbade the consecration of churches in which relics were not present, under pain of ex- communication. This has remained part of the law of the Roman Catholic Church. The most famous relics discovered during the middle ages were those of the apostle James at St Jago de Compostella in Spain (see PILGRIMAGE), the bodies of the three kings, which were brought from Milan to Cologne in 1164 by the emperor Frederick I. (Chron. reg. Colon, for the year 1164), the so- called sudarium of St Veronica, which from the i2th century onwards was preserved in the Capella Santa Maria ad praesepe of St Peter's in Rome (see Dobschiitz, Chrislusbilder,p. 218 seq.), and the seamless robe of Christ, the possession of which lent RELIEF— RELIGION 61 renown to the cathedral of Trier since the beginning of the I2th century (Gesta Trevir., Man. Germ. Scr. viii. p. 152). The number of relics increased to a fabulous extent dur- ing the middle ages. There were churches which possessed hundreds, even thousands, of relics. In the cathedral of Eichstatt were to be found, as early as 1071, 683 relics (Gundech, Lib. pont. Eist., Man. Germ. Scr. vii. p. 246 seq.); the monastery of Hirschau had 222 in the year 1091 (De cons. mai. mon., Man. Germ. Scr. xiv. p. 261); the monastery of Stedernburg 515 in the year 1166 (Ann. Sled. Scr. xvi. p. 212 seq.). But these figures are trifling compared with those at the end of the middle ages. In the year 1520 could be counted 19,013 in the Schlosskirche at Wittenberg, and 21,483 in the Schlosskirche at Halle in 1521 (Kostlin, Friedrich der W., und die Schlosskirche zu Wittenberg, p. 58 seq. ; Redlich, Cardinal Albrecht und das Neue Stifl zu Halle, p. 260). There were also collections on the same scale belonging to individuals; a patrician of Nuremberg named Muffel was able to gain pos- session of 308 relics (Chroniken der deutschen Stddte, xi. p. 745). It is curious that while the popular craving for relics had passed all bounds, medieval theology was very cautious in its declarations on the subject of the veneration of relics. Thomas Aquinas based his justification of them on the idea of reverent commemoration; since we venerate the saints, we must also show reverence for their relics, for whoever loves another does honour to that which remains of him after death. On this account it is our duty, in memory of the saints, to pay due honour to their relics and especially to their bodies, which were the temples and dwellings of the Holy Ghost in which He dwelt and worked, and which in the resurrection are to be made like to the body of Christ; and in likewise because God honours them, in that He works wonders in their presence (Summa theol. iii. qu. 25, art. 6). The great scholastic philo- sopher abandoned the theory that the relics in themselves are vessels and instruments of the divine grace and miraculous power. But these ideas were revived, on the other hand, by the Catholicism of the counter-Reformation, which again taught and teaches that God grants many benefits to mankind through the sacred bodies of the martyrs (Cone. Trid. sess. xxv.). The doctrine has adapted itself to the popular belief. (A. H.*) RELIEF (through Fr. from Lat. relevare, to lift up), an act of raising or lifting off or up. Apart from the general sense of a mitigation, cessation or removal of pain, sorrow, discomfort, &c., and the artistic use (It. relievo) of the projection of a figure or design in sculpture from the ground on which it is formed, which is treated below, the term " relief " is used in the following senses; it was one of the feudal incidents between lord and vassal, and consisted of a payment to the lord in kind or money made by the heir on the death of the ancestor for the privilege of succession, for, fiefs not being hereditary, the estate had lapsed to the lord; by this payment the heir caducum praedium relevabat (Du Cange, Gloss, s.v. Relevare). The word is also generally used, in law, for any exemption granted by a court from the strict legal consequences of an act, &c., e.g. to a parlia- mentary candidate from the penal consequences ensuing from breaches of the regulations of the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Acts. Relief is also the term used in English law for the assist- ance given to the indigent poor by the Poor Law authorities (see POOR LAW). RELIEF, a term in sculpture signifying ornament, a figure or figures raised from the ground of a flat surface of which the sculptured portion forms an inherent part of the body of the whole. The design may be in high relief — "alto-relievo"^.!'.), or low relief — " bas-relief" or "basso-relievo" (K. aheyovrfs (Homer, //. xvi. 388), heeding not the visitation of the gods, or ov yap KwcXonrts Aids . . . dXe'yowrij' (Od. ix. 275). The alternative derivation, from religare, to fasten, bind, is that adopted by Lactantius (Inst. iv. 28), " Vinculo pietatis obstricti, Deo religati sumus unde ipsa religio nomen cepit. " He quotes in support the line from Lucretius (i. 931), " religionum nodis animos exsolvere." Servius (on Virgil, Aen. viii. 349) and St Augustine (Retract, i. 13) also take religare as the source of the word. It is one that has certainly coloured the meaning of the word, particularly in that use which restricts 62 RELIGION [PRIMITIVE it to the monastic life with its binding rules. It also has appealed to Christian thought. Liddon (Some Elements of Religion, Lecture I. 19) says: " Lactantius may be wrong in his etymology, but he has certainly seized the broad popular sense of the word when he connects it with the idea of an obligation by which man is bound to an invisible God." Archbishop Trench (Study of Words) supposed that when " religion " became equivalent to the monastic life, and " religious " to a monk, the words lost their original meaning, but the Ancren Riwle, ante 1225, and the Cursor Mundi use the words both in the general and the more particular sense (see quotations in the New English Dictionary), and both meanings can be found in the Imitatio Christi and in Erasmus's Colloquia. (X.) The study of the forms of belief and worship belonging to different tribes, nations or religious communities has only recently acquired a scientific foundation. The Greek historians early directed their attention to the ideas and customs of the peoples with whom they were brought into contact; and Herodotus has been called the " first anthropologist of reli- gion." Theopompus described the Persian dualism in the 4th century B.C., and when Megasthenes was ambassador to the court of Chandragupta, 302 B.C., he noted the religious usages of the middle Ganges valley. The early Christian Fathers recorded many a valuable observation of the Gentile faiths around them from varying points of view, sympathetic or hostile; and Eusebius and Epiphanius, in the 4th century A.D., attributed to the librarian of Ptolemy Philadelphus the design of collecting the sacred books of the Ethiopians, Indians, Persians, Elamites, Babylonians, Assyrians, Romans, Phoenicians, Syrians and Greeks. The Mahommedan Biruni (b. A.D. 973) compared the doctrines of the Greeks, Christians, Jews, Manichaeans and Sufis with the philosophies and reli- gions of India. Akbar (1542-1605) gathered Brahmans and Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians and Mahommedans at his court, and endeavoured to get translations of their scriptures. In the next century the Persian author of the Dabistan exhibited the doctrines of no less than twelve religions and their various sects. Meanwhile the scholars of the West had begun to work. Thomas Hyde (1636-1703) studied the religion of the ancient Persians; John Spencer (1630-1693) analysed the laws of the Hebrews; and Lord Herbert of Cherbury (De Religione Gentilium, 1645) endeavoured to trace all religions back to five " truly Catholic truths " of primitive faith, the first being the existence of God. The doctrine of a primeval revelation survived in various forms for two centuries, and appeared as late as the Juventus Mundi of W. E. Gladstone (1868, p. 207 ff.). David Hume, on the other hand, based his essay on The Natural History of Religion (1757) on the conception of the development of human society from rude beginnings, and all modern study is frankly founded on the general idea of Evolution.1 The materials at Hume's command, however, were destined to vast and speedy expansion. The Jesuit missionaries had already been at work in India and China, and a brilliant band of English students, led by Sir William Jones and H. T. Colebrooke, began to make known the treasures of Sanskrit literature, which the great scholars of Germany and France proteeded to develop. In Egypt the discovery of the Rosetta stone placed the key to the hieroglyphics within Western reach; and the decipherment of the cuneiform character enabled the patient scholars of Europe tq recover the clues to the contents of the ancient libraries of Babylonia and Assyria. With the aid of inscriptions the cults of Greece and Rome have been largely reconstructed. Travellers and missionaries reported the beliefs and usages of uncivilized tribes in every part of the world, with the result that " ethnography knows no race devoid of religion, but only differences in the degree to which religious ideas have developed " (Ratzel, History of Mankind, i. 40). Meanwhile philosophy was at work on the problem of the religious consciousness. The great series of German thinkers, Lessing, Herder, Kant, Hegel, Fichte, Schleiermacher and their 1 This does not, of course, preclude the possibility of degeneration in particular instances. successors, sought to explain religion by means of the phenomena of mind, and to track it to its roots in the processes of thought and feeling. While ethnography was gathering up the facts from every part of the globe, psychology began to analyse the forms of belief, of action and emotion, to discover if possible the ' key to the multitudinous variety which history revealed. From the historical and linguistic side attention was first fixed upon the myth, and the publication of the ancient hymns of the Rig Veda led Max Miiller to seek in the common elements of Aryan thought for the secrets of primitive religion (essay on Comparative Mythology, 1856). The phenomena of day and night, of sunshine and storm, and other aspects of nature, were invoked by different interpreters to explain the conceptions of the gods, their origins and their relations. Fresh materials were gathered at the same time out of European folk-lore; the work begun by the brothers Grimm was continued by J. W. E. Mannhardt, and a lower stratum of beliefs and rites began to emerge into view beneath the poetic forms of the more developed mythologies. By such preliminary labours the way was prepared for the new science of anthropology. Since the appearance of Dr E. B. Tylor's classical treatise on Primitive Culture (1871), the study of the origins of religion has been pursued with the utmost zeal. Comte had already described the primitive form of the religious consciousness as that in which man conceives of all external bodies as animated by a life analogous to his own (Philos. Positive, tome v., 1841, p. 30). This has been since designated as polyzoism or panthelism or panviialism,2 and represents the obscure undifferentiated groundwork out of which Tylor's Animism arises. Many are the clues by which it has been sought to explain the secret of primitive religion. Hegel, before the anthropological stage, found it in magic. Max Miiller, building on philosophy and mythology, affirmed that " Religion consists in the perception of the infinite under such manifestations as are able to influence the moral character of man " (Natural Religion, 1899, p. 188). Herbert Spencer derived all religion from the worship of the dead (Principles of Sociology, i.), like Grant Allen, and Lippert in Germany. Mr Andrew Lang, on the other hand, supposes that belief in a supreme being came first in order of evolution, but was afterwards thrust into the background by belief in ghosts and lesser divinities (Magic and Religion, 1901, p. 224).' Dr Jevons finds the primitive form in totemism (Inlrod. to the History of Religion, 1896, chap. ix.). Mr J. G. Frazer regards religion (see his definition quoted below) as superposed on an antecedent stage of magic. In The Tree of Life (1905), Mr E. Crawley interprets it by the vital instinct, and connects its first manifestations with the processes of the organic life. The veteran Wilhelm Wundt (Mythus und Religion, ii. 1906, p. 177) recurs to the primitive conceptions of the soul as the source of all subsequent development. The origin of religion, however, can never be determined archaeologically or historically; it must be sought conjecturally through psychology. (J. E. C.) A . PRIMITIVE RELIGION There is a point at which the History of Religion becomes in its predominant aspect a History of Religions. The conditions that we describe by the comprehensive term " civilization " occasion a specification and corresponding differentiation of the life of societies; whence there result competing types of culture, each instinct with the spirit of propagandism and, one might almost say, of empire. It is an age of conscious selection as between ideal systems. Instead of necessitating a wasteful and precarious elimination of inadequate customs by the actual destruction of those who practise them — this being the method of natural selection, which, like some Spanish Inquisition, abolishes the heresy by wiping out the heretics one and all — progress now becomes possible along the more direct and less 2 Comte's own term " fetishism " was most unfortunately mis- leading (see FETISHISM). Marett proposed the term " Animalism," Folk Lore (1900), xi. p. 171. 3 See his treatise on The Making of Religion (1898), and Hartland's article on " The ' High Gods ' of Australia," Folk Lore (1898), ix. p. 290. PRIMITIVE] RELIGION painful path of conversion. The heretic, having developed powers of rational choice, perceives his heresy, to wit, his want of adaptation to the moral environment, and turning round embraces the new faith that is the passport to survival. Far otherwise is it with man at the stage of savagery — the stage of petty groups pursuing a self-centred life of inveterate custom, in an isolation almost as complete as if they were marooned on separate atolls of the ocean. Progress, or at all events change, does indeed take place, though very slowly, since the most primitive savage we know of has his portion of human intelligence, looks after and before, nay, in regard to the pressing needs of every day shows a quite remarkable shrewdness and resource. Speaking generally, however, we must pronounce him unprogressive, since, on the whole, unreflective in regard to his ends. It is the price that must be paid for social discreteness and incoherency. And the consequence of this atomism is not what a careless thinker might be led to assume, extreme diversity, but, on the contrary, extreme homogeneity of culture. It has been found unworkable, for instance, to classify the religions of really primitive peoples under a plurality of heads, as becomes necessary the moment that the presence of a dis- tinctive basis of linked ideas testifies to the individuality of this or that type of higher creed. Primitive religions are like so many similar beads on a string; and the concern of the student of comparative religion is at this stage mainly with the nature of the string, to wit, the common conditions of soul and society that make, say, totemism, or taboo, very much the same thing all the savage world over, when we seek to penetrate to its essence. This fundamental homogeneity of primitive culture, however, must not be made the excuse for a treatment at the hands of psychology and sociology that dispenses with the study of details and trusts to an a priori method. By all means let universal characterization be attempted — we are about to attempt one here, though well aware of the difficulty in the present state of our knowledge — but they must at least model themselves on the composite photograph rather than the impressionist sketch. An enormous mass of material, mostly quite in the raw, awaits reduction to order on the part of anthropological theorists, as yet a small and ill-supported body of enthusiasts. Under these circumstances it would be premature to expect agreement as to results. In regard to method, however, there is little difference of opinion. Thus, whereas the popular writer abounds in wide generalizations on the subject of primitive humanity, the expert has hitherto for the most part deliberately restricted himself to departmental investigations. Religion, for example, seems altogether too vast a theme for him to embark on, and he usually prefers to deal with some single element or aspect. Again, origins attract the litterateur; he revels in describing the transition from the pre-religious to the religious era. But the expert, confining his attention to the known savage, finds him already religious, nay, encumbered with religious survivals of all kinds; for him, then, it suffices to describe things as they now are, or as they were in the comparatively recent fore-time. Lastly, there are many who, being competent in some other branch of science, but having small acquaintance with the scientific study of human culture, are inclined to explain primitive ideas and institutions from without, namely by reference to various external conditions of the mental life of peoples, such as race, climate, food-supply and so on. The anthropological expert, on the other hand, insists on making the primitive point of view itself the be-all and end-all of his investi- gations. The inwardness of savage religion — the meaning it has for those who practise it — constitutes its essence and meaning likewise for him, who after all is a man and a brother, not one who stands really outside. In what follows, then, we shall, indeed, venture to present a wholesale appreciation of the religious idea as it is for primitive man in general; but our account will respect the modern anthropological method that bids the student keep closely to the actualities of the religious experience of savages, as it can with reasonable accuracy be gathered from what they do and say. We have sought to render only the spirit of primitive religion, keeping clear both of technicalities and of departmental investi- gations. These are left to the separate articles bearing on the subject. There the reader will find the most solid results of recent anthropological research. Here is he merely offered a flimsy thread that, we hope, may guide him through the maze of facts, but alas! is only too likely to break off short in his hand. Definition of Primitive Religion. — In dealing with a develop- ment of culture that has no immutable essence, but is intrinsically fluid and changing, definition must consist either in a 'definition of type, which indicates prevalence of relevant resemblance as between specimens more or less divergent, or in exterior defini- tion, which delimits the field of inquiry by laying down within what extreme limits this divergence holds. Amongst the numberless definitions of religion that have been suggested, those that have been most frequently adopted for working purposes by anthropologists are Tylor's and Frazer's. Dr E. B. Tylor in Primitive Culture (i), i. 424, proposes as a " minimum definition" of religion " the belief in spiritual beings." Objec- tions to this definition on the score of incompleteness are, firstly, that, besides belief, practice must be reckoned with (since, as Dr W. Robertson Smith has made clear in his Lectures on the Religion of the Semites, 18 sqq., ritual is in fact primary for primitive religion, whilst dogma and myth are secondary); secondly, that the outlook of such belief and practice is not exclusively towards the spiritual, unless this term be widened until it mean next to nothing, but is likewise towards the quasi- material, as will be shown presently. The merit of this defini- tion, on the other hand, lies in its bilateral form, which calls attention to the need of characterizing both the religious attitude and the religious object to which the former has refer- ence. The same form appears in Dr J. G. Frazer's definition in The Golden Bough (2nd ed.), i. 63. He understands by religion " a propitiation or conciliation of powers superior to man which are believed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life." He goes on to explain that by " powers" he means " conscious or personal agents." It is also to be noted that he is here definitely opposing religion to magic, which he holds to be based on the (implicit) assumption " that the course of nature is determined, not by the passions or caprice of personal beings, but by the operation of immutable laws acting mechani- cally." His definition improves'on Tylor's in so far as it makes worship integral to the religious attitude. By regarding the object of religion as necessarily personal, however, he is led to exclude much that the primitive man undoubtedly treats with awe and respect as exerting a mystic effect on his life. Further, in maintaining that the powers recognized by religion are always superior to man, he leaves unclassed a host of practices that display a bargaining, or even a hectoring, spirit on the part of those addressing them (see PRAYER). Threatening or beating a fetish cannot be brought under the head of magic, even if we adopt Frazer's principle {op. cit. i. 64) that to constrain or coerce a personal being is to treat him as an inanimate agent; for such a principle is quite inapplicable to cases of mere terrorism, whilst it may be doubted if it even renders the sense of the savage magician's typical notion of his modus operandi, viz. as the bringing to bear of a greater mana or psychic influence (see below) on what has less, and must therefore do as it is bidden. Such definitions, then, are to be accepted; if at all, as definitions of type, selective designations of leading but not strictly universal features. An encyclopaedic account, however, should rest rather on an exterior definition which can serve as it were to pigeon-hole the whole mass of significant facts. Such an exterior definition is suggested by Mr E. Crawley in The Tree of Life, 209, where he points out that " neither the Greek nor the Latin language has any comprehensive term for religion, except in the one Up&, and in the other sacra, words which are equivalent to 'sacred.' No other term covers the whole of religious phenojnena, and a survey of the complex details of various worships results in showing that no other conception will comprise the whole body of religious facts." It may be added that we have here no generalization imported from a RELIGION [PRIMITIVE higher level of culture, but an idea or blend of ideas familiar to primitive thought. An important consequence of thus giving the study of primitive religion the wide scope of a comparative hierology is that magic is no longer divorced from religion, since the sacred will now be found to be coextensive with the magico- religious, that largely undifferentiated plasm out of which religion and magic slowly take separate shape as society comes more and more to contrast legitimate with illicit modes of dealing with the sacred. We may define, then, the religious object as the sacred, and the corresponding religious attitude as con- sisting in such manifestation of feeling, thought and action in regard to the sacred as is held to conduce to the welfare of the community or to that of individuals considered as members of the community. Aspects of the Nature of the Sacred. — To exhibit the general character of the sacred as it exists for primitive religion it is simplest to take stock of various aspects recognized by primitive thought as expressed in language. If some, and not the least essential, of these aspects are quasi-negative, it must be remembered that negations — witness the Unseen, the Unknown, the Infinite of a more advanced theology — are well adapted to supply that mystery on which the religious consciousness feeds with the slight basis of conceptual support it needs, (i) The sacred as the forbidden. The primitive notion that perhaps comes nearest to our " sacred," whilst it immediately underlies the meanings of the Latin sacer and sanctus, is that of a taboo, a Polynesian term for which equiva- lents can be quoted from most savage vocabularies. The root idea seems to be that something is marked off as to be shunned, with the added hint of a mystic sanction or penalty enforcing the avoidance. Two derivative senses of a more positive import call for special notice. On the one hand, since that which is tabooed is held to punish the taboo-breaker by a sort of mystic infection, taboo comes to stand for un- cleanness and sin. On the other hand, since the isolation of the sacred, even when originally conceived in the interest of the profane, may be interpreted as self-protection on the part of the sacred as against defiling contact, taboo takes on the connotation of ascetic virtue, purity, devotion, dignity and blessedness. Primary and secondary senses of the term between them cover so much ground that it is not surprising to find taboo used in Polynesia as a name for the whole system of religion, founded as it largely is on prohibitions and abstin- ences. (2) The sacred as the mysterious. Another quasi- negative notion of more restricted distribution is that of the mysterious or strange, as we have it expressed, for example, in the Siouan wakan, though possibly this is a derivative meaning. Meanwhile, it is certain that what is strange, new or por- tentous is regularly treated by all savages as sacred. (3) The sacred as the secret. The literal sense of the term churinga, applied by the Central Australians to their sacred objects, and likewise used more abstractly to denote mystic power, as when a man is said to be " full of churinga," is " secret," and is symptomatic of the esotericism that is a striking mark of Australian, and indeed of all primitive, religion, with its insistence on initiation, its exclusion of women, and its strictly enforced reticence concerning traditional lore and proceedings. (4) The sacred as the potent. Passing on to positive conceptions of the sacred, perhaps the most fundamental is that which identifies the efficacy of sacredness with such mystic or magical power as is signified by the mana of the Pacific or orenda of the Hurons, terms for which analogies are forthcoming on all sides. Of mana Dr R. H. Codrington in The Melanesians, 119 «., writes: " It essentially belongs to personal beings to originate it, though it may act through the medium of water, or a stone, or a bone. All Melanesian religion consists . . . in getting this mana for oneself, or getting it used for one's benefit." E. Tregear's Maori- Polynesian Comparative Dic- tionary shows how the word and its derivatives are used to express thought, memory, emotion, desire, will — in short, psychic energy of all kinds. It also stands for the vehicle of the magician's energy — the spell; which would seem like- wise to be a meaning, perhaps the root-meaning, of orenda (cf. J. N. B. Hewitt, American Anthropologist, N.S., iv. 40). Whereas everything, perhaps, has some share of indwelling potency, whatever is sacred manifests this potency in an extra- ordinary degree, as typically the wonder-working leader of society, whose mana consists in his cunning and luck together. Altogether, in mana we have what is par excellence the primitive religious idea in its positive aspect, taboo representing its negative side, since whatever has mana is taboo, and what- ever is taboo has mana. (5) The sacred as the animate. The term " animism," which embodies Tylor's classical theory of primitive religion, is unfortunately somewhat ambiguous. If we take it strictly to mean the belief in ghosts or spirits having the " vaporous materiality " proper to the objects of dream or hallucination, it is certain that the agency of such phantasms is not the sole cause to which all mystic happenings are referred (though ghosts and spirits are everywhere believed in, and appear to be endowed with greater predominance as religious synthesis advances amongst primitive peoples). Thus there is good evidence to show that many of the early gods, notably those that are held to be especially well disposed to man, are conceived rather in the shape of magnified non- natural men dwelling somewhere apart, such as the Mungan- ngaur of the Kurnai of S.E. Australia (cf. A. Lang, The Making of Religion1, x. sqq.). Such anthropomorphism is with difficulty reduced to the Tylorian animism. The term, however, will have to be used still more vaguely, if it is to cover all attribution of personality, will or vitality. This can be more simply brought under the notion of mana. Mean- while, since quasi-mechanical means are freely resorted to in dealing with the sacred, as when a Maori chief snuffs up the sanctity his fingers have acquired by touching his own sacred head that he may restore the virtue to the part whence it was taken (R. Taylor, Te Ika a Maui, 165), or when un- cleanness is removed as if it were a physical secretion by washing, wiping and so forth, it is hard to say whether what we should now call a " material " nature is not ascribed to the sacred, more especially when its transmissibility after the manner of a contagion is the trait that holds the attention. It is possible, however, that the savage always distinguishes in a dim way between the material medium and the indwelling principle of vital energy, examples of a pure fetishism, in the sense of the cult of the purely material, recognized as such, being hard to find. (6) The sacred as the ancient. The prominence of the notion of the Alcheringa " dreamtime," or sacred past, in Central Australian religion illustrates the essential con- nexion perceived by the savage to lie between the sacred and the traditional. Ritualistic conservatism may be instanced as a practical outcome of this feeling. Another development is ancestor-worship, the organized cult of ancestors marking, however, a certain stage of advance beyond the very primitive, though the dead are always sacred and have mana which the living may exploit for their own advantage. The Activity of the Sacred. — The foregoing views of the sacred, though starting from distinct conceptions, converge in a single complex notion, as may be seen from the many-sided sense borne by such a term as wakan, which may stand not only for " mystery," but also for " power, sacred, ancient, grandeur, animate, immortal " (W J McGee, i^th Report of U. S. Bureau of Ethnology, 182). The reason for this convergence is that, whereas there is found great difficulty in characterizing the elusive nature of the sacred, its mode of manifesting itself is recognized to be much the same in all its phases. Uniform characteristics are the fecundity, ambiguity, relativity and transmissibility of its activity, (i) Fecundity. The mystic potency of the sacred is no fixed quantity, but is big with possibilities of all sorts. The same sacred person, object, act, will suffice for a variety of purposes. Even where a piece of sympathetic magic appears to promise definite results, or when a departmental god is recognized, there would seem to be room left for a more or less indefinite expectancy. It must be re- membered that the meaning of a rite is for the most part obscure PRIMITIVE] RELIGION to the participants, being overlaid by its traditional character, which but guarantees a general efficacy. " Blessings come, •evils go," may be said to be the magico-religious formula implicit in all socially approved dealings with the sacred, however specialized in semblance. (2) Ambiguity. Mystic potency, however, because of the very indefiniteness of its action, is a two-edged sword. The sacred is not to be approached lightly. It will heal or blast, according as it is handled with or without due circumspection. That which is taboo, for instance, the person of the king, or woman's blood, is poison or medicine according as it is manipulated, being inherently just a potentiality for wonder-working in any direction. Not but what primitive thought shows a tendency to mark off a certain kind of mystic power as wholly bad by a special name, e.g. the arungquiltha of Central Australia; and here, we may note, we come nearest to a conception of magic as something other than religion, the trafficker in arungquiltha being socially suspect, nay, liable to persecution, and even death (as amongst the Arunta tribe, see Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of C. Australia, 536), at the hands of his fellows. On the other hand, wholly beneficent powers seem hardly to be recognized, unless we find them in beings such as Mungan-ngaur (" father-our" ), who derive an ethical character from their association with the initiation cere- monies and the moral instruction given thereat (cf. Lang, I.e.). (3) Relativity. So far we have tended to represent the activity of the sacred as that of a universal force, somewhat in the style of our " electricity" or " mind. " It remains to add that this activity manifests itself at numberless independent centres. These differ amongst themselves in the degree of their energy. One spell is stronger than another, one taboo more inviolable than another. Dr W. H. R. Rivers ( The Todas, 448) gives an interest- ing analysis of the grades of sanctity apparent in Toda religion. The gods of the hill-tops come first. The sacred buffaloes, their milk, their bells, the dairies and their vessels are on a lower plane; whilst we may note that there are several grades amongst the dairies, increase of sanctity going with elaboration of dairy ritual (cf. ibid. 232). Still lower is the dairyman, who is in no way divine, yet has sanctity as one who maintains a condition of ceremonial purity. (4) Transmissibility. If, however, this activity originates at certain centres, it tends to spread therefrom in all directions. Dr F. B. Jevons (in An Introduction to the History of Religion, vii.) distinguishes between " things taboo," which have the mystic contagion inherent in them, and " things tabooed," to which the taboo-infection has been transmitted. In the former class he places supernatural beings (including men with mana as well as ghosts and spirits), blood, new-born children with their mothers, and corpses; which list might be considerably extended, for instance, by the inclusion of natural portents, and animals and plants such as are strikingly odd, dangerous or useful. Any one of these can pass on its sacred quality to other persons and objects (as a corpse defiles the mourner and his clothes), nay to actions, places and times as well (as a corpse will likewise cause work to be tabooed, ground to be set apart, a holy season to be observed). Such transmissibility is commonly explained by the association of ideas, that becoming sacred which as it were reminds one of the sacred; though it is important to add, firstly, that such association takes place under the influence of a selective interest generated by strong religious feeling, and, secondly, that this interest is primarily a collective product, being governed by a social tradition which causes certain possibilities of ideal com- bination alone to be realized, whilst it is the chief guarantee of the objectivity of what they suggest. The Exploitation of the Sacred. A. Methods. — It is hard to find terms general enough to cover dealings with the sacred that range from the manipulation of an almost inanimate type of power to intercourse modelled on that between man and man. Primitive religion, however, resorts to either way of approach so indifferently as to prove that there is little or no awareness of an inconsistency of attitude. The radical contrast between mechanical and spiritual religion, though fundamental for modern theology, is alien to the primitive point of view, and is therefore inappropriate to the purposes of anthropological description, (i) Acquisition. Mystic power may be regarded as innate so far as skill, luck or queerness are signs and con- ditions of its presence. On the whole, however, savage society tends to regard it as something acquired, the product of acts and abstinences having a traditional character for imparting magico- religious virtue. An external symbol in the shape of a ceremony or cult-object is of great assistance to the dim eye of primitive faith. Again, the savage universe is no preserve of man, but is an open field wherein human and non-human activities of all sorts compete on more or less equal terms, yet so that a certain measure of predominance may be secured by a judicious combination of forces. (2) Concentration. Hence the magico- religious society or individual practitioner piles ceremony on ceremony, name of power on name of power, relic on relic, to consolidate the forces within reach and assume direction thereof. The transmissibility of the sacred ensures the fusion of powers drawn from all sources, however disparate. (3) Induction. It is necessary, however, as it were to bring this force to a head. This would appear to be the essential significance of sacrifice, where a number of sacred operations and instruments are made to discharge their efficacy into the victim as into a vat, so that a blessing-yielding, evil-neutralizing force of highest attainable potency is obtained (see H. Hubert and M. Mauss, " Essai sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice" in L' Annie sociologique, ii.). (4) Renovation. An important motif in magico-religious ritual, which may not have been without effect on the development of sacrifice, is, as Dr Frazer's main thesis in The Golden Bough asserts, the imparting of reproductive energy to animals, plants and man himself, its cessation being suggested by such phenomena as old age and the fall of the year. To concentrate, induce and renovate are, however, but aspects of one process of acquisition by the transfusion of a transmissible energy. (5) Demission. Hubert and Mauss show in their penetrating analysis of sacrifice that after the rite has been brought to its culminating point there follows as a pendant a ceremony of re-entry into ordinary life, the idea of which is preserved in the Christian formula lie, missa est. (6) Insulation. Such deposition of sacredness is but an aspect of the wider method that causes a ring-fence to be erected round the sacred to ward off casual trespassers at once in their own interest and to prevent contamination. We see here a natural outcome of religious awe supported by the spirit of esotericism, and by a sense of the need for an expert handling of that which is so potent for good or ill. (7) Direction. This last consideration brings to notice the fact that throughout magico-religious practice of all kinds the human operator retains a certain control over the issue. In the numberless transitions that, whilst connecting, separate the spell and the prayer we observe as the accompaniment of every mood from extreme imperiousness to extreme humility an abiding will and desire to help the action out. Even " Thy will be done " preserves the echo of a direction, and, needless to say, this is hardly a form of primitive address. At the bottom is the vague feeling that it is man's own self-directed mysterious energy that is at work, however much it needs to be reinforced from without. Meanwhile, tradition strictly prescribes the ways and means of such reinforcement, so that religion becomes largely a matter of sacred lore; and the expert director of rites, who is likewise usually at this stage the leader of society, comes more and more to be needed as an intermediary between the lay portion of the community and the sacred powers. B. Results. — Hitherto our account of primitive religion has had to move on somewhat abstract lines. His religion is, however, anything but an abstraction to the savage, and stands rather for the whole of his concrete life so far as it is penetrated by a spirit of earnest endeavour. The end and result of primitive religion is, in a word, the consecration of life, the stimulation of the will to live and to do. This bracing of the vital feeling takes place by means of imaginative appeal to the great forces man perceives stirring within him and about him, such appeal proving effective doubtless by reason of the psychological law that to conceive strongly is xxm. 3 66 RELIGION [PRIMITIVE to imitate. Meanwhile, that there shall be no clashing of conceptions to inhibit the tendency of the idea of an acquired " grace " to realize itself in action, is secured by the complete unanimity of public opinion, dominated as it is by an inveterate custom. To appreciate the consecrating effect of religion on primitive life we have only to look to the cAwwiga-worship of the Central Australians (as described by Spencer and Gillen in The Native Tribes of Central Australia and The Northern Tribes of Central Australia). Contact with these repositories of mystic influence " makes them glad " (Nat. Tr. 165) ; it likewise makes them " good," so that they are no longer greedy or selfish (North. Tr. 266); it endows them with second sight (ibid.) ; it gives them confidence and success in war (Nat. Tr. 135) ; in fact, there is no end to its "strengthening" effects (ibid. «.). Or, again, we may note the earnestness and solemnity that characterize all their sacred ceremonies. The inwardness of primitive religion is, however, non-existent for those who observe it as uninitiated strangers; whilst, again, it evaporates as soon as native custom breaks down under pressure of civilization, when only fragments of meaningless superstition survive: wherefore do travesties of primitive religion abound. It remains to consider shortly the consecration of life in relation to particular categories and departments, (i) Educa- tion. Almost every tribe has its initiation ceremonies, and in many tribes adult life may almost be described as a continuous initiation. The object of these rites is primarily to impart mystic virtue to the novice, such virtue, in the eyes of the primitive man, being always something more than social use- fulness, amounting as it does to a share in the tribal luck by means of association with all it holds sacred. Incidentally the candidate is trained to perform his duties as a tribesman, but religion presides over the course, demanding earnest endeavour of an impressionable age. (2) Government. Where society is most primitive it is most democratic, as in Australia, and magico-religious powers are possessed by the whole body of fully initiated males, age, however, conferring increase of sacred lore and consequently of authority; whilst even at this stage the experts tend to form an inner circle of rulers. The man with mana is bound to come to the top, both because his gifts give him a start and because his success is taken as a sign that he has the gift. A decisive " moment " in the evolu- tion of chiefship is the recognition of hereditary mana, bound up as this is with the handing on of ceremonies and cult-objects. Invested, as society grows more complex, with a sanctity in- creasingly superior to that of the layman, the priest-king becomes the representative of the community as repository of its luck, whilst, as controller of all sacred forces that bear thereon, he is, as Dr Frazer puts it, " dynamical centre of the universe" (The Golden Bough (2nd ed.), i. 233). Only when the holy man's duty to preserve his holiness binds him hand and foot in a network of taboos does his temporal power tend to devolve on a deputy. (3) Food-supply. In accordance with the principle of Renovation (see above), the root-idea of the appli- cation of religion to economics is not the extorting of boons from an unwilling nature, but rather the stimulation of the sources of life, so that all beings alike may increase and multiply. (4) Food-taking. Meanwhile, the primitive meal is always more or less of a sacrament, and there are many food-taboos, the significance of which is, however, not so much that certain foods are unclean and poisonous as that they are of special virtue and must be partaken of solemnly and with circum- spection. (5) Kinship. It is hard to say whether the unit of primitive society is the tribe or the group of kinsmen. Both are forms of union that are consolidated by means of religious usages. Thus in Australia the initiation ceremonies, concerned as they partly are with marriage, always an affair between the kin-groups, are tribal, whilst the totemic rites are the prime concern of the members of the totem clans. The significance of a common name and a common blood is immensely enhanced by its association with mystic rights and duties, and the pulse of brotherhood beats faster. (6) The Family. Side by side with the kin there is always found the domestic group, but the latter institution develops fully only as the former weakens, so that the one comes largely to inherit the functions of the other, whilst the tribe too in its turn hands over certain interests. Thus in process of time birth-rites, marriage-rites, funeral- rites, not to mention subordinate ceremonies such as those of name-giving and food-taking, become domestic sacraments. (7) Sex. Woman, for certain physiological reasons, is always for primitive peoples hedged round with sanctity, whilst man does all he can to inspire awe of his powers in woman by keep- ing religion largely in his own hands. The result, so far as woman is concerned, is that, in company with those males who are endowed with sacredness in a more than ordinary degree, she tends as a sex to lose in freedom as much as she gains in respect. (8) Personality. Every one has his modicum of innate mana, or at least may develop it in himself by com- municating with powers that can be brought into answering relation by the proper means. Nagualism, or the acquisition of a mystic guardian, is a widely distributed custom, the essence of which probably consists in the procuring of a personal name having potency. The exceptional man is recognized as having mana in a special degree, and a belief thus held at once by others and by himself is bound to stimulate his individuality. The primitive community is not so custom-bound that per- sonality has no chance to make itself felt, and the leader of men possessed of an inner fund of inspiration is the wonder- worker who encourages all forms of social advance. Psychology of the Primitive Attitude towards the Sacred. — We are on firmer ground when simply describing the phenomena of primitive religion than when seeking to account for these in terms of natural law — in whatever sense the conception of natural law be applicable to the facts of the mental life of man. One thing is certain, namely, that savages stand on virtually one footing with the civilized as regards the type of explanation appropriate to their beliefs and practices. We have no right to refer to " instincts " in the case of primitive man, any more at any rate than we have in our own case. A child of civilized parents brought up from the first amongst savages is a savage, neither more nor less. Though race may count for something in the matter of mental endowment — and at least it would seem to involve differences in weight of brain — it clearly counts for much less than does milieu, to wit, that social environment of ideas and institutions which depends so largely for its effectiveness on mechanical means of tradition, such as the art of writing. The outstanding feature of the mental life of savages known to psychologists as " primitive creduh'ty " is doubtless chiefly due to sheer want of diversity of suggestiveness in their intellectual surroundings. Their notions stick fast because there are no competing notions to dislodge them. Society suffers a sort of perpetual obsession, and remains self-hypnotized as it were within a magic circle of traditional views. A rigid orthodoxy is sustained by means of purblind imitation assisted by no little persecution. Such changes as occur come about, not in conse- quence of a new direction taken by conscious policy, but rather in the way that fashions in dress alter amongst ourselves, by subconscious, hardly purposive drifting. The crowd rather than the individual is the thinking unit. A proof is the mysterious rapid extinction of savages the moment that their group-life is broken up; they are individually so many lost sheep, without self-reliance or initiative. And the thinking power of a crowd — that is, a mob, not a deliberative assembly — is of a very low order, emotion of a " panicky " type driving it hither and thither like a rudderless ship. However, as the students of mob-psychology have shown, every crowd tends to have its meneur, its mob-leader, the man who sets the cheering or starts the running-away. So too, then, with the primitive society. Grossly ignorant of all that falls outside " the daily round, the common task," they are full of panicky fears in regard to this unknown, and the primary attitude of society towards it is sheer avoidance, taboo. But the mysterious has another face. To the mob the mob-leader is mysterious in his power of bringing luck and salvation; to himself also he is a wonder, since he wills, and lo ! things happen accordingly. He has HIGHER RELIGIONS] RELIGION 67 mana, power, and by means of this mana, felt inwardly by himself, acknowledged by his fellows, he stems the social impulse to run away from a mystery. Not without nervous dread — witness the special taboo to which the leader of society is subject — he draws near and strives to constrain, conciliate or cajole the awful forces with which the life of the group is set about. He enters the Holy of Holies; the rest remain without, and are more than half afraid of their mediator. In short, from the standpoint of lay society, the manipulator of the sacred is himself sacred, and shares in all the associations of sacred- ness. An anthropomorphism which is specifically a " mago- morphism " renders the sacred powers increasingly one with the governing element in society, and religion assumes an ethico- political character, whilst correspondingly authority and law are invested with a deeper meaning. The Abuse of the Sacred. — Lest our picture of primitive religion appear too brightly coloured, a word must be said on the perversions to which the exploitation of the sacred is liable. Envy, malice and uncharitableness are found in primitive society, as elsewhere, and in their behoof the mystic forces are not unfrequently unloosed by those who know how to do so. To use the sacred to the detriment of the community, as does, for instance, the expert who casts a spell, or utters a prayer, to his neighbour's hurt, is what primitive society understands by magic (cf. arungquillha, above), and anthropology has no business to attach any other meaning to the word if it under- takes to interpret the primitive point of view. On the other hand, if those in authority perpetrate in the name of what their society holds sacred, and therefore with its full approval, acts that to the modern mind are cruel, silly or revolting, it is bad science and bad ethics to speak of vice and degradation, unless it can be shown that the community in which these things occur is thereby brought nearer to elimination in the struggle for existence. As a matter of fact, the earlier and more demo- cratic types of primitive society, uncontaminated by our civilization, do not present many features to which the modern conscience can take exception, but display rather the edifying spectacle of religious brotherhoods encouraging themselves by mystical communion to common effort. With the evolution of rank, however, and the concentration of magico-religious power in the hands of certain orders, there is less solidarity and more individualism, or at all events more opportunity for sectional interests to be pursued at other than critical times; whereupon fraud and violence are apt to infect religion. Indeed, as the history of the higher religions shows, religion tends in the end to break away from secular government with its aristocratic traditions, and to revert to the more democratic spirit of the primitive age, having by now obtained a clearer consciousness of its purpose, yet nevertheless clinging to the inveterate forms of human ritual as still adequate to symbolize the consecration of life — the quickening of the will to face life earnestly. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The number of works dealing with primitive religion is endless. The English reader who is more or less new to the subject is recommended to begin with E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture (4th ed., Lond. 1903), and then to proceed to J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough (2nd ed., Lond. 1900). The latter author's Lectures on the Early History of the Kingship (Lond. 1905) may also be consulted. Only second in importance to the above are W. Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (2nd ed., Lond. 1904); A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion (2nd ed., Lond. 1899), and Magic and Religion (Lond. 1902); E. S. Hartland, The Legend of Perseus (Lond. 1894-1896) ; F. B. Jevons, An Introduction to the History of Religion (2nd ed., 1902); E. Crawley, The Mystic Rose (Lond. 1902), and The Tree of Life (Lond. 1905). The two last- mentioned works perhaps most nearly represent the views taken in the text, which are also developed by the present writer in " Pre- Animistic Religion," Folk-Lore xi. (1900), " From Spell to Prayer," Folk-Lore, xv. (1904), and " Is Taboo a Negative Magic?" Anthropo- logical Essays presented to E. B. Tylor (1907); L. R. Farnell, The Evolution of Religion (1905), follows similar lines. The present writer owes something to Goblet d'Alviella, Hibbert Lectures (Lond. 1891), and more to H. Hubert and M. Mauss, " Essai sur la nature et la fonction du sacrifice," L'Annee sociologique, ii. ; and " Esquisse d'unc th6orie g6ne>ale de la magie," ibid. vii. If the reader wish to keep pace with the output of literature on this vast subject, he will find L'Annee sociologique (1896 onwards) a wonderfully complete bibliographical guide. Side by side with works of general theory, first-hand authorities should be freely used. To make a selection from these is not easy, but the following at least are very important: R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians (Oxford, 1891); W. B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia (Lond. 1899); The Northern Tribes of Central Australia (Lond. 1904); A. W. Howitt, The Native Tribes of South-Eastern Australia (Lond. 1904); A. C. Haddon, Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits (Cambridge, 1904, vol. v.); A. B. Ellis, The Tshi-Speaking Peoples of the Gold Coast (Lond. 1897); The Ewe-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (Lond. 1890); The Yoruba-Speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast (Lond. 1894); Miss M. H. Kingsley, Travels in West Africa (Lond. 1898), and West African Studies (Lond. 1899); A. C. Hollis, The Masai (1905); W. Crooke, The North-West Pro- vinces of India (Lond. 1897); W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas (1906). An immense amount of valuable evidence is to be obtained in the Reports of the Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Wash- ington. See Nos. 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, n, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, and specially J. O. Dorsey, A Study of Siouan Cults, in No. n ; A. C. Fletcher, The Hako, in No. 22; and M. C. Stevenson, The Zuni Indians, in No. 23. Though dealing primarily with a more advanced culture, J. J. M.deGroot, The Religious System of China (1892-1901), will be found to throw much light on primitive ideas. Finally let it be repeated that there is offered here no more than an introduc- tory course of standard authorities suitable for the English reader. (R. R. M.) B. THE HIGHER RELIGIONS Various phenomena associated with the religions of the lower culture will be found discussed in the articles on ANIMISM; FETISHISM; MAGIC; MYTHOLOGY; PRAYER; RITUAL; SACRIFICE; and TOTEMISM. In this article religions .are treated from the point of view of morphology, and no attempt can be made in the allotted limits to connect them with the phases of ritual, sociological or ethical development. See the separate articles on each religious system, and the separate headings for different forms of ritual. i. Developments oj Animism. — Animism is not, indeed, itself a religion; it is rather a primitive kind of philosophy which provides the intellectual form for the interpretation alike of Man and of Nature. It implies that the first great step has been taken for distinguishing between the material objects — whether the conscious body, or the rocks, trees and animals — and the powers that act in or through them. The Zunis of New Mexico, U.S.A., supposed " the sun, moon and stars, the sky, earth and sea, in all their phenomena and elements, and all inanimate objects as well as plants, animals and men, to belong to one great system of all-conscious and interrelated life, in which the degrees of relationship seem to be deter- mined largely, if not wholly, by the degrees of resemblance."1 If the earliest conception is that of an obscure undifferentiated animation (panvitalism) , the analysis of the human person into body and spirit with the corresponding doctrine of " object- souls " (e.g. the tornait or " invisible rulers " of every object among the Eskimo)2 constitutes an important development. Matter is no longer animated or self-acting; it is subject to the will of an agent which can enter or quit it, perhaps at its own pleasure, perhaps at the compulsion of another. The transition has usually been effected ages before the higher religions come into view; but it has left innumerable traces in language and custom. Thus the Vedic hymns, which ex- hibit the deposits of so many stages of thought, are founded ultimately on the conception of the animation of nature. The objects of the visible world are themselves mighty to hurt or help. The springs and rivers, the wind, the sun, fire, the Earth-Mother, the Sky-Father, are all active powers. The animals, domesticated or wild, like the horse or cow, the guardian dog, the bird of omen, naturally share the same life, and are approached with the same invocation. The sacred energy is also discerned in the ritual implements, in the stones for squeezing the soma-juice, and the sacrificial post to which animals were bound; nay, it was even recognized in fabricated products like the plough (the " tearer " or " divider "), the 1 F. H. Gushing, on " Zuni Fetiches " in Second Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington, 1883, p. 9. 2 Dr. Franz Boas, in the Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1888, p. 591. 68 RELIGION [HIGHER RELIGIONS war-car, the drum, quiver, bow and axe. The Earth-Mother and Sky-Father are to be found again and again in religions, at various stages of development, as co-ordinating conceptions which comprehend the universe.1 Sometimes one is more prominent, sometimes the other. In many cases the Sky has been already resolved into the visible firmament and its lord and owner, like the Yoruban Olorun or the Finnic Ukko. The consort of Ukko is Maan-emo, " mother of the earth," or maan emantii, " mistress of the earth." But the rare expression maan-emS, " Mother-earth," still used in the ancient lays,2 points to the older type of belief in the animation of the pro- ductive soil. So the Peruvians designated the Earth as Pacha- mama, " mother of (all) things." In Egypt the relation was curiously reversed; the earth-god Keb was the husband of Nut, the sky, represented sometimes as a woman, overarching the earth and supported on hands and feet, sometimes as a gigantic cow, upheld on the outstretched hands of Shu, the atmosphere.3 When earth and sky were still unseparated, Shu thrust himself between them and raised Nut to the heights. So in the New Zealand myth, Rangi and Papa, Sky and Earth, who once clave together in the darkness, were rent asunder by the forest-god Tane-mahuta, who forced up the sky far above him.4 The most elaborate presentment of this mode of thought is to be seen in the organized animism of the ancient state religion of China, where the supreme power is lodged in the living sky (Tien).6 Tien was originally the actual firma- ment. In the Shi-King it is addressed in prayer as " great and wide," as " vast and distant "; it is even " blue " (Pt. II. v. 6, 5). So it is the ancestor of all things; and Heaven and Earth are the father and mother of the world. From the imperial point of view the sky bore the name of Ti, " ruler," or Shang Ti, "supreme ruler" (emperor); and later com- mentators readily took advantage of this to discriminate between the visible expanse and the indwelling spirit, producing a kind of Theism. But the older conception still holds its own. " Why " (says Edkins, Religion in China, 95), " they have been often asked, should you speak of those things which are dead matter, fashioned from nothing by the hand of God, as living beings? And why not? they have replied. The Sky pours down rain and sunshine; the Earth produces corn and grass. We see them in perpetual movement, and we therefore say that they are living." Tien Ti, Fu Mu, " Heaven and Earth, Father and Mother," are conjoined in common speech, and are the supreme objects of imperial worship. The great altar to Heaven, round in shape like the circuit of the sky, and white as the symbol of the light principle (Yang), stands in the southern suburb of Peking in the direction of light and heat. The altar to the Earth is dark and square, on the north side of the city, the region of yin, the principle of cold and gloom. Associated with the Sky are tablets to the sun and moon, the seven stars of the Great Bear, the five planets, the twenty-eight constellations, and all the stars of heaven; tablets to clouds, rain, wind and thunder being placed next to that of the moon. With the Earth are grouped the tablets to the five lofty Mountains, the three Hills of perpetual peace and the four Seas, the five celebrated Mountains and the four great Rivers.6 The ancient ritual (Chow Li) carefully graded the right of sacrifice from the viceroys of provinces down to the humblest district-superintendent who offered to the spirits of his district, the hills, lakes and grains. With these spirits ranged in feudal order in two vast groups beneath Heaven and Earth is associated a third class, those of human beings. They are designated by the same name, shin; and they are in- 1 The Japanese name is Ame-tsuchi, " heaven and earth," a trans- lation of the Chinese ten-chi, Aston, Shinto (1905), p. 35. 2 Castren, Finnische Mythologie, p. 86. 8 Erman, Handbook of Egyptian Religion (1907), pp. 8, 12. 4 Sir George Grey, Polynesian Mythology (1855), pp. 1-4. 6 The English " Heaven " has acquired a quasi-personal mean- ing, and is usually employed as its equivalent, but, like the Jewish use (e.g. Luke xv. 18), tends to carry too definite religious associa- tions with it. • Blodget, on " The Chinese Worship of Heaven and Earth," Journ. of the American Oriental Society, xx. p. 58 ff. extricably mingled with the operations of nature. So in the Vedic hymns the departed " Fathers " inhabit the three zones of earth, air and sky; they are invoked with the streams and mountains of this lower earth, as well as with the dawns and the sky itself; even cosmic functions are ascribed to them; and they adorn the heaven with stars. The Chinese concep- tion of the Shin under the name of Shin-to (Chinese too) or " spirits'-way " profoundly influenced Japanese thought from the 6th century A.D. onwards; and the great Shinto revival of the i8th century brought the doctrine again into prominence. The Japanese Kami are the " higher " powers, the superi, conceived as acting through nature on the one hand and govern- ment on the other. Just as the emperor is kami , and provincial officers of rank, so also mountains, rivers, the sea, thunder, winds, and even animals like the tiger, wolf or fox, are all kami.1 The spirits of the dead also become kami, of varying character and position; some reside in the temples built in their honour; some hover near their tombs; but they are constantly active,. mingling in the vast multitude of agencies which makes every event in the universe, in the language of Motowori (1730-1801), the act of the Kami. They direct the changing seasons, the wind and the rain; and the good and bad fortunes of individuals, families and states are due to them.8 Everywhere from birth to death the entire life of man is encompassed and guided by the Kami, which are sometimes reckoned at 8,000,000 in number. 2. Transition to Polytheism. — In such ways does the Poly- daemonism of early faith survive in the modern practice of religion. The process of enrolling the spirits of the dead in the ranks of what may be more or less definitely called " gods " may be seen in the popular usages of India at the present day, or traced in the pages of the Peking Gazette under the direction of the Board of Rites, one of the most ancient branches of Chinese administration. Whether the higher polytheisms were produced in this fashion out of the cultus of the dead, may, however, be doubted. Many influences have doubtless contri- buted,' and different races have followed different lines of development. No definite succession like the series of ages marked by the use of stone, bronze and iron can be clearly marked. But there must always have been some correspondence between the stages of social advance (or, in certain cases, of degeneration) and the religious interpretation of the world. The formation of clans and tribes, the transitions from the hunting to the pastoral life, and from the pastoral to the agricultural— the struggle with forest and swamp, the clearings for settlement, the protection of the dwelling-place, the safety of flocks and herds, the production of corn, — the migration of peoples, the founding of colonies, the processes of conquest, fusion, and political union — have all reacted on the elaboration of the higher polytheisms, before bards and poets, priesthoods and theological speculators, began to systematize and regulate the relations of the gods. Certain phases of thought may be more or less clearly indicated ; certain elements of race, of local condition, of foreign contact, may be distinguished with more or less historic probability; but no single key can explain , all the wide diversity of phenomena. Broadly speaking it may be said that a distinction may be drawn between " spirits " and " gods," but it is a distinction of degree rather than of kind,. obvious enough at the upper end, yet shading off into manifold varieties of resemblance in the lower forms. Some writers. only recognize friendly agencies as gods; but destructive powers like the volcano, or the lords of the underworld, cannot be regarded as the protectors of the life of man, yet they seem in many mythologies to attain the full personalised stature of gods with definite names. Early Greek religion recognized a class of gods of Aversion and Riddance, ATrorpoirotot and ioi. Neither the spirit nor the god is conceived as ' So the epithet 'el might be applied in Hebrew to men of might, to lofty cedars, or mountains of unusual height, as well as to the Supreme Being. 8 See E. M. Satow, " Revival of Pure Shinto, Trans. As. 6oc. of Japan, vol. iii. pt. I (1875), Appendix, p. 26. HIGHER RELIGIONS] RELIGION 69 immaterial. They can take food, though the crudest form of this belief soon passes into the more refined notion that they consume the impalpable essence of the meals provided for them. The ancient Indian ritual for the sacrifice to the Fathers required the officiating priest to turn away with bated breath that he might not see the spirits engaged upon the rice-balls laid out for them. The elastic impalpable stufi of the spirit-body is apparently capable of compression or expansion, just as Athena can transform herself into a bird. The spirits can pass swiftly through the air or the water; they can enter the stone or the tree, the animal or the man. The spirit-land of the Ibo on the Lower Niger had its rivers, forests or hills, its towns and roads, as upon earth:1 the spirits of the Mordvinian mythology, created by Chkai, not only resembled men, they even possessed the faculty of reproduction by multiplication.2 The Finns ascribed a haltia or genius to each object, which could, how- ever, guard other individuals of the same species. This is the beginning of the species-god, and implies a step of thought comparable to the production in language of general terms. These protecting spirits were free beings, having form and shape, but not individualized; while above them rose the higher deities like the forest-god Tapio and his maiden Hillervo, protectress of herds, or Ahto the water-god who gradually took the place of Vesi, the actual element originally conceived as itself divine, and ruled over the spirits of lakes and rivers, wells and springs.3 The Finns came to apply to the upper gods the term Yumala which originally denoted the living sky; the Samoyedes made the same use of Num, and the Mongols of Tengri.4 Above the innumerable wongs of the Gold Coast rose Nyongmo, the Sky-god, giver of the sunshine and the rain. The Yoruba-speaking peoples generalized the spirits of mountain and hill into Oke, god of heights; and the multitude of local sea-gods on the western half of the slave coast was fused into one god of the Ocean, Olokun. 6 The Babylonian theology recognized a Zi or " spirit " in both men and gods, somewhat resembling the Egyptian " double " or ka; spirits are classed as spirits of heaven and spirits of earth; but the original identity of gods and spirits may be inferred from the fact that the same sign stands before the names of both.6 Out of the vast mass of undifferentiated powers certain functional deities appear; and the Kami of Japan to-day who preside over the gilds and crafts of industry and agriculture, over the trees and grasses of the field, the operations of the household, and even the kitchen- range, the saucepan, the rice-pot, the well, the garden, the scarecrow and the privy, have their counterparts in the lists of ancient Rome, the indigitamenta over whose contents Tertullian and Augustine made merry. The child was reared under the superintendence of Educa and Potina. Abeona and Adeona taught him to go out and in. Cuba guarded him when he was old enough to exchange a cradle for a bed. Ossipaga strengthened his bones; Levana helped him to get up, and Statina to stand.7 There were 'powers protecting the threshold, the door and the hinge: and the duties of the house, the farm, the mill, had each its appointed guardian. But such powers were hardly persons. The settler who went into the woods might know neither the name nor the sex -of the indwelling numen; "si deus si dea," " sive mas sive femina," ran the old formulae.8 So the Baals 1 Leonard, The Lower Niger and its Tribes (1906), p. 186. 2 Mainof, " Les Restes de la mythologie mordvine," Journal de la Soc. Finno-Ougrienne, v. (1889), p. 102. 3 Castrdn, Finn. Mythol. pp. 92 ff., 72. 4 Ibid. pp. 7, 14, 17, 24. 6 A. B. Ellis, The Yoruba-speaking Peoples (1894), P- 289. 6 Jastrow, Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (1898), p. 181. The Zufiis applied the term a-h&i " All-Life " or " the Beings " to all supernatural beings, men, animals, plants, and many objects in nature regarded as personal existences, as well as to the higher anthropomorphic powers known as " Finishers or Makers of the Paths of Life," Report of Bureau of Ethnol. (1883), p. II. On the distinction between " gods " and " spirits," cf. Ed. Meyer, Gesch. des Alterlhums, 2nd ed. Band i. erste Haelfte (1907), p. 97 ff. 7 Tert. DeAnima, 39 Aug. De Civ. Dei, iv. n, &c. 8 On the Dei Certi and the Dei Incerti, see von Domaszewski in the Archivfur Religionswiss., x. (1907), pp. 1-17. of the Semitic peoples constituted a group of powers fertilizing the land with water-springs, the givers of corn and wine and oil, out of which under £onditions of superior political development a high-god like the Tyrian Baal, the majestic City-King, might be evolved. The Celts who saw the world peopled with the spirits of trees and animals, rocks, mountains, springs and rivers, grouped them in classes like the Dervonnae (oak-spirits), the Niskai (water-spirits), the Proximae, the Matronae (earth- goddesses)' and the like. Below the small band of Teutonic divinities were the elves of forest and field, the water-elves or nixes and spirits of house and home. The Vedic deities of the nobler sort, the shining devas, the asuras (the " breathers " or living, perhaps to be identified with the Scandinavian asir) rose above a vast multitude of demonic powers, many of them doubtless derived from the local customs and beliefs of the native races whom the immigrant Aryans subdued. In the earliest literary record of Greek religion Homer distinguishes between the 0£os and the Saiftuv, the personalized god and the numen or divine power. In Homer the element of time is definitely recognized. The gods are the " Immortals." They are born, and their parentage is known, but they do not die. Zeus is not self-existent in the sense in which the Indian Brahma, is svayambhu, but certain questions have been by implication asked and answered, which the demonology of the savage has not yet raised. But behind Homer stretches the dim scene of pre-Hellenic religion, and the conflict of elements " Pelasgic," oriental and Hellenic, out of which the Homeric religion emerged;- and beneath the Homeric religion how many features of the religion of ghosts and nature-spirits survived in popular usage and the lower cults!10 When Herodotus (ii. 53) tried to trace the origin of the beliefs around him, he found his way back to an age before Hesiod or Homer, when the gods were nameless. To that age the traditions preserved at Dodona bore witness; and the designations of special groups like the 0eoi lieyiaroi, 6toi (iti\ixioi, dtol irpat-ioiKai, or, possibly, the Venerable Goddesses (6eai atnvai) of Athens, point to a mode of thought when the divine Powers were not definitely in- dividualized. They are just at the point of transition from the ranks of spirits to the higher classes of the gods. As they had no names, they had no relations. Nor had any images yet been made of them. They were associated with hallowed trees, with sacred stones and pillars, out of which came the square rough-hewn Hermae which were anointed with oil like the sacred stone attributed by legend to Jacob at Bethel.11 By what processes the Hellenic immigration introduced new deities and the Greek pantheon was slowly formed, can only be conjecturally traced with the help of archaeology. But Herodotus and Aeschylus were well aware that the religion of Greece had not been uniformly the same; and the gods whom they knew had been developed out of intercourse with other peoples and the succession of races in the obscure and distant past. 3. Polytheism. — The lower and unprogressive religions practically remain in the polydaemonistic stage, though not without occasionally feeling the stimulus of contact with higher faiths, like some of the West African peoples in the presence of the Mahommedan advance. Among the more progressive races, on the other hand, continual processes of elevation and decline may be observed, and the activities of the greater gods are constantly being enriched with new functions. Personal or social experiences of the satisfaction of some desire or escape from some danger are referred to some particular deity. Ele- ments of race-consciousness help to shape the outlook on nature or life: and slight differences of linguistic use in the coining of descriptive terms sometimes lead to the multiplication of divine forms. Exacter observation of nature; closer attention to its contrasts of life and death, or light and darkness, or male and 9 Cf . the groups of " Mothers " in modern India, of various origins, Crooke, Popular Religion and Folklore (2), i. in. 10 Cf . Andrew Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion ; and Miss Harrison, Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion. 11 Cf. A. J. Evans, on The Mycenean Tree and Pillar Cult (1901), and Sir W. M. Ramsay, " Religion of Greece and Asia Minor," in Hastings' Diet, of the Bible, extra vol. RELIGION [HIGHER RELIGIONS female; the distinction between its permanent objects, and its occasional or recurring operations; the recognition that behind sudden manifestations of power, like the thunder-storm, there are steady forces and continuous cosmic agencies at work — lead to the gradual rise of the higher deities. And from the social side the development of law, the influence of city life, the formation of priesthoods, the connexion of particular deities with the fortunes of dynasties or the vicissitudes of nations, the processes of migration, of conquest and political fusion, the deportations of vanquished peoples, even the sale of slaves to distant lands and the growth of trade and travel, all contribute to the processes which expand and modify different pantheons, and determine the importance of particular deities. In the midst of the bewildering variety, where all types co-exist together and act and react on each other, it is impossible to do more than point out some obvious groups receiving their special forms chiefly from the side (i) of nature, (2) of human life, and (3) from moral or theological speculation. Divine persons, objects or powers, connected with ritual, are not here considered, such as the Brahman priests who claimed to be manushyadevah (human-gods), or the sacred soma-juice which grew by strange analogies into a mysterious element, linking together heaven and earth. I. On the side of Nature the lowest rank (i) seems to belong to what Usener has designated " momentary " or " occasional " gods.1 They embody for the time being a vague consciousness of the divine, which is concentrated for some single act into an outward object, like a warrior's spear or the thunderbolt,2 or the last sheaf of corn into which the Corn-Mother has been driven.3 (2) Above these, to use again Usener's nomenclature,4 are the " special " or *• functional " gods, " departmental gods," as Mr Lang has called them. Such were some of the deities of the Indigitamenta already compared with the Japanese Kami. Among them, for example, were twelve deities of ploughing and harvest operations, who were invoked with Tellus and Ceres. (3) Another class may be seen in the species- deities previously named; the Samoan gods which could become incarnate as a heron or an owl, did not die with particular birds. A dead owl was not a dead god; he yet lived in all other owls.5 (4) The worship of trees, plants and animals is a particular phase of the wider series of nature-cults, only named here because of its frequency and its obvious survivals in some of the higher polytheisms, where, as in Egypt, the Apis bulls were. worshipped; or where, as in Mesopotamia, the great gods are partly symbolized by animal forms; or where, as in Israel, Yahweh might be represented as a bull; or where, as in Greece, such epithets as Dendrites and Endendros preserved traces of the association of Dionysus and Zeus with vegetation; while sacred animals like the serpents of Aesculapius were preserved in the temples.6 (s) The higher elemental gods sometimes, like the sun, as the Indian Surya, the Egyptian Re, the Babylonian Shamash (Samas), the Greek Helios, retain their distinct connexion with the visible object. It was naturally more easy for a relatively spiritual worship to gather round a god whose name did not immediately suggest a familiar body. No one ever thought of confessing sin, for instance, to a river. But the dally survey of the sun (occasionally also the function of the moon as measurer of time), together with his importance for life, secured him a high moral rank; and R6, united with the Theban Ammon, became (under the New Empire) the leading god of Egypt for a thousand years, " He who hath made all, the sole One with many hands." Other deities, like Zeus, rise to the head of a monarchical polytheism, in which their physical base is almost, 1 Gotternamen, Bonn, 1896, p. 279 ff. But cp. Dr Farnell's essay " On the Place of the Sonder-Gottcr in Greek Polytheism," in Anthropological Essays presented to Edward Burnett Tylor (1907), p. 81. * Ibid. pp. 285, 286. * Frazer, The Golden Bough (2), ii. 170-1. 4 Gotternamen, p. 75. 'Turner, Samoa, 1884, p. 21. 6 Cf. de Visser, Die nicht Menschen-Gestaltigen Cotter der Griechen (Leiden, 1903). if not quite, forgotten in cosmic and moral grandeur. The gods are often arranged in groups, three, seven and twelve Being frequent numbers. Egyptian summaries recognized gods in the sky, on earth and in the water; gods of the north and south, the east and west, gods of the field and the cities. Indian theologians classified them in three zones, earth, air and sky. Babylonian speculation embraced the world in a triad of divine powers, Anu the god of heaven, Bel of earth and Ea of the deep; and these became the symbols of the order of nature, the divine embodiments of physical law.7 Sometimes the number three is reached by the distribution of the universe into sky, earth and underworld, and the gods of death claim their place as the rulers of the world to come. Among these deities all kinds of relationships are displayed; consorts must be provided for the unwedded, and the family conception, as distinct from the regal, presents a divine father, mother and child. The Ibani in Southern Nigeria recognized Adum the father-god, Okoba the mother-god and Eberebo the son-god.8 In Egypt, Osiris, Isis and Horus proved an influential type. Perhaps at a relatively earlier stage maternity alone is emphatically asserted, as in the figure of the Cretan Mother, productive without distinctly sexual character.9 Or, again, maternity disappears, while parenthood survives, and causation is embodied in a universal " Father of all that are and are to be," like the Indian Brahma in the days of Gotama the Buddha."10 II. On the human side polytheism receives fresh groups in connexion with the development of social institutions and national feeling, (i) In the family the hearth-fire is the scene of the protecting care of deity; the gods of the household watch over its welfare. Each Roman householder had his Genius, the women their Junones. These stood at a higher level than the " occasional gods," having permanent functions of supervision. (2) From the household a series of steps embodied the divine power in higher forms for social and political ends. Hestia presided over cities; there was even a common Hestia for all Greece. The frmashi or ideal type, the genius of both men and gods in the Zend Avesta (possibly connected originally with the cultus of the dead u) , rises in successive ranks from the worshipper's own person through the household, the village, the district and the province, up to the throne of Ahura himself.12 The Chinese Shin were similarly organized; so (less elaborately) were the Japanese Kami;13 and the Roman lares, the old local land-gods, found their highest co-ordinating term in the Lares Augusti, just as the Genius was extended to the legion and the colony, and finally to Rome itself. (3) In the case of national deities the tie between god and people is peculiarly close, as when Yahweh of Israel is pitted against Chemosh of Ammon (Judges xi. 24) . The great gods of Greece, in their functions as " saviours " and city-guardians, acquire new moral characters, and become really different gods, though they retain the old names. Ashur rises into majestic sovereignty as the " Ruler of all the gods," the supreme religious form of Assyrian sway: when the empire falls beneath the revived power of Babylon, he fades away and disappears. (4) The earthly counterpart of the heavenly monarch is the divine king, who may be traced back in Egypt, for example, to the remotest antiquity,14 and who survives to-day among the civilized powers in the emperor of Japan (anciently Arahito-gami, " incarnate Kami "). " To the end of time," 7 Jastrow, Rel. of Babylonia, p. 432. 8 Leonard , The Lower Niger and its Tribes, p. 354. 9 Cf. Farnell, Cults of Greece, iii. 295. wDigha Nikaya, i. 18. 11 This is denied by Tiele, Religion im Altertum, tr. Gehrich, ii. (1898), p. 259. 12 Cf. Yasna, Jxxi. iSfS.B.E. xxxi. p. 331; and Soderblom's essay in the Rev. de I'hist. des religions, xxxix. (1899), pp. 229, 373. 13 Hirata's morning prayer in the last century included 800 myriads of celestial kami, 800 myriads of ancestral kami, the 1500 myriads to whom are consecrated the great and small temples in all provinces, all islands, and all places of the great land of eight islands, &c. 14 Moret, Du caractere religieux de la royaute pharaonique (1902). For instances in the lower culture see Frazer, Golden Bough (2), i. 140 ff. HIGHER RELIGIONS] RELIGION 71 said Motowori (i8th century), " the Mikado is the child of the Sun-goddess." (5) The dead hero (historical or mythic) signalizes his power by gracious saving acts; and Heracles, Asclepius, Amphiaraus, and others pass into the ranks of the gods, which are thus continually recruited from below. III. A third great group rises out of the sentiments and affections of man, or the moral energies which he sees working in human life, (i) The Vedic Craddha, " faith," the Greek Metameleia, " repentance," 1 the Latin Spes, and a band of other figures, represent the dispositions of the heart; Nemesis and Nike and Concordia and their kin belong to a somewhat different sphere, the divine powers avenging, conquering, harmonizing the counterparts of the " departmental " gods in the field of moral agencies. (2) Over these theological speculation erects a few lofty and impressive forms; sometimes below the highest, like Vohu Mano, " the Good Mind " of Ahura Mazda; or the Bodhisattva Avalokitec. vara, who vowed not to enter into final peace till every creature had received the saving truth; some- times supreme, like Brahma or Prajapati (" lord of creatures ") in the early Brahmanic theology; or Adi Buddha, or the Zervan Akarana, " boundless time," of a kind of Persian gnosticism; or the Qe& ity-ioros whose worship appears among other syncretistic cults of the Roman empire. 4. The Order of N attire. —Polytheism is here on the way to monotheism, and this tendency receives significant support from the recognition of an order in nature which is the ground and framework of social ethics. Not only does a sky-god like Varuna, or a sun-god like the Babylonian Shamash, survey all human things, and take cognizance of the evil-doer, but the daily course of the world is itself the expression of an intellectual and moral power. In the Chinese combination of Heaven and Earth as the parents and nourishers of all things, the energy and action lie with Tien, Earth being docile and receptive. Tien is intelligent and all-observing, and its " sincerity " or stead- fastness, displayed in the courses of the sun and moon and the succession of the seasons, becomes the basis of right human conduct, personal and social. The " way " of Heaven, the " course " of Heaven, the " lessons " of Heaven, the law or " decree " (ming) of Heaven, are constantly cited as the pattern for the emperor and his subjects. This conception is even reflected in human nature: " Heaven in giving birth to the multitude of the people, to every faculty and relationship affixed its laws " (Shi King, III. iii. 6; cf. IV. iii. 2, tr. Legge), and the " Grand Unity " forms the source of all moral order (Li Ki, in Sacred Books of the East, xxvii. p. 387). Indian thought pre- sented this Order in a semi-personal form. The great elemental gods imposed their laws (dhaman, dharman, vrata) on the visible objects of nature, the flow of rivers, the march of the heavenly bodies across the sky. But the idea of Law was generalized in the figure of Rita (what is " fitted " or " fixed "; or the " course " or " path " which is traversed), whose Zend equivalent asha shows that the conception had been reached before the separation of the Eastern Aryans produced the migrations into India and Iran.2 In the Rig Veda the gods (even those of storm) are again and again described as " born from the Rita," or born in it, according to it, or of it. Even Heaven and Earth rejoice in the womb or lap of the Rita. In virtue of the mystic identity between the cosmic phenomena and sacrifice, Rita may be also viewed as the principle of the cultus; and from that sphere it passes into conduct and acquires the meaning of morality and is equated with what is " true." The fundamental idea remains the same in the Zend Asha, its philological counterpart, but it is applied with a difference. Its form is more personal, for Asha is one of the six Holy Immortals round the throne of Ahura Mazda (Auramazda). In the primeval conflict between the powers of good and evil, the Bounteous Spirit chose Asha, the Righteous Order which 1 Worshipped at Argos. Usener, Gdtternamen, p. 366. 2 Cf. Max Miiller, Lectures on the Origin and Growth of Religion (Hibbert Lect., 1878), v., and the Vedic treatises of Ludwig, Ber- gaigne and Wallis. knit the world together and maintained the stars.* The im- mediacy of the relation between Ahura and Asha is implied in the statements that Ahura created Asha and that he dwells in the paths which proceed from Asha; and when he created the inspired word of Reason, Asha consented with him in his deed. In its ritual form Asha becomes the principle of sacrifice, and hence of holiness, first ritual and then moral. Like Rita, it rises into an object of worship, and in its most exalted aspect (Asha vahisla, the " best " Asha, most excellent righteousness) it is identified with Ahura himself, being fourth among his sacred names (Ormazd Yasht, § 7; S.B.E. xxiii. p. 25). Egyptian speculation, in like manner, impersonated the con- ceptions of physical and moral order as two sides of a funda- mental unity in the goddess Maat. Derived from the verb ma, " to stretch out," her name denoted the ideas of right and rule, and covered the notions of order, law, justice and truth, which remained steadfast and unalterable. Mythologically she was the daughter (or the eye) of the sun-god Re; but she became Lady of Heaven and Queen of Earth, and even Lady of the land of the West, the mysterious habitation of the dead. Each of the great gods was said to be lord or master of Maat; but from another point of view she " knew no lord or master," and the particular quality of deity was expressed in the phrase anx em maat, " living by Maat," which was applied to the gods of the physical world, the sun and moon, the days and hours, as well as to the divine king. She was solemnly offered by the sovereign to his god; and the deity replied by laying her within the heart of his worshipper "to manifest her everlastingly before the gods." So in the famous scene of the weighing of the soul, which first appears pictorially under the New Empire, she introduces the deceased before the forty-two assessors of the heavenly judge, Osiris, and presides over the scale in which his actions and life are weighed. From the zenith to the realm of the departed she is the "queen of all gods and goddesses."4 The Hellenic polytheism of Homer and Hesiod is already at work upon similar ideas, and a whole group of mythic per- sonifications slowly rises into view representing different phases of the same fundamental conception. Themis (root 0e=Sanskr. dha, as in dhaman) appears in Homer as the embodiment of what is fit or right;6 she convenes or dismisses assemblies, she even keeps order at the banquet of the gods. Next, Hesiod supplies a significant biography. She is the daughter of Ouranos and Gaia; and after Metis she becomes the bride of Zeus.' Pindar describes her as born in a golden car from the primeval Oceanus, source of all things, to the sacred height of Olympus to be the consort of Zeus the saviour; and she bears the same august epithet, as the symbol of social justice and the refuge for the oppressed.7 Law was thus the spouse of the sovereign of the sky, but Aeschylus identified her with the Earth (worshipped at Athens as Ge-Themis), not only the kindly Mother, but the goddess who bound herself by fixed rules or laws of nature and life.8 For the cultus of the earth as the source of fertility was associated with the maintenance of the family, with the operations of agriculture and the social order of marriage. So Themis became the mother of the seasons; the regular sequence of blossom and fruit was her work; and Good Order, Justice and Peace were her offspring.9 By such conceptions the Hellenic polytheism was moralized; the physical character of the greater gods fell into the background, and the sculptor's art came to the aid of the poet by completely enduing them with personality. 8 Yasna, xxx. 5; Sacred Books of the East, xxxi. p. 30; cf. pp. 44, 51, 248. 4Cf. Renouf, Hibbert Lectures, p. 119; Brugsch, Rel. und Mythol., p. 477; Wiedemann, Ann. du Music Guimet, x. p. 561; Budge, Gods of Egypt, i. p. 416. 6 Cf. Aids e Contributions to the Science of Mythology (2 vols., 1897); cf. A. Lang, Modern Mythology (1897). Earlier Anthropology, Bastian, Der Mensch in der Gesch. (3 vols., Leipzig, 1860); Waitz-Gerland, Anthropologie* (6 vols., Leipzig, 1877). 2. Translations from the Scriptures of various religions. — Sacred Books of the East (49 vols., 1879 and onwards); Annales du Musee Guimet (1880 and onwards). 3. Manuals, treatises and series in single or collective authorship. — C. P. Tiele, Outlines of the History of Religion, tr. Carpenter (London, 1877); Gesch. der Religion im Alterthum, tr. Gehric'h (2 vols., Gotha, 1895-98) ; Kompendium der Religionsgesch., tr. Weber (Breslau, 1903) ; G. Rawlinson, Religions of the Ancient World (London, 1882); Religious Systems of the World, by various authors (London, 1890); Menzies, Hist, of Religion (1895); Orelli, Allgemeine Religionsgesch. (Bonn, 1899); Great Religions of the World, by various authors (1901); Bousset, Das Wesen der Religion (Halle, 1903); Eng. trans., What is Religion? (London, 1907); Chantepie de la Saussaye, Religionsgesch.3 (2 vols., 1905); Achelis, Abriss der Vergleichenaen Religionswissenschaft (Sammlung Goschen) ; " Die Orientalischen Re- ligionen " (in Die Kultur der Gegenwart), by various authors (1906); Pfleiderer, Religion und Religionen (Berlin, 1906) ; Eng. trans., Religion and Historic Faiths (London, 1907) ; Haarlem Series, Die Voornaamste Godsdiensten, beginning with Islam, by Dozy (1863 onwards); Soc. for Promotion of Christian Knowledge, Non-Christian Religions ; Hibbert Lectures on The Origin and Growth of Religion (15 vols., beginning with F. Max Muller, 1878); Aschendorff's series, Darstel- lungen aus dem Gebiete der Nichtchristl. Religionsgesch. (14 vols.. Munster i.w., beginning 1890); Handbooks on the History of Religions, ed. Jastrow, beginning with Hopkins on India (1895); American Lectures on the History of Religions, beginning with Rhys Davids on Buddhism (1896); Constables series, Religions, Ancient and Modern (London, beginning 1905), brief and popular; J. Freeman Clarke, Ten Great Religions (Boston, 1871); S. Johnson, Oriental Religions, &c. (3 vols.); India;1 (London, 1873); China (Boston, 1877); Persia (1885); Lippert, Die Religionen der Euro- pdischen Cultur-Vplker (Berlin, 1881); A. ReVille, Prolegom. de I'hist. des rel. (Paris, 1881; Engl. trans., 1884); Les Rel. des peuples non-civilises (2 vols., Paris, 1883); Rel. du Mexique (1885); Rel. chinoise (1889); Letourneau, L'Evolution religieuse2 (Paris, 1898); Publications of the Ecole des hautes etudes, section des sciences religieuses; and Annales du Musee Guimet, " Biblioth£que de Vulgarisation." 4. Works bearing on history. — Fustel de Coulanges, La Citi antique (Paris, 1864); Lubbock, Origin of Civilization (1870); Whitney, Oriental and Linguistic Studies (New York, 1872 and 1874) ; Brinton, The Religious Sentiment (1876); Myths of the New World1 (New York, 1876); Essays of an Americanist (1890); Religions of Primitive Peoples (1897); Keary, Outlines of Primitive Belief (London, 1882) ; Leblois, Les Bibles et les initialeurs de l'humanit& (4 vols. in 7 parts, Paris, 1883); Goblet d'Alviella, Introd. a I'hist. generate des religions (Brussels, 1887); La Migration des symboles (Paris, 1891); Hartland, The Legend of Perseus (3 vols., London, 1894); Ratzel, The History of Mankind, tr. Butler (3 vols., London, 1896); Usener, Gotternamen (Bonn, 1896); Grant Allen, The Evolution of the Idea of God (London, 1897); Forlong, Short Studies in the Science of Comp. Religions (London, 1897); Lang, The Making of Religion (1898); Lyall, Asiatic Studies'* (2 vols., London, 1899); Baissac, Les Origines de la religion* (Paris, 1899); Marillicr, " Religion," Grande Encyclop. xxviii. (Paris, 1900) ; Maculloch, Comparative Theol. (1902); Dieterich, Mutter Erde (Leipzig, 1905); S. Reinach, Cultes, mythes el religions (2 vols., Pans, 1905-6); Frazer, Adonis, Attis and Osiris (1906); Ed. Meyer, Gesch. des Alterthums2, I. i. " Einleitung: Elementeder Anthropologie " (1907). 5. Psychology, Philosophy and History. — Hegel, Philosophy of 76 REMAGEN— REMAINDER Religion (Eng. trans., 3 vols., 1895) ; Pfleiderer, Die Religion (2 vols., Berlin, 1869); Philos. of Religion, vol. iii. (Engl. trans., London, 1888); Religionsphilosofhie' (Berlin, 1896); F. Max Muller, Introd. to the Science of Religion (1873); Hibbert Lectures (1878); Gifford Lectures (4 vols., 1889-93) < Spencer, Principles of Sociology, i. (1876) ; Fairbairn, Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and History (1876); E. von Hartmann, Das Relig. Bewusstsein der Menschheit (Berlin, 1882) ; Rauwenhoff, Weisbegeerte van den Godsdienst (Leiden, 1887); E. Caird, The Evolution of Religion (2 vols., 1893); Siebeck, Lehrbuch der Religionsphilosophie (Freiburg i. B., 1893); Tiele, Elements of the Science of Religion (2 vols., 1897); Raoul de la Grasserie, Des religions comparees au point de vue sociologique, and De la psycholo- fie des religions (Paris, 1899); Starbuck, Psychology of Religion London, 1900); Jastrow, The Study of Religion (London, 1901); W. James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (1903); Corner, Grundriss der Religionsphilosophie (Leipzig, 1903) ; Girgensohn, Die Religion, ihre Psychischen Formen und ihre Zentralidee (Leipzig, 1903); Wundt, Volkerpsychologie, Bd. ii. Mythus und Religion (1905-6); Ladd, The Philosophy of Religion (2 vols., London, 1906); Hoffding, The Philosophy of Religion (Engl. trans., 1906) ; Wester- maarck, The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas, i. (London, 1906) ; Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution (2 vols., London, 1906). 6. Periodicals, &c. — Revue de I'hist. des religions (Paris, 1880 on- wards); Folk-Lore (London, 1890 onwards); Archiv. fur Religions- wissenschaft (Freiburg i. B., 1898 onwards); L'Annee sociologique (Paris, 1898 onwards) ; Actes du premier congres international d'histoire des religions (Paris, 1900); Verhandlungen des II. Inter- nationalen Kongresses fur Allgemeine Religionsgeschichte in Basel (1904). Much information on the growth and present condition of the study has been collected by Jordan, Comparative Religion, its Genesis and Growth (Edinburgh, 1905). (J. E. C.) REMAGEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, on the left bank of the Rhine, 1 2 m. above Bonn, by the railway from Cologne to Coblenz, and at the junction of the Ahr valley railway to Adenau. Pop. (1900) 3534. The (Roman Catholic) parish church is remarkable for a gate (Romertor) with grotesque sculptures of animals, dating from the i2th century. Archaeologists have variously interpreted its original purpose, whether as church door, city gate or palace gate. The industry of the place is almost wholly concerned with the preparation of wine, in which a large export trade is done. Just below the town, on a height overlooking the Rhine, stands the Apollinaris church, built 1839-53 °n the site of a chapel formerly dedicated to St Martin, and containing the relics of St Apollinaris. It is a frequent place of pilgrimage from all parts of the lower Rhine. According to legend, the ship con- veying the relics of the three kings and of Bishop Apollinaris from Milan to Cologne in 1164 could not be got to move away from the spot until the bones of St Apollinaris had been interred in St Martin's chapel. Remagen (the Rigomagus of the Romans) originally belonged to the duchy of Julich. Many Roman antiquities have been discovered here. In 1857 a votive altar dedicated to Jupiter, Mars and Mercury was unearthed, and is now in the Provincial Museum at Bonn. See Kinkel, Der Fiihrer durch das Ahrthal nebst Beschreibung der Stadt Remagen (2nd ed., Bonn, 1854). REMAINDER, REVERSION. In the view of English law a remainder or reversion is classed either as an incorporeal hereditament or, -with greater correctness, as an estate in expectancy. That is to say, it is a present interest subject to an existing estate in possession called the particular estate, which must determine before the estate in expectancy can become an estate in possession. A remainder or reversion is in strictness confined to real estate, whether legal or equitable, though a similar interest may exist in personalty. The par- ticular estate and the remainder or reversion together make up the whole estate over which the grantor has power of disposition.1 Accordingly a remainder or reversion limited on an estate in fee simple is void. The difference between a remainder and a reversion, stated as simply as possible, is that the latter is that undisposed-of part of the estate which after the determination of the particular estate will fall into the possession of the original grantor or his representative, while a remainder is that part of the estate which under the same circumstances will fall into the possession of a person other than the original grantor or his 1 Compare the life-rent and fee of Scots law. representative. A reversion, in fact, is a special instance of a remainder, distinguishable from it in two important respects: (i) a reversion arises by operation of law on every grant of an estate where the whole interest is not parted with, whereas a remainder is created by express words; (2) tenure exists between the reversioner and the tenant of the particular estate, but not between the latter and the remainderman. Accordingly rent service is said to be an incident of a reversion but not of a remainder, and a reversioner could distrain for it at common law. A reversion may be limited upon any number of remainders, each of them as it falls into possession becoming itself a particular estate. A remainder or reversion may be alienated either by deed or by will. A conveyance by the tenant of a particular estate to the remainderman or reversioner is called a surrender; a conveyance by the remainderman or reversioner to the tenant is a release. Remainder, — Remainders are either vested or contingent. " An estate is vested in interest when there is a present fixed right of future enjoyment. An estate is contingent when a right of enjoy- ment is to accrue on an event which is dubious and uncertain. A contingent remainder is a remainder limited so as to depend on an event or condition which may never happen or be performed, or which may not happen or be performed till after the determination of the preceding estate " (Fearne, Contingent Remainders, 2, 3). Contingent remainders are of two kinds, those limited to uncertain persons and those limited on uncertain events. A grant by A to B for life, followed by a remainder in fee to the heir of C is an example of a contingent remainder.2 Until the death of C he can have no heir. If C die during the lifetime of B, the contingent remainder of his heir becomes vested; if C survive B, the remainder is at common law destroyed owing to the determination of the par- ticular estate, for every remainder must have a particular estate to support it. In the case of a contingent remainder, it must become vested during the continuance of the particular estate or at the instant of its determination. This rule of law no doubt arose from the disfavour shown by the law to contingent remainders on their first introduction. They were not firmly established even when Littleton wrote in the reign of Edward IV. (see Williams, Real Property). The inconveniences resulting from this liability of contingent remainders to destruction were formerly overcome by the device of appointing trustees to preserve contingent remainders at law. Equitable contingent remainders, it should be noticed, were indestructible, for they were supported by the legal estate. In modern times the matter has been dealt with by act of Parlia- ment. By the Real Property Act 1845, § 8, a contingent remainder is rendered capable of taking effect notwithstanding the deter- mination by forfeiture, surrender or merger of any preceding estate of freehold in the same manner as if such determination had not happened. The case of determination by any other means is met by the Contingent Remainders Act 1877. The act provides that a contingent remainder which would have been valid as a springing or shifting use or executory devise or other limitation had it not had a sufficient estate to support it as a contingent re- mainder is, in the event of the particular estate determining before the contingent remainder vests, to be capable of taking effect as though the contingent remainder had originally been created as a springing or shifting use or executory devise or other executory limitation. It will accordingly only be good if the springing use, &c. (for which see TRUST), would be good. If the springing use be void as a breach of the rule against perpetuities (see PERPETUITY), the remainder will likewise be void. Apart from this act, there is some un- certainty as to the application of the rule against perpetuities to remainders. The better opinion is that it applies to equitable remainders and to legal remainders expectant upon an estate for life limited to an unborn person. In the latter case the rule as applied to contingent remainders is somewhat different from that affecting executory interests. The period is different, the remainder allowing the tying up of property for a longer time than the execu- tory interest. There is also the further difference that the rule does not affect a contingent remainder if it become vested before the determination of the particular estate. An executory interest is void if it may transgress the rule, even though it do not actually do so. For the rule in Shelley's case, important in connexion with remainders, see that title. The state laws of the United States affecting remainders will be found in Washburn, Real Property, ii. bk. ii. As a general rule contingent remainders have been rendered of little practical importance by enactments that they shall take effect as executory devises or shall not determine on determination of the particular estate. Reversion. — Unlike remainders, all reversions are present or vested estates. The law of reversion, like that of remainder, has been considerably modified by statute. It was formerly considered * A contingent remainder amounting to a freehold cannot be limited on a particular estate less than a freehold. REMAND— REMBRANDT 77 that on the grant of the reversion the tenant should have the opportunity of objecting to the substitution of a new landlord. It was therefore necessary that he should attorn tenant to the purchaser. Without such attornment the grant was void, unless indeed attornment were compelled by levying a fine. The neces- sity of attornment was abolished by 4 & 5 Anne c. 16. Its only use at present seems to be in the case of mortgage. A mortgagor in possession sometimes attorns tenant to the mortgagee in order that the latter may treat him as his tenant and distrain for his interest as rent. The legal view that rent was incident to the reversion led at common law to a destruction of .the rent by de- struction of the reversion. This would chiefly happen in the case of an under-tenant and his immediate reversioner, if the inter- mediate became merged in the superior reversion. To obviate this difficulty it was provided by the Real Property Act 1845, § 9, that, on surrender or merger of a reversion expectant on a lease, the rights under it should subsist to the reversion conferring the next vested right. The question as to what covenants run with the reversion is one of the most difficult 'in law. The rule of common law seems to have been that covenants ran with the land but not with the reversion, that is to say, the benefit of them survived to a new tenant but not to a new landlord. The effect of the act of 32 Hen. VIII. c. 34, and of the Conveyancing Act 1881, has been to annex to the reversion as a general rule the benefit _ of the rent and the lessee's covenants and the burden of the lessor's covenant. Merely collateral covenants, however, do not run with the reversion, but are regarded as personal contracts between lessor and lessee. At common law on the severance of a reversion a grantee of part of the reversion could not take advantage of any condition for re-entry, on the ground that the condition was entire and not severable. This doctrine was abolished by one of Lord St Leonard's Acts in 1859. The Conveyancing Act 1881, § 12, now provides in wider terms than those of the act of 1859 that on severance of the reversion every condition capable of apportionment is to be apportioned. In order to guard against fraudulent concealment of the death of a cestui que vie, or person for whose life any lands are held by another, it was provided by 6 Anne c. 18 that on applica- tion to the court of chancery by the person entitled in remainder, reversion or expectancy, the cestui que vie should be produced to the court or its commissioners, or in default should be taken to be dead. In Scotland reversion is generally used in a sense approaching that of the equity of redemption of English law. A reversion is either legal, as in an adjudication, or conventional, as in a wadset; Reversions are registered under the system established by the Act 1617 c. 16. In the United States the act of 32 Hen. VIII. c. 34 " is held to be in force in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Connecti- cut, but was never in force in New York till re-enacted " (Wash- burn, Real Property, i.). REMAND (Lat. remandare) , a term of English law meaning the return of a prisoner by order of a court to the custody from which he came to the court. Thus where an application for release is unsuccessfully made by means of habeas corpus, the applicant is remanded to the custody which he has challenged as illegal. Where trials or indictments are not concluded at a single sitting the court of trial has power to remand the accused into proper custody during any necessary adjournment. Where a preliminary inquiry into an indictable offence is not completed at a single sitting, the prisoner, if not released on bail, may be remanded to prison or some other lawful place of custody for a period not exceeding eight days, and so on by further remands till the inquiry is completed and the accused is discharged, or committed to prison to await his trial, or released on bail to take his trial. If the remand is for more than three days the order must be in writing (Indictable Offences Act 1848, n & 12 Viet. c. 42, s. 21). Similar powers of remand or committal to prison during adjournments are given to justices in the exercise of their summary criminal jurisdiction, whether as to offences punishable only on summary conviction, or as to indictable offences with which it is proposed to deal summarily (Summary Jurisdiction Acts 1848, s. 16, and 1879, s. 24). In the case of charges against children or young persons, where the justices commit for trial or order a remand pending inquiry, or with a view to sending a child to an industrial school or a reformatory, they may remand to the workhouse or to some fit custody instead of remanding to prison (Youthful Offenders Act 1901, s. 4). For this purpose remand homes have been established. REMBRANDT (1606-1660). REMBRANDT HARMENS VAN RIJN, Dutch painter, was born in Leiden on the isth of July 1606. It is only within the past fifty years that we have come to know anything of his real history. A tissue of fables formerly represented him as ignorant, boorish and avaricious. These fictions, resting on the loose assertions of Houbraken (De Creole Schouburgh, 1718), have been cleared away by the untiring researches of Scheltema and other Dutchmen, notably by C. Vosmaer, whose elaborate work (Rembrandt, sa vie et ses ceuvres, 1868, 2nd ed., 1877) is the basis of our knowledge of the man and of the chronological development of the artist.1 Rembrandt's high position in European art rests on the originality of his mind, the power of his imagination, his profound sympathy with his subjects, the boldness of his system of light and shade, the thoroughness of his modelling, his subtle colour, and above all on his intense humanity. He was great in conception and in execution, a poet as well as a painter, an idealist and also a realist; and this rare union is the secret of his power. From his dramatic action and mastery of expression Rembrandt has been well called " the Shakespeare of Holland." In the beginning of the i7th century Holland had entered on her grand career of national enterprise. Science and literature flourished in her universities, poetry and the stage were favoured by her citizens, and art found a home not only in the capital but in the provincial towns. It was a time also of new ideas. Old conventional forms in religion, philosophy and art had fallen away, and liberty was inspiring new conceptions. There were no church influences at work to fetter the painter in the choice and treatment of his subject, no academies to prescribe rules. Left to himself, therefore, the artist painted the life of the people among whom he lived and the subjects which inter- ested them. It was thus a living history that he painted — scenes from the everyday life and amusements of the people, as well as the civic rulers, the " regents " or governors of the hospitals and the heads of the guilds, and the civic guards who defended their towns. So also with religious pictures. The dogmas and legends of the Church of Rome were no longer of interest to such a nation; but the Bible was read and studied with avidity, and from its page the artist drew directly the scenes of the simple narrative. Perhaps the earliest trace of this new aspect of Bible story is to be found in the pictures painted in Rome about the beginning of the I7th century by Adam Elsheimer of Frankfort, who had undoubtedly a great influence on the Dutch painters studying in Italy. These in their turn carried back to Holland the simplicity and the picturesque effect which they found in Elsheimer's work. Among these, the precursors of Rembrandt, may be mentioned Moeyaert, Ravesteyn, Lastman, Pinas, Honthorst and Bramer. Influenced doubtless by these painters, Rembrandt determined to work out his own ideas of art on Dutch soil, resisting apparently every inducement to visit Italy. Though an admirer of the great Italian masters, he yet maintained his own individuality. Rembrandt was born at No. 3 Weddesteg, on the rampart at Leiden overlooking the Rhine. He was the fourth son of Gerrit Harmens van Rijn, a well-to-do miller. As the older boys had been sent to trade, his parents resolved that he should enter a learned profession. With this view he was sent to the High School at Leiden; but the boy soon manifested his dislike of the prospect, and determined to be a painter. Accordingly he was placed for three years under Swanenburch, a painter of no great merit, who enjoyed some reputation from his having studied in Italy. His next master was Lastman of Amsterdam, a painter of very considerable power. In Lastman's works we can trace the germs of the colour and sentiment of his greater pupil, though his direct influence cannot have been great, as it is said by Orlers that Rembrandt remained with him only six months, after which time he returned to Leiden, about 1623. During the early years of his life at Leiden Rembrandt seems to have devoted himself entirely to studies, painting and etching the people around him, the beggars and cripples, every pic- turesque face and form he could get hold of. Life, character, 1 Vosmaer's first volume, on the precursors and apprenticeship of Rembrandt, was published in 1863. New light has since been thrown on important points by Dr Bode (Holldndische Malerei, 1883), De Roever, De Vries and others. REMBRANDT and above all light were the aims of these studies. His mother was a frequent model, and we can trace in her features the strong likeness to her son, especially in the portraits of himself at an advanced age. In the collection of Rembrandt's works at Amsterdam in 1898 were shown three portraits of his father, who •died about 1632; nine are catalogued altogether. The last portrait of his mother is that of the Vienna Museum, painted the year before her death in 1640. One of his sisters also frequently sat to him, and Bode suggests that she must have accompanied him to Amsterdam and kept house for him till he married. This conjecture rests on the number of portraits of the same young woman painted in the early years of his stay in Amsterdam and before he met his bride. Then, again, in the many portraits of himself painted in his early life we can see with what zeal he set himself to master every form of expression, now grave, now gay — how thoroughly he learned to model the human face not from the outside but from the inner man. Dr Bode gives fifty as the number of the portraits of himself (perhaps sixty is nearer the actual number), most of them painted in youth and in old age, the times when he had leisure for such work. Rembrandt's earliest pictures were painted at Leiden, from 1627 to 1631. Bode mentions about nine pictures as known to belong to these years, chiefly paintings of single figures, as " St Paul in Prison" and " St Jerome"; but now and then compositions of several, as " Samson in Prison " and " Presenta- tion in the Temple." The prevailing tone of all these pictures is a greenish grey, the effect being somewhat cold and heavy. The gallery at Cassel gives us a typical example of his studies •of the heads of old men, firm and hard in workmanship and full of detail, the effects of light and shade being carefully thought out. His work was now attracting the attention of lovers of art in the great city of Amsterdam; and, urged by their calls, he removed about 1631 to live and die there. At one bound he leaped into the position of the first portrait painter of the city, and received numerous commissions. During the early years of his residence there are at least forty known portraits from his hand, firm and solid in manner and staid in expression. It has been remarked that the fantasy in which he indulged through life was reserved only for the portraits of himself and his immediate connexions. The excellent painter Thomas de Keyser was then in the height of his power, and his influence is to be traced in some of Rembrandt's smaller portraits. Pupils also now flocked to his house in the Bloemgracht, among them Gerard Douw, who was nearly of his own age. The first important work executed by Rembrandt in Amsterdam is " Simeon in the Temple," of the Hague Museum, a fine early example of his treatment of light and shade and of his subtle colour. The concentrated light falls on the principal figure, while the background is full of mystery. The surface is smooth and enamel-like, and all the details are carefully wrought out, while the action of light on the mantle of Simeon shows how soon he had felt the magical effect of the play of colour. In the life-sized " Lesson in Anatomy " of 1632 we have the first of the great portrait subjects — Tulp the anatomist, the early friend of Rembrandt, discoursing to his seven associates, who are ranged with eager heads round the foreshortened body. The subject had been treated in former years by the Mierevelts, A. Pietersen and others, for the Hall of the Surgeons. But it was reserved for Rembrandt to make it a great picture by the grouping of the expressive portraits and by the completeness of the conception. The colour is quiet and the handling of the brush timid and precise, while the light and shade are somewhat harsh and abrupt. But it is a marvellous picture for a young man of twenty-five, and it is generally accepted as marking a new departure in the career of the painter. About 700 pictures are known to have come from Rembrandt's own hand. _ It is impossible to notice more than the prominent works. Besides the Pellicorne family portraits of 1632 now in the' Wallace Collection, we have the caligraphist Coppenol of the Cassel Gallery, interesting in the first place as an early example of Rembrandt's method of giving permanent interest to a portrait by converting it into a picture. He invests it with a sense of life by a momentary expression as Coppenol raises his head towards the spectator while he is mending a quill. The same motive is to be found in the " Shipbuilder," 1633 (Buckingham Palace), who looks up from his work with a sense of interruption at the approach of his wife. Coppenol was painted thrice and etched twice by the artist, the last of whose portrait etchings (1661) was the Coppenol of large size. The two small pictures of " The Philosopher " of the Louvre date from 1633, delicate in execution and full of mysterious effect. The year 1634 is especially remarkable as that of Rembrandt's marriage with Saskia van Uylenborch, a beautiful, fair-haired Frisian maiden of good connexions. Till her death in 1642 she was the centre of his life and art, and lives for us in many a canvas as well as in her own portraits. On her the painter lavished his magical power, painting her as the Queen of Artemisia or Bath- sheba, and as the wife of Samson — always proud of her long fair locks, and covering her with pearls and gold as precious in their play of colour as those of the Indies. A joyous pair we see them in the Dresden Gallery, Saskia sitting on his knee while he laughs gaily, or promenading together in a fine picture of 1636, or putting the last touches of ornament to her toilette, for thus Bode interprets the so-called " Burgomaster Pancras and his Wife." These were his happy days when he painted himself in his exuberant fantasy, and adorned himself, at least in his portraits, in scarfs and feathers and gold chains. Saskia brought him a marriage portion of forty thousand guilders, a large sum for those times, and she brought him also a large circle of good friends in Amsterdam. She bore him four children, Rumbartus and two girls, successively named Cornelia after his beloved mother, all of whom died in infancy, and Titus, named after Titia a sister of Saskia. We have several noble portraits of Saskia, a good type of the beauty of Holland, all painted with the utmost love and care, at Cassel (1633), at Dresden (1641), and a posthumous one (1643) at Berlin. But the greatest in workmanship and most pathetic in expression seems to us, though it is decried by Bode, that of Antwerp (1641), in which it is impossible not to trace declining health and to find a melan- choly presage of her death. One of Rembrandt's greatest portraits of 1634 is the superb full- length of Martin Daey, which, with that of Madame Daey, painted according to Vosmaer some years later, formed one of the ornaments of the Van Loon collection at Amsterdam. Both now belong to Baron Gustaye de Rothschild. From the firm detailed execution of this portrait one turns with wonder to the broader handling of the " Old Woman " (Frangoise van Wasserhoven) , aged eighty-three, in the National Gallery, of the same year, remarkable for the effect of reflected light and still more for the sympathetic rendering of character. The life of Samson supplied many subjects in these early days. The so-called " Count of Gueldres threatening his Father-in-law " of the Berlin Gallery has been restored to its proper signification by M. Kolloff, who finds it to be Samson. It is forced and violent in its action. The greatest of this series, and one of the pro- minent pictures of Rembrandt's work, is the " Marriage of Samson," of the Dresden Gallery, painted in 1638. Here Rembrandt gives the rein to his imagination and makes the scene live before us. Except the bride (Saskia), who sits calm and grand on a dais in the centre of the feast, with the full light again playing on her flowing locks and wealth of jewels, all is animated and full of bustle. Sam- son, evidently a Rembrandt of fantasy, leans over a chair pro- pounding his riddle to the Philistine lords. In execution it is a great advance on former subject pictures; it is bolder in manner, and we have here signs of his approaching love of warmer tones of red and yellow. The story of Susannah also occupied him in these early years, and he returned to the subject in 1641 and 1653. " The Bather " of the National Gallery may be another interpretation of the same theme. In all of these pictures the woman :s coarse in type and lumpy in form, though the modelling is soft and round, the effect which Rembrandt always strove to gain. Beauty of form was outside his art. But the so-called " Danae " (1636) at St Peters- burg is a sufficient reply to those who deny his ability ever to ap- preciate the beauty of the nude female form. It glows with colour and life, and the blood seems to pulsate under the warm skin. In the picturesque story of Tobit Rembrandt found much to interest him, as we see in the beautiful small picture of the d'Arenberg Collection at Brussels. Sight is being restored to the aged Tobias, while with infinite tenderness his wife holds the old man's hand caressingly. The momentary action is complete, and the picture goes straight to the heart. In the Berlin Gallery he paints the anxiety of the parents as they wait the return of their son. In 1637 he painted the fine picture now in the Louvre of the " Flight of the Angel "; and the same subject is grandly treated by him, REMBRANDT 79 apparently about 1645, in the picture exhibited in the winter exhibi- tion at Burlington House in 1885. Reverence and awe are shown in every attitude of the Tobit family. A similar lofty treatment is to be found in the " Christ as the Gardener," appearing to Mary, of 1638 (Buckingham Palace). We have now arrived at the year 1640, the threshold of his second manner, which extended to 1654, the middle age of Rembrandt. During the latter part of the previous decade we find the shadows more transparent and the blending of light and shade more perfect. There is a growing power in every part of his art. The coldness of his first manner had disappeared, -and the tones were gradually changing into golden-brown. He had passed through what Bode calls his " Sturm-und-Drang " period of exaggerated expression, as in the Berlin Samson, and had attained to a truer, calmer form of dramatic expression, of which the " Manoah " of Dresden is a good example (1641). The portraits painted " to order " became more rare about this time, and those which we have are chiefly friends of his circle, such as the " Mennonite Preacher " (C. C. Ansloo) and the " Gilder," a fine example of his golden tone, formerly in the Morny collection and now in America. His own splendid portrait (1640) in the National Gallery illustrates the change in his work. It describes the man well — strong and robust, with powerful head, firm and compressed lips and determined chin, with heavy eyebrows, separated by a deep vertical furrow, and with eyes of keen penetrating glance — altogether a self-reliant man that would carry out his own ideas, careless whether his popularity waxed or waned. The fantastic rendering of himself has disappeared; he seems more conscious of his dignity and position. He has now many friends and pupils, and numerous commissions, even from the stadtholder; he has bought a large house in the Breedstraat, in which during the next sixteen years of his life he gathers his large collection of paintings, engravings, armour and costume which figure afterwards in his inventory. His taste was wide and his purchases large, for he was joint owner with picture-dealers of paintings by Giorgione and Palma Vecchio, while for a high-priced Marcantonio Raimondi print he gave in exchange a fine impression of his " Christ Healing the Sick," which has since been known as the " Hundred Guilder Print." The stadtholder was not a prompt payer, and an interesting correspondence took place between Rembrandt and Constantin Huygens, the poet and secretary of the prince. The Rembrandt letters which have come down to us are few, and these are therefore of importance. Rembrandt puts a high value on the picture, which he says had been painted " with much care and zeal," but he is willing to take what the prince thinks proper; while to Huygens he sends a large picture as a present for his trouble in carrying through the business. There is here no sign of the grasping greed with which he has been charged, while his unselfish conduct is seen in the settlement of the family affairs at the death of his mother in 1640. The year 1642 is remarkable for the great picture formerly known as the " Night Watch," but now more correctly as the " Sortie of the Banning Cock Company," another of the landmarks of Rem- brandt's career, in which twenty-nine life-sized civic guards are introduced issuing pell-mell from their club house. Such gilds of arquebusiers had been painted admirably before by Ravesteyn and notably by Frans Hals, but Rembrandt determined to throw life and animation into the scene, which is full of bustle and move- ment. The dominant colour is the citron yellow uniform of the lieutenant, wearing a blue sash, while a Titian-like red dress of a musketeer, the black velvet dress of the captain, and the varied green of the girl and drummer, all produce a rich and harmonious effect. The background has become dark and heavy by accident or neglect, and the scutcheon on which the names are painted is scarcely to be seen. It is to be observed that, as proved by the copy by Gerrit Lundens in the National Gallery, it represents not a " night watch," except in name, but a day watch. But this year of great achievement was also the year of his great loss, for Saskia died in 1642, leaving Rembrandt her sole trustee for her son Titus, but with full use of the money till he should marry again or till the marriage of Titus. The words of the will express her love for her husband and her confidence in him. With her death his life was changed. Bode has remarked that there is a pathetic sadness in his pictures of the Holy Family — a favourite subject at this period of his life. All of these he treats with the na'ive simplicity of Reformed Holland, giving us the real carpenter's shop and the mother watching over the Infant reverently and lovingly, with a fine union of realism and idealism. The street in which he lived was full of Dutch and Portuguese Jews, and many a Jewish rabbi sat to him. He accepted or invented their turbans and local dress as characteristic of the people. But in his religious pictures it is not the costume we look at; what strikes us is the profound perception of the sentiment of the story, making them true to all time and independent of local circumstance. A notable example of this feeling is to be found in the " Woman Taken in Adultery " of the National Gallery, painted in 1644 in the manner of the " Simeon " of the Hague. Beyond the ordinary claims of art, it commands our attention from the grand conception of the painter who here, as in other pictures and etchings, has invested Christ with a majestic dignity which recalls Lionardo and no other. A similar lofty ideal is to be found in his various renderings of the " Pilgrims at Emmaus," notably in the Louvre picture of 1648, in which, as Mrs Jameson says, " he returns to those first spiritual principles which were always the dowry of ancient art." From the same year we have the " Good Samaritan " of the Louvre, the story of which is told with intense pathos. The helpless suffering of the wounded man, the curiosity of the boy on tiptoe, the excited faces at the upper window, are all conveyed with masterly skill. In these last two pictures we find a broader touch and freer handling, while the tones pass into a dull yellow and brown with a marked pre- dilection for deep rich red. Whether it was that this scheme of colour found no favour with the Amsterdamers, who, as Hoog- straten tells us, could not understand the " Sortie," it seems certain that Rembrandt was not invited to take any leading part in the celebration of the congress of Westphalia (1648). Rembrandt touched no side of art without setting his mark on it, whether in still life, as in his dead birds or the " Slaughtered Ox " of the Louvre (with its repetitions at Glasgow and Budapest), or in his drawings of elephants and lions, all of which are instinct with life. But at this period of his career we come upon a branch of his art on which he left, both in etching and in-painting, the stamp of his genius, viz. landscape. Roeland Roghman, but ten years his senior, evidently influenced his style, for the resemblance between their works is so great that, as at Cassel, there has been confusion of authorship. Hercules Sieghers also was much appreciated by Rembrandt, for at his sale eight pictures by this master figure in the inventory, and Vosmaer discovered that Rembrandt had worked on a plate by Seghers and had added figures to an etched " Flight into Egypt.' The earliest pure landscape known to us from Rem- brandt's hand is that at the Ryks Museum (1637-38), followed in the latter year by those at Brunswick, Cracow and Boston (U.S.A.), and that dated 1638 and belonging to Mr G. Rath in Budapest. Better known is the " Winter Scene " of Cassel (1646), silvery and delicate. As a rule in his painted landscape he aims at grandeur and poetical effect, as in the " Repose of the Holy Family " of 1647 (formerly called the " Gipsies "), a moonlight effect, clear even in the shadows. The " Canal " of Lord Lansdowne, and the " Mountain Landscape with Approaching Storm," the sun shining out behind the heavy clouds, are both conceived and executed in this spirit. A similar poetical vein runs through the " Castle on the Hill " of Cassel, in which the beams of the setting sun strike on the castle while the valley is sunk in the shades of approaching night. More powerful still is the weird effect of Lord Lansdowne's " Windmill," with its glow of light and darkening shadows. In all these pictures light with its magical influences is the theme of the poet-painter. From the number of landscapes by himself in the inventory of his sale, it would appear that these grand works were not . appreciated by his contemporaries. The last of the landscape series dates from 1655 or 1656, the close of the middle age or manhood of Rembrandt, a period of splendid power. In the " Joseph Accused by Potiphar's Wife " of 1654 we have great dramatic vigour and perfect mastery of expression, while the brilliant colour and glowing effect of light and shade attest his strength. To this period also belongs the great portrait of himself in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge. But evil days were at hand. The long-continued wars and civil troubles had worn out the country, and money was scarce. Rembrandt's and doubtless Saskia's means were tied up in his house and in his large collection of valuable pictures, and we find Rembrandt borrowing considerable sums of money on the security of his house to keep things going. Perhaps, as Bode suggests, this was the reason of his extraordinary activity at this time. Then, unfortunately, in this year of 1654, we find Rembrandt involved in the scandal of having a child by his servant Hendrickje Jaghers or Stoffels, as appears by the books of the Reformed Church at Amsterdam. He recognized the child and gave it the name of Cornelia, after his much-loved mother, but there is no proof that he married the mother, and the probability is against such a marriage, as the provisions of Saskia's will would in that case have come into force, and her fortune would have passed at once to her son Titus. Hendrickje- seems to have continued 8o REMBRANDT to live with him, for we find her claiming a chest as her property at his sale in 1658. Doubtless she is the peasant girl of Rasdorf to whom Houbraken says Rembrandt was married. Sad as the story is, Hendrickje has an interest for us. Bode asserts that in his art there was always a woman in close relationship to Rem- brandt and appearing in his work — his mother, his sister and then Saskia. He also suggests that the beautiful portrait of the " Lady " in the Salon Carre of the Louvre and the " Venus and Cupid " of the same gallery may represent Hendrickje and her child. Both pictures belong to this date, and by their treatment are removed from the category of Rembrandt's usual portraits. But if this is conjecture, we get nearer to fact when we look at the picture exhibited at Burlington House in 1883 to which tradition has attached the name of " Rembrandt's Mistress," now in the Edinburgh National Gallery. At a glance one can see that it is not the mere head of a model, as she lies in bed raising herself to put aside a curtain as if she heard a well-known footstep. It is clearly a woman in whom Rembrandt had a personal interest. The date is clearly 165 — the fourth figure being illegible; but the brilliant carnations and masterly touch connect it with the " Potiphar's Wife " of 1654 and the Jaghers period. In 1656 Rembrandt's financial affairs became more involved, and the Orphans' Chamber transferred the house and ground to Titus, though Rembrandt was still allowed to take charge of Saskia's estate. Nothing, however, could avert the ruin of the painter, who was declared bankrupt in July 1656, an inventory of all his property being ordered by the Insolvency Chamber. The first sale took place in 1657 in the Keizerskroon hotel; and the second in 1658, when the larger part of the etchings and drawings were disposed of — " collected by Rembrandt himself with much love and care," says the catalogue. The sum realized, under 5000 guilders, was but a fraction of their value. The time was unfavourable over the whole of Europe for such sales, the renowned collection of Charles I. of England having brought but a comparatively small sum in 1653. Driven thus from his house, stripped of everything he possessed, even to his table linen, Rembrandt took a modest lodging in the same Keizerskroon hostelry (the amounts of his bills are on record), apparently without friends and thrown entirely on himself. But this dark year of 1656 stands out prominently as one in which some of his greatest works were produced, as, for example, " John the Baptist preaching in the Wilderness," of the Berlin Gallery, and " Jacob blessing the Sons of Joseph," of the Cassel Gallery. It is impossible not to respect the man who, amid the utter ruin of his affairs, could calmly conceive and carry out such noble work. Yet even in his art one can see that the tone of his mind was sombre. Instead of the brilliancy of 1654 we have for two or three years a preference for dull yellows, reds and greys, with a certain uni- formity of tone. The handling is broad and rapid, as if to give utterance to the ideas which crowded on his mind. There is less caressing of colour for its own sake, even less straining after vigorous effect of light and shade. Still the two pictures just named are among the greatest works of the master. To the same year belongs the " Lesson in Anatomy of Johann Deyman." The sub- ject is similar to the great Tulp of 1632, but his manner and power of colour had advanced so much that Sir Joshua Reynolds, in his visit to Holland in 1781, was reminded by it of Michelangelo and Titian.1 Vosmaer ascribes to the same year, though Bode places it later, the famous " Portrait of Jan Six," the future burgo- master, consummate in its ease and character, as Six descends the steps of his house drawing on his glove. The connexion between Rembrandt and the great family of Six was long and close. In 1641, the mother of Six, Anna Wymer, had been painted with con- summate skill by Rembrandt, who also executed in 1647 the beauti- ful etching of Six standing by a window reading his tragedy of Medea, afterwards illustrated by his friend. Now he paints his portrait in the prime of manhood, and in the same year of gloom paints for him the masterly " John the Baptist." Six, if he could not avert the disaster of Rembrandt's life, at least stood by him in the darkest hour, when certainly the creative energy of Rembrandt 1 This picture has had a strange history. It had suffered by fire and was sold to a Mr Chaplin of London in 1841, was exhibited in Leeds in 1868, and again disappeared, ultimately to be found in the storeroom of the South Kensington Museum as a doubtful Rem- brandt. The patriotism of some Dutch lovers of art restored it to its native country; and it now hangs, a magnificent fragment, in the museum of Amsterdam. was in full play. The same period gives us the " Master of the Vineyard," and the " Adoration of the Magi " of Buckingham Palace. After the sale of the house in the Breedstraat, Rembrandt retired to the Rosengracht, an obscure quarter at the west end of the city. We are now drawing to the splendid close of his career in his third manner, in which his touch became broader, his impasto more solid and his knowledge more complete. We may mention the " Old Man with the Grey Beard " of the National Gallery (1657) and the " Bruyningh, the Secretary of the Insolvents' Chamber," of Cassel (1658), both leading up to the great portraits of the " Syndics of the Cloth Hall " of 1661. Nearly thirty years separate us from the " Lesson in Anatomy," years of long-continued observation and labour. The knowledge thus gathered, the problems solved, the mastery attained, are shown here in abundance. Rembrandt returns to the simplest gamut of colour, but shows his skill in the use of it, leaving on the spectator an impression of absolute enjoy- ment of the result, unconscious of the means. The plain burghers dealing with the simple concerns of their gild arrest our attention as if they were the makers of history. They live for ever; and we close our eyes to the strange perspective of the table. In his old age Rembrandt continued to paint his own portrait as assiduously as in his youthful and happy days. About twenty of these portraits are known; a typical one is to be found in the National Gallery. All show the same self-reliant expres- sion, though broken down indeed by age and the cares of a hard life. About the year 1663 Rembrandt painted the (so-called) " Jewish Bride " of the Ryks Museum in Amsterdam, and the " Family Group " of Brunswick, the last and perhaps the most brilliant works of his life, bold and rapid in execution and marvellous in the subtle mixture and play of colours in which he seems to revel. The woman and children are painted with such love that the impression is conveyed that they represent a fancy family group of the painter in his old age. This idea received some confirmation from the supposed discovery that he left a widow Catherine Van Wyck and two children, but this theory falls to the ground, for de Roever has shown (Oud Holland, 1883) that Catherine was the widow of a marine painter Theunisz Blanckerhoff, who died about the same time as Rem- brandt. The mistake arose from a miscopying of the register. The subject of these pictures is thus more mysterious than ever. In 1668 Titus, the only son of Rembrandt, died, leaving one child, and on the 8th of October 1669 the great painter himself passed away, leaving two children, and was buried in the Wester Kerk. He had outlived his popularity, for his manner of paint- ing, as we know from contemporaries, was no longer in favour with a people who preferred the smooth trivialities of Van der Werff and the younger Mieris, the leaders of an expiring school. We must give but a short notice of Rembrandt's achievements in etching. Here he stands out by universal confession as first, excel- ling by his unrivalled technical skill, his mastery of expression and the lofty conceptions of many of his great pieces, as in the " Death of the Virgin," the " Christ Preaching," the " Christ Healing the Sick " (the " Hundred Guilder Print ), the " Presentation to the People," the " Crucifixion " and others. So great is his skill simply as an etcher that one is apt to overlook the nobleness of the etcher s ideas and the depth of his nature, and this tendency has been doubt- less confirmed by the enormous difference in money value between " states " of the same plate, rarity giving in many cases a factitious worth in the eyes of collectors. A single impression of one of his etchings — " Rembrandt with a Sabre " — realized £2000 at the Holford sale in 1893, when " Ephraim Bonus, with black ring " fetched £1950, and the " Hundred Guilder Print," £1750. The points of difference between these states arise from the additions and changes made by Rembrandt on the plate; and the prints taken off by him have been subjected to the closest inspection by Bartsch, Gersaint, Wilson, Daulby, De Claussin, C. Blanc, Willshire, Seymour Haden, Middleton and others, who have described them at great length, and to whom the reader is referred. The classifica- tion of Rembrandt's etchings adopted till lately was according to the subject, as Biblical, portrait, landscape, and so on; until Vosmaer attempted the more scientific and interesting line of chronology. This method has been developed by Sir F. Seymour Haden and Middleton.v But even in 1873 C. Blanc, in his fine work L'CEuvre complet de Rembrandt, still adheres to the older and less intelligent arrangement, resting his preference on the frequent absence of dates on the etchings and more strangely still on the equality of the work. Sir Seymour Haden's reply is " that the more important etchings which may be taken as types are dated, and that, the style of the etchings at different periods of Rembrandt's career being fully as marked as that of his paintings, no more REMEDIOS— REMIREMONT 81 difficulty attends the classification of one than of the other." In- deed Vosmaer points out in his Life of Rembrandt that there is a marked parallelism between Rembrandt's painted and etched work, his early work in both cases being timid and tentative, while he gradually gains strength and character both with the brush and the graver's tools. In his L'CEuvre complet de Rembrandt (Paris, 1885), Eugene Dutuit rejects the classification of C. Blanc as dubious and unwarranted, dismisses the chronological arrangement proposed by Vosmaer and adopted by Seymour Haden and Middleton as open to discussion and lacking in possibility of proof, and reverts to the order estab- lished by Gersaint, ranging his materials under twelve heads: Portraits (real and supposed), Old Testament and New Testament subjects, histories, landscapes, &c. Sir Seymour Haden originated the theory that many of the etchings ascribed to Rembrandt up to 1640 were the work of his pupils, and seems to make out his case, though it may be carried too far. He argues (in his monograph on the Etched Work of Rembrandt, 1877) that Rembrandt's real work in etching began after Saskia's death, when he assumes that Rembrandt betook himself to Elsbrqek, the country house of his " powerful friend " Jan Six. But it must be remembered that the future burgomaster was then but a student of twenty-four, a member of a great family it is true, but unmarried and taking as yet no share in public life. That Rembrandt was a frequent visitor at Elsbroek, and that the " Three Trees " and other etchings may have been pro- duced there, may be admitted without requiring us to believe that he had left Amsterdam as his place of abode. The great period of his etching lies between 1639 and 1661, after which the old painter seems to nave renounced the needle. In these twenty years were produced his greatest works in portraiture, landscape and Bible story. They bear the impress of the genius of the man. In addition to the authors named, the reader is referred to W. Burger, (the nom de plume of T. Thor6), Musees de la Hollands (1858-60); E. Fromentin, Mattres d'autrefois; H. Havard, L'Ecole Hollandaise; Scheltema, Rembrandt, discours sur sa vie (1866); Ath. Cocquerel fils, Rembrandt, son individualisme dans I' art (Paris, 1869) ; Dr Langbehn, Rembrandt als Erzieher (Leipzig, 1890); Emile Michel, Rembrandt, sa vie, son ceuvre, et son temps (Paris, 1893) ; P. G. Hamerton, Rembrandt's Etchings (London, 1894); Malcolm Bell, Rembrandt van Rijn and his Work (London, 1899); Adolf Rosenberg, Rembrandt, des Meisters Gemalde (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1906), a useful work, admirably reproducing 565 of the artist s pictures, and its companion volume, Hans Wolfgang Singer, Rem- brandt, des Meisters Radierungen (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1906), reproducing 402 etchings. The chronological, geographical and classifying indexes in both books are of particular utility. (J. F. W.; P. G. K.) REMEDIOS, or SAN JUAN DE Los REMEDIOS, town of Santa Clara province, Cuba, in the municipality of San Juan de Los Remedies. Pop. of the town (1907), 6988; of the munici- pality, 21,573. The town is served by a branch of the Cuban Central railway, extending from Caibarien to Camajuani, where it connects with the main line. The site is low and flat, and unhealthily wet in the rainy season. The port of Remedies is Caibarien (pop. in 1907, 8333), on the N. coast, about 5 m. E. Both are in the sugar country, and sugar is the base of their economic interests. The first settlement on the site of the present town was made in 1515-16, and in 1545 Remedies was created a villa with an ayuntamiento (council). REMEMBRANCER, the name originally of certain subordinate officers of the English Exchequer. The office itself is of great antiquity, the holder having been termed remembrancer, memorator, rememorator, registrar, keeper of the register, despatcher of business (Maddox, History of the Exchequer). There were at one time three clerks of the remembrance, styled king's remembrancer, lord treasurer's remembrancer and re- membrancer of first-fruits. The latter two offices have become extinct, that of remembrancer of first-fruits by the diversion of the fund (Queen Anne's Bounty Act 1838), and that of lord treasurer's remembrancer on being merged in the office of king's remembrancer (1833). By the Queen's Remembrancer Act 1859 the office ceased to exist separately, and the queen's remembrancer was required to be a master of the court of exchequer. The Judicature Act 1873, s. 77, attached the office to the Supreme Court, and the Supreme Court of Judicature (Officers) Act 1879 transferred it to the central office of the Supreme Court. By s. 8 the king's remembrancer is a master of the Supreme Court, and the office is usually filled by the senior master. The king's remembrancer department of the central office is now amalgamated with the judgments and married women's acknowledgments department. The king's remembrancer still assists at certain ceremonial functions — relics of the former importance of the office — such as the nomina- tion of sheriffs, the swearing-in of the lord mayor of London, the trial of the pyx and the acknowledgments of homage for crown lands. Other duties are set out in the Second Report of the Legal Departments Commission, 1874. " Remembrancer " is also the title of an official of the cor- poration of the city of London, whose principal duty is to represent that body before parliamentary committees and at council and treasury boards. REMIGIUS, ST (c. 437-533), bishop of Reims and the friend of Clovis, whom he converted to Christianity. According to Gregory of Tours, 3000 Franks were baptized with Clovis by Remigius on Christmas Day, 496, after the defeat of the Ala- manni. With the growing power of the papacy a good many fictions grew up around his name, e.g. that he anointed Clovis. with oil from the sacred ampulla, and that Pope Hormisdas had recognized him as primate of France. The Commentary on the Pauline Epistles (ed. Villalpandus, 1699) is not his work, but that of Remigius of Auxerre. For authorities see H. Jadart, Bibliographie des ouvrages cone. la vie et le culte de S. Remi . . . (Reims, 1891), which contains 126 references. REMINGTON, FREDERICK (1861-1909), American artist, was born at Canton, New York, on the 4th of October 1861. He was a pupil of the Yale Art School, and of the Art Students' League, New York, and became known as an illustrator, painter and sculptor. Having spent much time in the West, whither he went for his health, and having been with the United States troops in actual warfare, he made a specialty of rendering the North American Indian and the United States soldier as seen on the western plains. In the Spanish-American War he was with the army under General Shatter as war corre- spondent. He died on the 26th of December 1909, near Ridge- field, Connecticut. His statuettes of soldiers, Indians, cowboys and trappers are full of character, while his paintings have been largely reproduced. He wrote several volumes of stories, including Pony Tracks (1895), Crooked Trails (1898), Sundown Leflare (1899), and John Ermine of the Yellowstone (1902). REMINISCENCE (from Lat. reminisci, to remember), the recognized translation of the Greek dj'd/wtyo'w, which is used technically by Plato in his doctrine that the soul recovers knowledge of which it had direct intuition in a former incorporeal existence. The doctrine may be regarded as the poetical precursor of modern a priori theories of knowledge and of " race-memory " and the like. In common language " remi- niscence " is synonymous with " recollection." REMIREMONT, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Vosges, 17 m. S.S.E. of Epinal by rail, on the Moselle, a mile below its confluence with the Moselotte. Pop. town, 8782; commune, 10,548. Remire- mont is surrounded by forest-clad mountains, and commanded by Fort Parmont, one of the Moselle line of defensive works. The abbey church, consecrated in 1051, has a crypt of the nth century in which are the tombs of some of the abbesses, but as a whole belongs to the late I3th century. The abbatial residence (which now contains the mairie, the court-house and the public library) has been twice rebuilt in modern times (in 1750 and again after a fire in 1871), but the original plan and style have been preserved in the imposing front, the vestibule and the grand staircase. Some of the houses of the canonesses dating from the i7th and i8th centuries also remain. Remiremont is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance, a communal college, a board of trade-arbitration and a chamber of arts and manufactures. Its industries include cotton-spinning and weaving, the manufacture of hosiery and embroidery, iron and copper founding and the manufacture of boots and shoes and brushes. Remiremont (Romarici Mans) derives its name from St Romaric, one of the companions of St Columban of Luxeuil, who in the 7th century founded a monastery and a convent on the hills above the present town. In 910 the nuns, menaced REMONSTRANTS— REMUSAT, COMTE DE by the invasion of the Hungarians, took refuge at Remiremont, which had grown up round a villa of the Prankish kings, and in the nth century they permanently settled there. Enriched by dukes of Lorraine, kings of France and emperors of Germany, the ladies of Remiremont attained great power. The abbess was a princess of the empire, and received consecration at the hands of the pope. The fifty canonesses were selected from those who could give proof of noble descent. On Whit-Monday the neighbouring parishes paid homage to the chapter in a ceremony called the "Kyrioles"; and on their accession the dukes of Lorraine, the immediate suzerains of the abbey, had to come to Remiremont to swear to continue their protection. The " War of the Scutcheons " (Panonceaux) in 1566 between the duke and the abbess ended in favour of the duke; and the abbess never recovered her former position. In the I7th century the ladies of Remiremont fell away so much from the original monastic rule as to take the title of countesses, renounce their vows and marry. The town was attacked by the French in 1638 and ruined by the earthquake of 1682. With the rest of Lorraine it was joined to France in 1766. The monastery on the hill and the nunnery in the town were both suppressed in the Revolution. REMONSTRANTS, the name given to those Dutch Protestants who, after the death of Arminius (a, 'Ptfufrav, 'Ptfjujta./*, 'PaLav, 'P«f>av. It is part of a quotation from Amos v. 26, where the Septuagint 'Pai<£di> or 'Ptav stands for the Hebrew P'? Chuin or Kewan. The Greek forms are probably simple mistakes for the Hebrew, k (3) having been replaced by r 0) and ph () substituted for v ('). Kewan is probably the old Babylonian Ka(y)awanu, the planet Saturn, another (the Akkadian) name for which is Sakkut, which appears as Siccuth in the earlier part of the verse. REMSCHEID, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine Province, situated on an elevated plateau, noo ft. above sea- level, 6 m. by rail S. of Barmen and 20 m. N.E. of Cologne. Pop. (1905) 64,340. Remscheid is a centre of the hardware industry, and large quantities of tools, scythes, skates and other small articles in iron, steel and brass are made for export to all parts of Europe, the East, and North and South America. The name of Remscheid occurs in a document of 1132, and the town received the first impulse to its industrial importance through the immigration of Protestant refugees from France and Holland. R6MUSAT, CHARLES FRANCOIS MARIE, COMTE DE (1797- 1875), French politician and man of letters, was born in Paris on the i3th of March 1797. His father, Auguste Laurent, Comte de Remusat, of a good family of Toulouse, was chamber- lain to Napoleon, but acquiesced in the restoration and became prefect first of Haute Garonne, and then of Nord. His mother's maiden name was Claire Elisabeth Jeanne Gravier de Ver- gennes, born in 1780. She married at sixteen, and was attached to Josephine as dame du palais in 1802. Talleyrand was among her admirers, and she was generally recognized as a woman of great intellectual capacity and personal grace. After her death (1824) an Essai sur I' education des femmes was published and received an academic couronne. But it was not until her grandson Paul de Remusat published her Memoires (3 vols., Paris, 1879-80), which have since been followed by some corre- spondence with her son (2 vols., 1881), that justice could be done to her literary talent. Much light was thrown on the Napoleonic court by this book, and on the youth and education of her son Charles. He early developed political views more liberal than those of his parents, and, being bred to the bar, published in 1820 a pamphlet on trial by jury. He was an active journalist, showing in philosophy and literature the influence of Cousin, and is said to have furnished to no small extent the original of Balzac's brilliant egoist Henri de Marsay. He signed the journalists' protest against the Ordinances of July 1830, and in the following October wa's elected deputy for Haute Garonne. He then ranked himself with the doctrin- aires, and supported most of those measures of restriction on popular liberty which made the July monarchy unpopular with French Radicals. In 1836 he became for a short time under- secretary of state for the interior. He then became an ally of Thiers, and in 1840 held the ministry of the interior for a brief period. In the same year he became an Academician. For the rest of Louis Philippe's reign he was in opposition till he joined Thiers in his attempt at a ministry in the spring of 1848. During this time Remusat constantly spoke in the chamber, but was still more active in literature, especially on philosophical subjects, the most remarkable of his works being his book on Abelard (2 vols., 1845). In 1848 he was elected, and in 1849 re-elected, for Haute Garonne, and voted with the Conservative side. He had to leave France after the coup d'etat; nor did he re-enter political life during the Second Empire until 1869, when he founded a moderate opposition journal at Toulouse. In 1871 he refused the Vienna embassy offered him by Thiers, but in August he was appointed minister of foreign affairs in succession to M. Jules Favre. Although minister he was not a deputy, and on standing for Paris in September 1873 he was beaten by Desire Barodet. A month later he was elected (having already resigned with Thiers) for Haute Garonne by a great majority. He died in Paris on the 6th of January 1875. During his abstention from politics Remusat continued to write on philosophical history, especially English. Saint Anselme de Cantorbery appeared in 1854; L'Anglcterre an XVIIIeme siecle in 1856 (2nd ed. enlarged, 1865); Bacon, sa vie, REMUSAT, J. P. A.— RENAISSANCE son temps, &c., in 1858; Channing, sa vie et ses atwires, in 1862; John Wesley in 1870; Lord Herbert de Cherbury in 1874; His- toire de la philosophic, en Anglelerre depuis Bacon jusqu'd Locke in 1875; besides other and minor works. He wrote well, was a forcible speaker and an acute critic; but his adoption of the indeterminate eclecticism of Cousin in philosophy and of the somewhat similarly indeterminate liberalism of Thiers in politics probably limited his powers, though both no doubt accorded with his critical and unenthusiastic turn of mind. His son PAUL DE REMUSAT (1831-1897) became a distin- guished journalist and writer. He was for many years a regular contributor to the Revue des deux mond.es. He stood for election in Haute-Garonne in 1869 in opposition to the imperial policy and failed, but was elected to the National Assembly in 1871 and later. In 1890 he entered the Acaddmie des sciences morales et politiques. REMUSAT, JEAN PIERRE ABEL (1788-1832), French Chinese scholar, was born in Paris on the 5th of September 1788. He was educated for the medical profession, but a Chinese herbal in the collection of the Abbe Tersan attracted his atten- tion, and he taught himself to read it by great perseverance and with imperfect help. At the end of five years' study he produced in 1811 an Essai sur la langue et la litter ature chinoises, and a paper on foreign languages among the Chinese, which procured him the patronage of Silvestre de Sacy. In 1814 a chair of Chinese was founded at the College de France, and Remusat was placed in it. From this time he gave himself wholly to the languages of the Far East, and published a series of useful works, among which his contributions from Chinese sources to the history of the Tatar nations claim special notice. Remusat became an editor of the Journal de savants in 1818, and founder and first secretary of the Paris Asiatic Society in 1822; he also held various Government appointments. He died at Paris on the 4th of June 1832. A list of his works is given in Querard's France litteraire s.v. Remusat. RENAISSANCE, THE.— The " Renaissance " or " Renascence " is a term used to indicate a well-known but indefinite space of time and a certain phase in the development of Europe.1 On the one hand it denotes the transition from that period of his- tory which we call the middle ages (q.v.) to that which we call modern. On the other hand it implies those changes in the intellectual and moral attitude of the Western nations by which the transition was characterized. If we insist upon the literal and etymological meaning of the word, the Renaissance was a re-birth; and it is needful to inquire of what it was the re-birth. The metaphor of Renaissance may signify the entrance of the European nations upon a fresh stage of vital energy in general, implying a fuller consciousness and a freer exercise of faculties than had belonged to the medieval period. Or it may mean the resuscitation of simply intellectual activities, stimulated by the revival of antique learning and its application to the arts and literatures of modern peoples. Upon our choice between these two interpretations of the word depend important differences in any treatment of the subject. The former has the disadvantage of making it difficult to separate the Renaissance from other historical phases — the Reformation, for example — with which it ought not to be confounded. The latter has the merit of assigning a specific name to a limited series of events and group of facts, which can be distinguished for the purpose of analysis from other events and facts with which they are intimately but not indissolubly connected. In other words, the one definition of Renaissance makes it denote the whole change which came over Europe at the close of the middle ages. The other confines it to what was known by our ancestors as the Revival of Learning. Yet, when we concentrate attention on the recovery of antique culture, we become aware that this was only one phenomenon or symptom of a far wider and more comprehensive alteration in the conditions of the European races. We find it needful to retain both terms, Renaissance and Revival of Learning, and 1 For a somewhat different view of the parcelling out into such periods, see the article MIDDLE AGES. to show the relations between the series of events and facts which they severally imply. .The Revival of Learning must be regarded as a function of that vital energy, an organ of that mental evolution, which brought into existence the modern world, with its new conceptions of philosophy and religion, its reawakened arts and sciences, its firmer grasp on the realities of human nature and the world, its manifold inventions and discoveries, its altered political systems, its expansive and progressive forces. Im- portant as the Revival of Learning undoubtedly was, there are essential factors in the complex called the Renaissance with which it can but remotely be connected. When we analyse the whole group of phenomena which have to be considered, we perceive that some of the most essential have nothing or little to do with the recovery of the classics. These are, briefly speaking, the decay of those great fabrics, church and empire, which ruled the middle ages both as ideas and as realities; the development of nationalities and languages; the enfeeblement of the feudal system throughout Europe; the invention and application of paper, the mariner's compass, gunpowder, and printing; the exploration of continents beyond the ocean; and the substitution of the Copernican for the Ptolemaic system of astronomy. Europe in fact had been prepared for a thorough- going metamorphosis before that new ideal of human life and culture which the Revival of Learning brought to light had been made manifest. It had recovered from the confusion conse- quent upon the dissolution of the ancient Roman empire. The Teutonic tribes had been Christianized, civilized and assimilated to the previously Latinized races over whom they exercised the authority of conquerors. Comparative tranquillity and material comfort had succeeded to discord and rough living. Modern nationalities, defined as separate factors in a common system, were ready to co-operate upon the basis of European federation. The ideas of universal monarchy and of indivisible Christendom, incorporated in the Holy Roman Empire and the Roman Church, had so far lost their hold that scope was offered for the introduction of new theories both of state and church which would have seemed visionary or impious to the medieval mind. It is therefore obvious that some term, wider than Revival of Learn- ing, descriptive of the change which began to pass over Europe in the I4th and isth centuries, has to be adopted. That of Renaissance, Rinascimento, or Renascence is sufficient for the purpose, though we have to guard against the tyranny of what is after all a metaphor. We must not suffer it to lead us into rhetoric about the deadness and the darkness of the middle ages, or hamper our inquiry with preconceived assumptions that the re-birth in question was in any true sense a return to the irrecoverable pagan past. Nor must we imagine that there was any abrupt break with the middle ages. On the contrary, the Renaissance was rather the last stage of the middle ages, emerging from ecclesi- astical and feudal despotism, developing what was original in medieval ideas by the light of classic arts and letters, holding in itself the promise of the modern world. It was therefore a period and a process of transition, fusion, preparation, tentative endeavour. And just at this point the real importance of the Revival of Learning may be indicated. That rediscovery of the classic past restored the confidence in their own faculties to men striving after spiritual freedom; revealed the continuity of history and the identity of human nature in spite of diverse creeds and different customs; held up for emulation master- works of literature, philosophy and art; provoked inquiry; encouraged criticism; shattered the narrow mental barriers imposed by medieval orthodoxy. Humanism, a word which will often recur in the ensuing paragraphs, denotes a specific bias which the forces liberated in the Renaissance took from contact with the ancient world, — the particular form assumed by human self-esteem at that epoch, — the ideal of life and civilization evolved by the modern nations. It indicates the endeavour of man to reconstitute himself as a free being, not as the thrall of theological despotism, and the peculiar assistance he derived in this effort from Greek and Roman literature, the litterae humaniores, letters leaning rather to the side of man than of divinity. RENAISSANCE In this article the Renaissance will be considered as implying a comprehensive movement of the European intellect and will Method toward self-emancipation, toward reassertion of the of treat- natural rights of the reason and the senses, toward ment- .the" conquest of this planet as a place of human occu- pation, and toward the formation of regulative theories both for states and individuals differing from those of medieval times. The Revival of Learning will be treated as a decisive factor in this process of evolution on a new plan. To exclude the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation wholly from the survey is impossible. These terms indicate moments in the whole process of modern history which were opposed, each to the other, and both to the Renaissance; and it is needful to bear in mind that they have, scientifically speaking, a quite separate existence. Yet if the history of Europe in the i6th century of our era came to be written with the brevity with which we write the history of Europe in the 6th century B.C., it would be difficult at the distance of time implied by that supposition to distinguish the Italian movement of the Renaissance in its origin from the German movement of the Reformation. Both would be seen to have a common starting- point in the reaction against long dominant ideas which were becoming obsolete, and also in the excitation of faculties which had during the same period been accumulating energy. The Renaissance, if we try to regard it as a period, was essentially the transition from one historical stage to another. It cannot therefore be confined within strict chronological limits. Chrono- Xhere is one date, however, which may be remembered with advantage as the starting-point in time of the Re- naissance, after the departure from the middle ages had been definitely and consciously made by the Italians. This is the year 1453, when Constantinople, chosen for his capital by the first Christian emperor of Rome, fell into the hands of the Turk. One of the survivals of the old world, the shadow of what had been the Eastern Empire, now passed suddenly away. Almost at the same date that visionary revival of the Western Empire, which had im- posed for six centuries upon the imagination of medieval Europe, hampering Italy and impeding the consolidation of Germany, ceased to reckon among political actualities; while its more robust rival, the Roman Church, seemed likely to sink into the rank of a petty Italian principality. It was demonstrated by the destruction of the Eastern and the dotage of the Western Empire, and by the new papal policy which Nicholas V. inaugurated, that the old order of society was about to be superseded. Nothing remained to check those centrifugal forces in state and church which substituted a confederation of rival European powers for the earlier ideal of universal monarchy, and separate religious constitutions for the previous Catholic unity. At the same time the new learning introduced by the earlier humanists awakened free thought, encour- aged curiosity, and prepared the best minds of Europe for specula- tive audacities from which the schoolmen would have shrunk, and which soon expressed themselves in acts of cosmopolitan importance. If we look a little forward to the years 1492-1500, we obtain a second date of great importance. In these years the expedition of Charles VIII. to Naples opened Italy to French, Spanish and German interference. The leading nations of Europe began to compete for the prize of the peninsula, and learned meanwhile that culture which the Italians had perfected. In these years the secular- ization of the papacy was carried to its final point by Alexander VI., and the Reformation became inevitable. The same period was marked by the discovery of America, the exploration of the Indian seas, and the consolidation of the Spanish nationality. It also witnessed the application of printing to the diffusion of knowledge. Thus, speaking roughly, the half-century between 1450 and 1500 may be termed the culminating point of the Renaissance. The transition from the medieval to the modern order was now secured if not accomplished, and a Rubicon had been crossed from which no retrogression to the past was possible. Looking yet a little farther, to the years 1527 and 1530, a third decisive date is reached. In the first of these years happened the sack of Rome, in the second the pacification of Italy by Charles V. under a Spanish hegemony. The age of the Renaissance was now closed for the land which gave it birth. The Reformation had taken firm hold on northern Europe. The Counter-Reformation was already imminent. It must not be imagined that so great a change as that implied by the Renaissance was accomplished without premonitory Precur- symptoms and previous endeavours. In the main son of we mean by it the recovery of freedom for the human the Re- spirit after a long period of bondage to oppressive aalssaace. , . ,. , , .... , ecclesiastical and political orthodoxy — a return to the liberal and practical conceptions of the world which the nations of antiquity had enjoyed, but upon a new and enlarged platform. This being so, it was inevitable that the finally successful efforts after self-emancipation should have been anticipated from time to time by strivings within the ages that are known as dark and medieval. It is therefore part of the present inquiry to pass in review some of the claimants to be considered precursors of the Renaissance. First of all must be named the Frank in whose lifetime the dual conception of universal empire and universal church, divinely ap- pointed, sacred and inviolable, began to control the order of Euro- pean society. Charles the Great (Charlemagne) lent his forces to the plan of resuscitating the Roman empire at a moment when his own power made him the arbiter of western Europe, when the papacy needed his alliance, and when the Eastern Empire had passed under the usurped regency of a female. He modelled an empire, Roman in name but essentially Teutonic, since it owed such substance as its fabric possessed to Prankish armies and the sinews of the German people. As a structure composed of diyerf ill-connected parts it fell to pieces at its builder's death, leaving little but the incubus of a memory, the fascination of a mighty name, to dominate the mind of medieval Europe. As an idea, the empire grew in visionary power, and remained one of the chief obstacles in the way of both Italian and German national coherence. Real force was not in it, but rather in that counterpart to its unlimited pretensions, the church, which had evolved it from barbarian night, and which used her own more vital energies for'undermining the rival of her creation. Charles the Great, having proclaimed himself successor of the Caesars, was obscurely ambitious of imitating the Augusti also in the sphere of letters. He caused a scheme of humanistic education to be formulated, and gave employment at his court to rhetoricians, of whom Alcuin was the most considerable. But very little came of the revival of learning which Charles is supposed to have encouraged ; and the empire he restored was accepted by the medieval intellect in a crudely theological and vaguely mystical spirit. We should, however, here remember that the study of Roman law, which was one important precursory symptom of the Renaissance, owed much to medieval respect for the empire as a divine institution. This, together with the municipal Italian intolerance of the Lombard and Prankish codes, kept alive the practice and revived the science of Latin jurisprudence at an early period. Philosophy had attempted to free itself from the trammels of theological orthodoxy in the hardy speculations of some schoolmen, notably of Scotus Engena and Abelard. These innovators found, however, small support, and were defeated by opponents who used the same logical weapons with auth- ority to back them. Nor were the rationalistic opinions of the Averroists without their value, though the church condemned these deviators from her discipline as heretics. Such medieval materialists, moreover, had but feeble hold upon the substance of real knowledge. Imperfect acquaintance with authors whom they studied in Latin translations made by Jews from Arabic commentaries on Greek texts, together with almost total ignorance of natural laws, condemned them to sterility. Like the other schiomachists of their epoch, they fought with phantoms in a visionary realm. A similar judgment may be passed upon those Paulician, Albigensian, Paterme and Epicurean dissenters from the Catholic creed who opposed the phalanxes of orthodoxy with frail imaginative weapons, and alarmed established orders in the state by the audacity of their communistic opinions. Physical science struggled into feeble life in the cells of Gerbert and Roger Bacon. But these men were accounted magicians by the vulgar; and, while the one eventually assumed the tiara, the other was incarcer- ated in a dungeon. The schools meanwhile resounded still to the interminable dispute upon abstractions. Are only universals real, or has each name a corresponding entity? From the midst of the Franciscans who had persecuted Roger Bacon because he presumed to know more than was consistent with human humility arose John of Parma, adopting and popularizing the mystic prophecy of Joachim of Flora. The reign of the Father is past ; the reign of the Son is passing; the reign of the Spirit is at hand. Such was the formula of the Eternal Gospel, which, as an unconscious forecast of the Renaissance, has attracted retrospective students by its felicity of adaptation to their historical method. Yet we must remember that this bold intuition of the abbot Joachim indicated a monastic reaction against the tyrannies and corruptions of the church, rather than a fertile philosophical conception. The Fraticelli spiritualists, and similar sects who fed their imagination with his doctrine, ex- pired in the flames to which Fra Dolcino Longino and Margharita were consigned. To what extent the accusations of profligate morals brought agaihst these reforming sectarians were justified remains doubtful; and the same uncertainty rests upon the alleged •iniquities of the Templars. It is only certain that at this epoch the fabric of Catholic faith was threatened with various forms of pro- phetic and Oriental mysticism, symptomatic of a widespread desire to grasp at something simpler, purer and less rigid than Latin theology afforded. Devoid of criticism, devoid of sound learning, devoid of a firm hold on the realities of life, these heresies passed away without solid results and were forgotten. P*6 ** RENAISSANCE We are too apt to take for granted that the men of the middle ages were immersed in meditations on the other world, and that their Natural- intellectual exercises were confined to abstractions of the schools, hallucinations of the fancy, allegories, visions. "" . This assumption applies indeed in a broad sense to that mea evai pg,.;^ which was dominated by intolerant theology and lit *t deprived of positive knowledge. Yet there are abundant ' signs that the native human instincts, the natural human appetites, remained unaltered and alive beneath the crust of ortho- doxy. In the person of a pope like Boniface VIII. those ineradicable forces of the natural man assumed, if we may trust the depositions of ecclesiastics well acquainted with his life, a form of brutal atheistic cynicism. In the person of an emperor, Frederick II., they emerged under the more agreeable garb of liberal culture and Epicurean scepticism. Frederick dreamed of remodelling society upon a mundane type, which anticipated the large toleration and cosmopolitan enlightenment of the actual Renaissance. But his efforts were defeated by the unrelenting hostility of the church, and by the incapacity of his contemporaries to understand his aims. After being forced in his lifetime to submit to authority, he was consigned by Dante to hell. Frederick's ideal of civilization was derived in a large measure from Provence, where a beautiful culture had prematurely bloomed, filling southern Europe with the perfume of poetry and gentle living. Here, if anywhere, it seemed as though the ecclesiastical and feudal fetters of the middle ages might be broken, and humanity might enter on a new stage of joyous unim- peded evolution. This was, however, not to be. The church preached Simon de Mpntfort's crusade, and organized Dominic's Inquisition; what Quinet calls the " Renaissance sociale par 1'Amour " was extirpated by sword, fire, famine and pestilence. Meanwhile the Provencal poets had developed their modern language with incomparable richness and dexterity, creating forms of verse and modes of emotional expression which determined the latest medieval phase of literature in Europe. The naturalism of which we have been speaking found free utterance now in the fabliaux of jongleurs, lyrics of minnesingers, tales of trouveres, romances of Arthur and his knights — compositions varied in type and tone, but in all of which sincere passion and real enjoyment of life pierce through the thin veil of chivalrous mysticism or of allegory with •which they were sometimes conventionally draped. The tales of Lancelot and Tristram, the lives of the troubadours and the Wacht- lieder of the minnesingers, sufficiently prove with what sensual freedom a knight loved the lady whom custom and art made him profess to worship as a saint. We do not need to be reminded that Beatrice's adorer had a wife and children, or that Laura's poet owned a son and daughter by a concubine, in order to perceive that the mystic passion of chivalry was compatible in the middle ages with commonplace matrimony or vulgar illegitimate connexions. But perhaps the most convincing testimony to the presence of this ineradicable naturalism is afforded by the Latin songs of wandering students, known as Curmina Burana, written by the self-styled Goliardi. In these compositions, remarkable for their iacile handling of medieval Latin rhymes and rhythms, the allegorizing mysticism which envelops chivalrous poetry is discarded. Love is treated from a frankly carnal point of view. Bacchus and Venus go hand in hand, as in the ancient ante- Christian age. The open-air enjoyments of the wood, the field, the dance upon the village green, are sung with juvenile lighthearted- ness. No grave note, warning us that the pleasures of this earth are fleeting, that the visible world is but a symbol of the invisible, that human life is a probation for the life beyond, interrupts the tinkling music as of castanets and tripping feet which gives a novel charm to these unique relics of the 1 3th century. Goliardic poetry is further curious as showing how the classics even at that early period were a fountain-head of pagan inspiration. In the taverns and low places of amusement haunted by those lettered songsters, on the open road and in the forests trodden by their vagrant feet, the deities of Greece and Rome were not in exile, but at home within the hearts of living men. Thus, while Christendom was still preoccupied with the Crusades, two main forces of the Renaissance, naturalism and enthusiasm for antique modes of feeling, already brought their latent potency to light, prematurely indeed and precociously, yet with a promise that was destined to be kept. When due regard is paid to these miscellaneous evidences of intellectual and sensual freedom during the middle ages, it will be „ . . seen that there were by no means lacking elements of attitude nat've vigour ready to burst forth. What was wanting of m lad was not vi^'ity and licence, not audacity of speculation, not lawless instinct or rebellious impulse. It was rather the right touch on life, the right feeling for human independence, the right way of approaching the materials of philosophy, religion, scholarship and literature, that failed. The courage that is born of knowledge, the calm strength begotten by a positive attitude of mind, face to face with the dominant over-shadowing Sphinx of theology, were lacking. We may fairly say that natural and untaught people had more of the just intuition that was needed than learned folk trained in the schools. But these people were rendered licentious in revolt or impotent for salutary action by ignorance, by terror, by uneasy dread of the doom declared for heretics and rebels. The aollardk poetry. massive vengeance of the church hung over them, like a heavy sword suspended in the cloudy air. Superstition and stupidity hedged them in on every side, so that sorcery and magic seemed the only means of winning power over nature or insight into mysteries surrounding human life. The path from darkness to light was lost; thought was involved in allegory; the study of nature had been perverted into an inept system of grotesque and pious parable- mongering; the pursuit of truth had become a game of wordy dialectics. The other world, with its imagined heaven and hell, haunted the conscience like a nightmare. However sweet this world seemed, however fair the flesh, both world and flesh were theoretically given over to the devil. It was not worth while to master and economize the resources of this earth, to utilize the good and ameliorate the evils of this life, while every one agreed, in theory at any rate, that the present was but a bad prelude to an infinitely worse or infinitely better future. To escape from these preoccupa- tions and prejudices except upon the path of conscious and deliber- ate sin was impossible for all but minds of rarest quality and courage; and these were too often reduced to the recantation of their supposed errors no less by some secret clinging sense of guilt than by the church's iron hand. Man and the actual universe kept on reasserting their rights and claims, announcing their goodliness and delightfulness, in one way or another; but they were always being thrust back again into Cimmerian regions of abstractions, fictions, visions, spectral hopes and fears, in the midst of which the intellect somnambulistically moved upon an unknown way. At this point the Revival of Learning intervened to determine the course of the Renaissance. Medieval students possessed a considerable portion of the Latin classics, though Italy—the Greek had become in the fullest sense of the phrase Revival of a dead language. But what they retained of ancient l-e*ralax- literature they could not comprehend in the right spirit. Between them and the text of poet or historian hung a veil of mysticism, a vapour of misapprehension. The odour of unsanctity clung around those relics of the pagan past. Men bred in the cloister and the lecture-room of the logicians, trained in scholastic disputations, versed in allegorical interpretations of the plainest words and most apparent facts, could not find the key which might unlock those stores of wisdom and of beauty. Petrarch first opened a new method in scholarship, and revealed what we denote as humanism. In his teaching lay the twofold discovery of man and of the world. For humanism, which was the vital element in the Revival of Learning, consists mainly of a just perception of the dignity of man as a rational, volitional and sentient being, born upon this earth with a right to use it and enjoy it. Humanism implied the rejection of those visions of a future and imagined state of souls as the only absolute reality, which had fascinated the imagination of the middle ages. It involved a vivid recognition of the goodliness of man and nature, displayed in the great monuments of human power recovered from the past. It stimulated the curiosity of latent sensibilities, provoked fresh inquisition into the groundwork of existence, and strengthened man's self-esteem by knowledge of what men had thought and felt and done in ages when Christianity was not. It roused a desire to reappropriate the whole abandoned provinces of mundane energy, and a hope to emulate antiquity in works of living loveliness and vigour. The Italians of the I4th century, more precocious than the other European races, were ripe for this emancipation of enslaved intelligence. In the classics they found the food which was required to nourish the new spirit ; and a variety of circumstances, among which must be reckoned the pride of a nation boasting of its descent from the Populus Romanus, rendered them apt to fling aside the obstacles that had impeded the free action of the mind through many centuries. Petrarch not only set his countrymen upon the right method of studying the Latin classics, but he also divined the importance of recovering a knowledge of Greek literature. To this task Boccaccio addressed himself; and he was followed by numerous Italian enthusiasts, who visited Byzantium before its fall as the sacred city of a new revelation. The next step was to collect MSS., to hunt out, copy and preserve the precious relics of the past. In this work of accumulation Guarino and Filelfo, Aurispa and Poggio, took the chief part, aided by the wealth of Italian patricians, merchant-princes and despots, who were inspired by the sacred thirst for learning. Learning was then 86 RENAISSANCE no mere pursuit of a special and recluse class. It was fashionable and it was passionate, pervading all society with the fervour of romance. For a generation nursed in decadent scholasticism and stereotyped theological formulae it was the fountain of renascent youth, beauty and freedom, the shape in which the Helen of art and poetry appeared to the ravished eyes of medieval Faustus. It was the resurrection of the mightiest spirits of the past. " I go," said Cyriac of Ancona, the inde- fatigable though uncritical explorer of antiquities, " I go to awake the dead ! " This was the enthusiasm, this the vitalizing faith, which made the work of scholarship in the isth century so highly strung and ardent. The men who followed it knew that they were restoring humanity to its birthright after the expatriation of ten centuries. They were instinctively aware that the effort was for liberty of action, thought and conscience in the future. This conviction made young men leave their loves and pleasures, grave men quit their counting-houses, churchmen desert their missals, to crowd the lecture-rooms of philologers and rhetoricians. When Greek had been acquired, MSS. accumulated, libraries and museums formed, came the age of printers and expositors. Aldus Manutius in Italy, Froben in Basel, the Etiennes in Paris, committed to the press what the investigators had recovered. Nor were there wanting men who dedicated their powers to Hebrew and Oriental erudition, laying, together with the Grecians, a basis for those Biblical studies which advanced the Reformation. Meanwhile the languages of Greece and Rome had been so thoroughly appro- priated that a final race of scholars, headed by Politian, Pontano, Valla, handled once again in verse and prose both antique dialects, and thrilled the ears of Europe with new-made pagan melodies. The church itself at this epoch lent its influence to the prevalent enthusiasm. Nicholas V. and Leo X., not to mention intervening popes who showed themselves tolerant of humanistic culture, were heroes of the classical revival. Scholar- ship became the surest path of advancement to ecclesiastical and political honours. Italy was one great school of the new learning at the moment when the German, French and Spanish nations were invited to her feast. It will be well to describe briefly, but in detail, what this meeting of the modern with the ancient mind effected over the Nature of whole field of intellectual interests. In doing so, we Italian must be careful to remember that the study of the human- classics did but give a special impulse to pent-up energies which were bound in one way or another to assert their independence. Without the Revival of Learning the direction of those forces would have been different; but that novel intuition into the nature of the world and man which constitutes what we describe as Renaissance must have emerged. As the facts, however, stand before us, it is impossible to dis- sociate the rejection of the other world as the sole reality, the joyous acceptance of this world as a place to live and act in, the conviction that " the proper study of mankind is man," from humanism. Humanism, as it actually appeared in Italy, was positive in its conception of the problems to be solved, pagan in its contempt for medieval mysticism, invigorated for sensuous enjoyment by contact with antiquity, yet holding in itself the germ of new religious aspirations, profounder science and sterner probings of the mysteries of life than had been attempted even by the ancients. The operation of this humanistic spirit has now to be traced. It is obvious that Italian literature owed little at the outset to the Revival of Learning. The Divine Comedy, the Canzoniere and the Decameron were works of monumental art, flit deriving neither form nor inspiration immediately from °p * f' the classics, but applying the originality of Italian genius .' to matter drawn from previous medieval sources. Dante and Villanl snowed both in his epic poem and in his lyrics that he to the had not abandoned the sphere of contemporary thought. Revivalol Allegory and theology, the vision and the symbol, still Learning, determine the form of masterpieces which for perfection of workmanship and for emancipated force of intellect rank among the highest products of the human mind. Yet they are not medieval in the same sense as the song of Roland or the Arthurian cycle. They proved that, though Italy came late into the realm of literature, her action was destined to be decisive and alterative by the introduction of a new spirit, a firmer and more positive grasp on life and art. These qualities she owed to her material prosperity, to her freedom from feudalism, to her secular- ized church, her commercial nobility, her political independence in a federation of small states. Petrarch and Boccaccio, though they both held the medieval doctrine that literature should teach some abstruse truth beneath a veil of fiction, differed from Dante in this that their poetry and prose in the vernacular abandoned both allegory and symbol. In their practice they ignored their theory. Petrarch's lyrics continue the Provencal tradition as it had been reformed in Tuscany, with a subtler and more modern analysis of emotion, a purer and more chastened style, than his masters could boast. Boccaccio's tales, in like manner, continue the tradition of the fabliaux, raising that literary species to the rank of finished art, enriching it with humour and strengthening its substance by keen insight into all varieties of character. The Canzoniere and the Decameron distinguish themselves from medieval literature, not by any return to classical precedents, but by free self-conscious handling of human nature. So much had to be premised in order to make it clear in what relation humanism stood to the Renais- sance, since the Italian work of Dante, Petrarch and Boccaccio is sufficient to indicate the re-birth of the spirit after ages of ap- parent deadness. Had the Revival of Learning not intervened it is probable that the vigorous efforts of these writers alone would have inaugurated a new age of European culture. Yet, while noting this reservation of judgment, it must also be remarked that all three felt themselves under some peculiar obligation to the classics. Dante, medieval as his temper seems to us, chose Virgil for his guide, and ascribed his mastery of style to the study of Virgilian poetry. Petrarch and Boccaccio were, as we have seen, the pioneers of the new learning. They held their writings in the vernacular cheap, and initiated that contempt for the mother tongue which was a note of the earlier Renaissance. Giovanni Villani, the first chroni- cler who used Italian for the compilation of a methodical history, tells us how he was impelled to write by musing on the ruins of Rome and thinking of the vanished greatness of the Latin race. We have therefore to recognize that the four greatest writers of the I4th century, while the Revival of Learning was yet in its cradle, each after his own fashion acknowledged the vivifying touch upon their spirit of the antique genius. They seem to have been conscious that they could not give the desired impulse to modern literature and art without contact with the classics; and, in spite of the splendour of their achievements in Italian, they found no immediate followers upon that path. The fascination of pure study was so powerful, the Italians at that epoch were so eager to recover the past, that during the I5th century we have before our eyes the spectacle of this great Delation nation deviating from the course of development begun , r-* j r> L • L r> • Of human- m poetry by Dante and retrarch, in prose by Boccaccio ^sm t and Villani, into the channels of scholarship and anti- gcag/gf. quarian research. The language of the Canzoniere and §/,/„ aaij Decameron was abandoned for revived Latin and dis- literature. covered Greek. Acquisition supplanted invention; imitation of classical authors suppressed originality of style. The energies of the Italian people were devoted to transcrib- ing codices, settling texts, translating Greek books into Latin, compiling grammars, commentaries, encyclopaedias, dictionaries, epitomes and ephemerides. During this century the best histories — Bruno's and Poggio's annals of Florence, for example — were composed in Latin after the manner of Livy. The best disserta- tions, Landino's Camaldunenses, Valla's De Voluptate, were laboured imitations of Cicero's Tusculans. The best verses, Pontano's elegies, Politian's hexameters, were in like manner Latin; public orations upon ceremonial occasions were delivered in the Latin tongue; correspondence, official and familiar, was carried on in the same language; even the fabliaux received, in Poggio's Facetiae. a dress of elegant Latinity. The noticeable barrenness of Italian literature at this period is referable to the fact that men of genius and talent devoted themselves to erudition and struggled to express their thoughts and feelings in a speech which was not natural. Yet they were engaged in a work of incalculable importance. At the close of the century the knowledge of Greece and Rome had been reappropriated and placed beyond the possibility of destruction; the chasm between the old and new world had been bridged ; medieval modes of thinking and discussing had been superseded ; the staple of education, the common culture which has brought all Europe into intellectual agreement, was already in existence. Humanism was now an actuality. Owing to the uncritical venera- tion for antiquity which then prevailed, it had received a strong tincture of pedantry. s Its professors, in their revolt against the middle ages, made light of Christianity and paraded paganism. What was even worse from an artistic point of view, they had con- tracted puerilities of style, vanities of rhetoric, stupidities of weari- some citation. Still, at the opening of the i6th century, it became manifest what fruits of noble quality the Revival of Letters was about to bring forth for modern literature. Two great scholars, Lorenzo de' Medici and Politian, had already returned to the RENAISSANCE practice of Italian poetry. |Their work is the first absolutely modern work, — modern in the sense of having absorbed the stores of classic learning and reproduced those treasures in forms of simple, natural, native beauty. Boiardo occupies a similar position by the fusion of classic mythology with chivalrous romance in his Orlando Innamorato. But the victor's laurels were reserved for Ariosto, whose Orlando Furioso is the purest and most perfect extant example of Renaissance poetry. It was not merely in what they had acquired and assimilated from the classics that these poets showed the transformation effected in the field of literature by humanism. The whole method and spirit of medieval art had been abandoned. That of the Cinque Cento is positive, defined, mundane. The deity, if deity there be, that rules in it, is beauty. Interest is confined to the actions, passions, sufferings and joys of human life, to its pathetic, tragic, humorous and sentimental incidents. Of the state of souls beyond the grave we hear and are supposed to care nothing. In the drama the pedantry of the Revival, which had not injured romantic literature, made itself perniciously felt. Rules were collected from Horace and Aristotle. Seneca was chosen as the model of tragedy; Plautus and Terence supplied the groundwork of comedy. Thus in the plays of Rucellai, Trissino, Sperone and other tragic poets the nobler elements of humanism, considered as a revelation of the world and man, ob- tained no free development. Even the comedies of the best authors are too observant of Latin precedents, although some pieces of Machiavelli, Ariosto, Aretino, Cecchi and Gelli are admirable for vivid delineation of contemporary manners. The relation of the plastic arts to the revival of learning is similar to that which has been sketched in the case of poetry. Cimabue started with work which owed nothing directly to anti- "*' quity. At about the same time Niccola Pisano (d. 1278) studied the style of sculpture in fragments of Graecp-Roman marbles. His manner influenced Giotto, who set painting on a forward path. Fortunately for the unimpeded expansion of Italian art, little was brought to light of antique workmanship during the I4th and I5th centuries. The classical stimulus came to painters, sculptors and architects chiefly through literature. Therefore there was narrow scope for imitation, and the right spirit of humanism displayed itself in a passionate study of perspective, nature and the nude. Yet we find in the writings of Gniberti and Alberti, we notice in the masterpieces of these men and their compeers Brunelleschi and Donatello, how even in the I5th century the minds of artists were fascinated by what survived of classic grace and science. Gradually, as the race became penetrated with antique thought, the earlier Christian motives of the arts yielded to pagan subjects. Gothic architecture, which had always flourished feebly on Italian soil, was supplanted by a hybrid Roman style. The study of Vitruvius gave strong support to that pseudo-classic manner which, when it had reached its final point in Palladio's work, overspread the whole of Europe and dominated taste during two centuries. But the perfect plastic art of Italy, the pure art of the Cinque Cento, the painting of Raphael, Da Vinci, Titian and Cprreggio, the sculpture of Donatello, Michelangelo and Sansovinp, the architecture of Bramante, Omodeo and the Venetian Lombard!, however much imbued with the spirit of the classical revival, takes rank beside the poetry of Ariosto as a free intelligent product of the Renaissance. That is to say, it is not so much an outcome of studies in antiquity as an exhibition of emancipated modern genius fired and illuminated by the masterpieces of the past. It indicates a separation from the middle ages, inasmuch as it is permanently natural. Its religion is joyous, sensuous, dramatic, terrible, but in each and all of its many-sided manifestations strictly human. Its touch on classical mythology is original, rarely imitative or pedantic. The art of the Renaissance was an apocalypse of the beauty of the world and man in unaffected spontaneity, without side thoughts for piety or erudition, inspired by pure delight in loveliness ana harmony for their own sakes. In the fields of science and philosophy humanism wrought similar important changes. Petrarch began by waging relentless war against the logicians and materialists of his own day. be regarded only as a period of transition the Italian *n wn'cn much of the good of the past was sacrificed while K oals- some °f the evil was retained, and neither the bad nor the good of the future was brought clearly into fact. Beneath the surface of brilliant socialculture lurked gross appetites and savage passions, unrestrained by medieval piety, untutored by modern experience. Italian society exhibited an almost un- exampled spectacle of literary, artistic and courtly refinement crossed by brutalities of lust, treasons, poisonings, assassinations, violence. A succession of worldly pontiffs brought the church into flagrant discord with the principles of Christianity. Steeped in pagan learning, emulous of imitating the manners of the ancients, used to think and feel in harmony with Ovid and Theocritus, and at the same time rendered cynical by the corruption of papal Rome, the educated classes lost their grasp upon morality. Political honesty ceased almost to have a name in Italy. The Christian virtues were scorned by the foremost actors and the ablest thinkers of the time, while the antique virtues were themes for rhetoric rather than moving-springs of conduct. This is apparent to all students of Machiavelli and Guicciardini, the profoundest analysts of their age, the bitterest satirists of its vices, but themselves in- fected with its incapacity for moral goodness. Not only were the Italians vitiated; but they had also become impotent for action and resistance. At the height of the Renaissance the five great powers in the peninsula formed a confederation of independent but mutually attractive and repellent states. Equilibrium was maintained by diplomacy, in which the humanists played a fore- most part, casting a network of intrigue over the nation which helped in no small measure to stimulate intelligence and create a common medium of culture, but which accustomed statesmen to believe that everything could be achieved by wire-pulling. Wars were conducted on a showy system by means of mercenaries, who played a safe game in the field and developed a system of blood- less campaigns. Meanwhile the people grew up unused to arms. When Italy between the years 1494 and 1530 became the battle- field of French, German and Spanish forces, it was seen to what a point of helplessness the political, moral and social conditions of the Renaissance had brought the nation. It was needful to study at some length the main phenomena of the Renaissance in Italy, because the history of that phase of evolution in the other Western races turns almost Diffusion entirely upon points in which they either adhered of the to or diverged from the type established there. Speak- ^w ing broadly, what France, Germany, Spain and j"^, England assimilated from Italy at this epoch was in the through- first place the new learning, as it was then called, out This implied the new conception of human life, Europe. the new interest in the material universe, the new method of education, and the new manners, which we have seen to be inseparable from Italian humanism. Under these forms of intellectual enlightenment and polite culture the renascence of the human spirit had appeared in Italy, where it was more than elsewhere connected with the study of classical antiquity. But that audacious exploratory energy which formed the motive force of the Renaissance as distinguished from the Revival of Learning took, as we shall see, very different directions in the several nations who now were sending the flower of their youth to study at the feet of Italian rhetoricians. The Renaissance ran its course in Italy with strange indiffer- ence to consequences. The five great powers, held in equilibrium by Lorenzo de' Medici, dreamed that the peninsula could be maintained in statu quo by diplomacy. The church saw no danger in encouraging a pseudo-pagan ideal of life, violating its own principle of existence by assuming the policy of an aggrandizing secular state, and outraging Christendom openly by its acts and utterances. Society at large was hardly aware that an intellectual force of stupendous magnitude and in- calculable explosive power had been created by the new learning. Why should not established institutions proceed upon the customary and convenient methods of routine, while the delights of existence were augmented, manners polished, arts developed, and a golden age of epicurean ease made decent by a state religion which no one cared to break with because no one was left to regard it seriously? This was the attitude of the Italians when the Renaissance, which they had initiated as a thing of beauty, began to operate as a thing of power beyond the Alps. Germany was already provided with universities, seven of which had been founded between 1348 and 1409. In these haunts of learning the new studies took root after the year 1440, D.I* chiefly through the influence of travelling professors, Peter *"**" v . Luder and Samuel Karoch. German scholars made their way to Lombard and Tuscan lecture-rooms, bringing back the methods of the humanists. Greek, Latin and Hebrew " erudition soon found itself at home on Teutonic soil. Like Italian men of letters, these pioneers of humanism gave a classic turn to their patronymics; unfamiliar names, Crotus Rubeanusand Pierius Graecus, Capnion and Lupambulus Ganymedes, Oecolampadius and Melanchthon, resounded on the Rhine. A few of the German princes, among whom Maximilian, the prince cardinal Albert of Mainz, Frederick the Wise of Saxony, and Eberhard of Wurttem- berg deserve mention, exercised a not insignificant influence on letters by the foundation of new universities and the patronage of learned men. The cities of Strassburg, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Basel, became centres of learned coteries, which gathered round scholars like Wimpheling, Brant, Peutinger, Schedel, and Pirckheimer, artists like purer and Holbein, printers of the eminence of Froben. Academies in imitation of- Italian institutions came into existence, the two most conspicuous, named after the Rhine and the Danube, holding their headquarters respectively at Heidelberg and Vienna. Crowned poets, of whom the most eminent was Conrad Celtes Pro- tucius (Picket!), emulated the fame of Politian and Pontano. Yet, though the Renaissance was thus widely communicated to the centres of German intelligence, it displayed a different character from that which it assumed in Italy. Gothic art,_ which was indi- genous in Germany, yielded but little to southern influences. Such RENAISSANCE 89 work as that of Dttrer, Vischer, Cranach, Schongauer, Holbein, con- summate as it was in technical excellence, did not assume Italian forms of loveliness, did not display the paganism of the Latin races. The modification of Gothic architecture by pseudo-Roman elements of style was incomplete. What Germany afterwards took of the Palladian manner was destined to reach it on a circuitous route from France. In like manner the new learning failed to penetrate all classes of society with the rapidity of its expansion in Italy, nor was the new ideal of life and customs so easily substituted for the medieval. The German aristocracy, as Aeneas Sylvius had noticed, remained for the most part barbarous, addicted to gross pleasures, contemptuous of culture. The German dialects were too rough to receive that artistic elaboration under antique influences which had been so facile in Tuscany. The doctors of the universities were too wedded to their antiquated manuals and methods, too satisfied with dullness, too proud of titles and diplomas, too anxious to preserve ecclesiastical discipline and to repress mental activity, for a genial spirit of humanism to spread freely. Not in Cologne or Tubingen but in Padua and Florence did the German pioneers of the Renais- sance acquire their sense of liberal studies. And when they returned home they found themselves encumbered with stupidities, jealousies and rancours. Moreover, the temper of these more enlightened men was itself opposed to Italian indifference and immorality; it was pugnacious and polemical, eager to beat down the arrogance of monks and theologians rather than to pursue an ideal of aesthetical self-culture. To a student of the origins of German humanism it is clear that something very different from the Renaissance of Lorenzo ie' Medici and Leo X. was in preparation from the first upon Teutonic soil. Far less plastic and form-loving than the Italian, the German intelligence was more penetrative, earnest, disputative, occupied with substantial problems. Starting with theological criticism, proceeding to the stage of solid studies in the three learned languages, German humanism occupied the attention of a widely scattered sect of erudite scholars; but it did not arouse the interest of the whole nation until it was forced into a violently militant attitude by Pfefferkorn's attack on Reuchlin. That attempt to extinguish honest thought prepared the Reformation; and humanism after 1518 was absorbed in politico-religious warfare. The point of contact between humanism and the Reformation in Germany has to be insisted on; for it is just here that the relation of the Reformation to the Renaissance in general makes Relai itself apparent. As the Renaissance had its precur- of human- sorv movements in the medieval period, so the German Reformation was preceded by Wickliffe and Huss, by the uerman discontents of the Great Schism and by the councils of Con- stance and Basel. These two main streams of modern progress had been proceeding upon different tracks to diverse issues, but they touched in the studies stimulated by the Revival, and they had a common origin in the struggle of the spirit after self-emancipation. Johann Reuchlin, who entered the lecture-room of Argyropoulos at Rome in 1482, Erasmus of Rotter- dam, who once dwelt at Venice as the house guest of the Aldi, applied their critical knowledge of Hebrew and of Greek to the elucidation and diffusion of the Bible. To the Germans, as to all nations of that epoch, the Bible came as a new book, because they now read it for the first time with eyes opened by humanism. The touch of the new spirit which had evolved literature, art and culture in Italy sufficed in Germany to recreate Christianity. This new spirit in Italy emancipated human intelligence by the classics; in Germany it emancipated the human conscience by the Bible. The indigna- tion excited by Leo X.'s sale of indulgences, the moral rage stirred in Northern hearts by papal abominations in Rome, were external causes which precipitated the schism between Teutonic and Latin Christianity. The Reformation, inspired by the same energy of resuscitated life as the Renaissance, assisted by the same engines of the printing-press and paper, using the same apparatus of scholar- ship, criticism, literary skill, being in truth another manifestation of the same world-movement under a diverse form, now posed itself as an irreconcilable antagonist to Renaissance Italy. It would be difficult to draw any comparison between German and Italian humanists to the disparagement of the former. Reuchlin was no less learned than Pico; Melanchthon no less humane than Ficino; Erasmus no less witty, and far more trenchant, than Petrarch; Ulrich von Hutten no less humorous than Folengo; Paracelsus no less fantastically learned than Cardano. But the cause in which Cerman intellect and will were enlisted was so different that it is difficult not to make a formal separation between that movement which evolved culture in Italy and that which restored religion in Germany, establishing the freedom of intelligence in the one sphere and the freedom of the conscience in the other. The truth is that the Reformation was the Teutonic Renaissance. It was the emanci- pation of the reason on a line neglected by the Italians, more impor- tant indeed in its political consequences, more weighty in its bearing on rationalistic developments than the Italian Renaissance, but none the less an outcome of the same ground-influences. We have already in this century reached a point at which, in spite of stubborn Protestant dogmatism and bitter Catholic reaction, we can perceive how the ultimate affranchisement of man will be the work of both. The German Reformation was incapable of propagating itself in Italy, chiefly for the reason that the intellectual forces which it represented and employed had already found specific _. outlet in that country. It was not in the nature of the catholk Italians, sceptical and paganized by the Revival, to be . keenly interested about questions which seemed to revive la ^. the scholastic disputes of the middle ages. It was not in their external conditions, suffering as they were from invasions, enthralled by despots, to use the Reformation as a lever for political revolution. Yet when a tumultuary army of so-called Lutherans sacked Rome in 1527 no sober thinker doubted that a new agent had appeared in Europe which would alter the destinies of the peninsula. The Renaissance was virtually closed, so far as it concerned Italy, when Clement VII. and Charles V. struck their compact at Bologna in 1530. This compact proclaimed the principle of monarchical absolutism, supported by papal authority, itself monarchically absolute, which influenced Europe until the outbreak of the Revolu- tion. A reaction immediately set in both against the Renaissance and the Reformation. The council of Trent, opened in 1545 and closed in 1563, decreed a formal purgation of the church, affirmed the fundamental doctrines of Catholicism, strengthened the papal supremacy, and inaugurated that movement of resistance which is known as the Counter-Reformation. The complex onward effort of the modern nations, expressing itself in Italy as Renaissance, in Germany as Reformation, had aroused the forces of conservatism. The four main instruments of the reaction were the papacy, which had done so much by its sympathy with the revival to promote the humanistic spirit it now dreaded, the strength of Spain, and two Spanish institutions planted on Roman soil — the Inquisition and the Order of Jesus. The principle contended for and established by this reaction was absolutism as opposed to freedom — monarchical absolutism, papal absolutism, the suppression of energies liberated by the Renaissance and the Reformation. The partial triumph of this principle was secure, inasmuch as the majority of established powers in church and state felt threatened by the' revolutionary opinions afloat in Europe. Renaissance and Reformation were, moreover, already at strife. Both, too, were spiritual and elastic tendencies toward progress, ideals rather than solid organisms. The part played by Spain in this period of history was deter- mined in large measure by external circumstance. The Spaniards became one nation by the conquest of Granada and the union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon. The war of fP"1^ la national aggrandizement, being in its nature a crusade, " inflamed the religious enthusiasm of the people. It * was followed by the expulsion of Jews and Moors, and by gfts aga the establishment of the Inquisition on a solid basis, with ietters powers formidable to the freedom of all Spaniards from the peasant to the throne. These facts explain the decisive action of the Spanish nation on the side of Catholic conservatism, and help us to understand why their brilliant achievements in the field of culture during the l6th century were speedily followed by stag- nation. It will be well, in dealing with the Renaissance in Spain, to touch first upon the arts and literature, and then to consider those qualities of character in action whereby the nation most distinguished itself from the rest of Europe. Architecture in Spain, emerging from the Gothic stage, developed an Early Renaissance style of bewildering richness by adopting elements of Arabic and Moorish decoration. Sculpture exhibited realistic vigour of indubitably native stamp; and the minor plastic crafts were cultivated with success on lines of striking originality. Painting grew from a homely stock, until the work of Velazquez showed that Spanish masters in this branch were fully abreast of their Italian compeers and contemporaries. To dwell here upon the Italianizing versifiers, moralists and pastoral romancers who attempted to refine the vernacular of the Romancero would be superfluous. They are mainly noticeable as proving that certain coteries in Spain were willing to accept the Italian Renaissance. But the real force of the people was not in this courtly literary style. It expressed itself at last in the monumental work of Don Quixote, which places Cervantes beside Rabelais, Ariosto and Shakespeare as one of the four supreme exponents of the Renaissance. The affectations of decadent chivalry disappeared before its humour; the lineaments of a noble nation, animated by the youth of modern Europe emerging from the middle ages, were portrayed in its enduring pictures of human experience. The Spanish drama, meanwhile, untram- melled by those false canons of pseudo-classic taste which fettered the theatre in Italy and afterwards in France, rose to an eminence in the hands of Lope de Vega and Calderon which only the English, and the English only in the masterpieces of three or four playwrights, can rival. Camoens, in the Lusiad, if we may here group Portugal with Spain, was the first modern poet to compose an epic on a purely modern theme, vying with Virgil, but not bending to pedantic rules, and breathing the spirit of the age of heroic adventures and almost fabulous discoveries into his melodious numbers. What has chiefly to be noted regarding the achievements of the Spanish race in arts and letters at this epoch is their potent national origin- ality. The revival of learning produced in Spain no slavish imitation as it did in Italy, no formal humanism, and, it may be added, very little of fruitful scholarship. The Renaissance here, as in England, 9o RENAISSANCE displayed essential qualities of intellectual freedom, delight in life, exultation over rediscovered earth and man. The note of Renais- sance work in Germany was still Gothic. This we feel in the penetrative earnestness of Durer, in the homeliness of Hans Sachs, in the grotesque humour of Eulenspiegel and the Narrenschiff, the sombre pregnancy of the Faust legend, the almost stolid mastery of Holbein. It lay not in the German genius to escape from the preoccupations and the limitations of the middle ages, for this reason mainly that what we call medieval was to a very large extent Teutonic. But on the Spanish peninsula, in the master- pieces of Velazquez, Cervantes, Camoens, Calderon, we emerge into an atmosphere of art, definitely national, distinctly modern, where solid natural forms stand before us realistically modelled, with light and shadow on their rounded outlines, and where the airiest creatures of the fancy take shape and weave a dance of rhythmic, light, incomparable intricacy. The Spanish Renaissance would in itself suffice, if other witnesses were wanting, to prove how inaccurate is the theory that limits this movement to the revival of learning. Touched by Italian influences, enriched and fortified by the new learning, Spanish genius walked firmly forward on its own path. It was only crushed by forces generated in the nation that produced it, by the Inquisition and by despotic Catholic absolutism. In the history of the Renaissance, Spain and Portugal represent the exploration of the ocean and the colonization of the other B 1 ra- hemisphere. The voyages of Columbus and Vespucci tioa of ' *•? America, the rounding of the Cape by Diaz and the the ocean, discovery of the sea road to India by Vasco da Gama, Cortes's conquest of Mexico and Pizarro's conquest of Peru, marked a new era for the human race and inaugurated the modern age more decisively than any other series of events has done. It has recently been maintained that modern European history is chiefly an affair of competition" between confederated states for the possession of lands revealed by Columbus and Da Gama. Without challenging or adopting this speculation, it may be safely affirmed that nothing so pregnant of results has happened as this exploration of the globe. To say that it displaced the centre of gravity in politics and commerce, substituting the ocean for the Mediterranean, dethroning Italy from her seat of central importance in traffic, depressing the eastern and elevating the western powers of Europe, opening a path for Anglo-Saxon expansiveness, forcing philosophers and statesmen to regard the Occidental nations as a single group in counterpoise to other groups of nations, the European community as one unit correlated to other units of humanity upon this planet, is truth enough to vindicate the vast significance of these discoveries. The Renaissance, far from being the re-birth of antiquity with its civilization confined to the Mediterranean, with its Hercules' Pillars beyond which lay Cimmerian darkness, was thus effectively the entrance upon a quite incalculably wider stage of life, on which mankind at large has since enacted one great drama. While Spanish navies were exploring the ocean, and Spanish paladins were overturning empires, Charles V. headed the reaction Dogmatic °^ Catholicism against reform. Stronger as king of Spain Catholl- than as emperor, for the Empire was little but a name, cism. ne lent the weight of his authority to that system of coercion and repression which enslaved Italy, desolated Germany with war, and drowned the Low Countries in blood. Philip II., with full approval of the Spanish nation, pursued the same policy in an even stricter spirit. He was powerfully assisted by two institutions, in which the national character of Spain expressed itself, the Inquisition and the Society of Jesus. Of the former it is not needful to speak here. But we have to observe that the last great phenomenon of the Spanish Renaissance was Ignatius Loyola, who organized the militia by means of which the church worked her Counter-Reformation. His motto, Perinde ac cadaver, expressed that recognition of absolutism which papacy and monarchy demanded for their consolidation (see JESUITS and LOYOLA). The logical order of an essay which attempts to show how Renaissance was correlated to Reformation and Counter- France la Reformation has necessitated the treatment of Italy, the Re- Germany and Spain in succession; for these three naissaoce natjons were tne three main agents in the triple period. . _ process to be analysed. It was due to their specific qualities, and to the diverse circumstances of their external development, that the re-birth of Europe took this form of duplex action on the lines of intellectual and moral progress, followed by reaction against mental freedom. We have now to speak of France, which earliest absorbed the influence of the Italian revival, and of England, which received it latest. The Renaissance may be said to have begun in France with Charles VIII. 's expedition to Naples, and to have continued until the extinction of the house of Valois. Louis XII. and Francis I. spent a considerable portion of their reigns in the attempt to secure possession of the Italian provinces they claimed. Henry II. 's queen was Catherine of the Medicean family; and her children, Charles IX. and Henry III., were Italianated French- men. Thus the connexion between France and Italy during the period 1494-1589 was continuous. The French passed to and fro across the Alps on military and peaceful expeditions. Italians came to France as courtiers, ambassadors, men of business, captains and artists. French society assumed a strong Italian colouring, nor were the manners of the court very different from those of an Italian city, except that externally they remained ruder and less polished. The relation between the crown and its great feudatories, the military bias of the aristocracy, and the marked distinction between classes which survived from the middle ages, rendered France in many vital points unlike Italy. Yet the annals of that age, and the anecdotes retailed by Brant6me, prove that the royalty and nobility of France had been largely Italianized. It is said that Louis XII. brought Fra Giocondo of Verona back with him to France, and founded a school of architects. But we need not have recourse to this legend for the explanation preach of such Italian influences as were already noticeable architec- in the Renaissance buildings on the Loire. Without ture. determining the French style, Italian intercourse helped to stimulate its formation and development. There are students of the I5th century in France who resent this intrusion of the Italian Renaissance. But they forget that France was bound by inexorable laws of human evolution to obey the impulse which communicated itself to every form of art in Europe. In the school of Fontainebleau, under the patronage of Francis I., that Italian influence made itself distinctly felt; yet a true French manner had been already formed, which, when it was subsequently applied at Paris, preserved a marked national quality. The characteristic of the style developed by Bullant, De I'Orme and Lescot, in the royal or princely palaces of Chenonceaux, Chambord, Anet, Ecouen, Fontainebleau, the Louvre and elsewhere, is a blending of capricious fancy and inventive richness of decoration with purity of outline and a large sense of the beauty of extended masses. Beginning with the older castles of Touraine, and passing onward to the Tuilerics, we trace the passage from the medieval fortress to the modern pleasure-house, and note how architecture obeyed the special demands of that new phenomenon of Renaissance civiliza- tion, the court. In the general distribution of parts these monu- mental buildings express the peculiar conditions which French society assumed under the influence of Francis I. and Diane de Poitiers. In details of execution and harmonic combinations they illustrate the precision, logic, lucidity and cheerful spirit of the national genius. Here, as in Lombardy, a feeling for serene beauty derived from study of the antique has not interrupted the evolution of a style indigenous to France and eminently characteristic of the French temperament. During the reign of Francis I. several Italian painters of eminence visited France. Among these, Del Rosso, Primaticcio, Del Sarto and Da Vinci are the most famous. But their example pff^i, was not productive of a really great school of French paint- oalntinv ing. It was left for the Poussins and Claude Lorraine ' in the next century, acting under mingled Italian and sculpture. Flemish influences, to embody the still active spirit of the classical revival. These three masters were the contemporaries of Corneille, and do not belong to the Renaissance period. Sculp- ture, on the contrary, in which art, as in architecture, the medieval French had been surpassed by no other people of Europe, was practised with originality and power in the reigns of Henry II. and Francis I. Ponzio and Cellini, who quitted Italy for France, found themselves outrivalled in their own sphere by Jean Goujon, Cousin and Pilon. The decorative sculpture of this epoch, whether combined with architecture or isolated in monumental statuary, ranks for grace and suavity with the best of Sansovino's. At the same time it is unmistakably inspired by a sense of beauty different from the Italian — more piquant and pointed, less languorous, more mannered perhaps, but with less of empty rhythmical effect. All this while, the minor arts of enamelling, miniature, glass-paint- ing, goldsmith's work, jewellery, engraving, tapestry, wood-carving, pottery, &c., were cultivated with a spontaneity and freedom which proved that France, in the middle point between Flanders and Italy, was able to use both influences without a sacrifice of native taste. It may indeed be said in general that what is true of France is likewise true of all countries which felt the artistic impulses of the Renaissance. Whether we regard Spain, the Netherlands, or Germany at this epoch, we find a national impress stamped upon the products of the plastic and the decorative arts, notwithstanding the prevalence of certain forms derived from the antique and Italy. It was only at a later period that the formalism of pseudo-classic pedantry reduced natural and national originality to a dead unanimity. RENAISSANCE 91 French literature was quick to respond to Renaissance influences. DC Comincs, the historian of Charles VIII. 's expedition to Naples, P . differs from the earlier French chroniclers in his way of f-rencn regarding the world of men and affairs. He has the ' perspicuity and analytical penetration of a Venetian ambassador. Villon, his contemporary, may rather be ranked, so far as artistic form and use of knowledge are concerned, with rts of the middle ages, and in particular with the Goliardi. But is essentially modern in the vividness of his self-portraiture, and in what we are wont to call realism. Both De Comines and Villon indicate the entrance of a new quality into literature. The Rhetoriqueurs, while protracting medieval traditions by their use of allegory and complicated metrical systems, sought to improve the French language by introducing Latinisms. Thus the Revival of Learning began to affect the vernacular in the last years of the I5th century. Marot and his school reacted against this pedantry. The Renaissance displayed itself in their effort to purify the form and diction of poetry. But the decisive revolution was effected by Ronsard and his comrades of the Pleiade. It was their professed object to raise French to a level with the classics, and to acclimatize Italian species of verse. The humanistic movement led these learned writers to engraft the graces of the antique upon their native literature, and to refine it by emulating the lucidity of Petrarch. The result of their endeavour was immediately apparent in the new force added to French rhythm, the new pomp, richness, colouring and polish conferred upon poetic diction. French style gradually attained to fixity, and the alexandrine came to be recog- nized as the standard line in poetry. D'Aubigne's invective and Regnier's satire, at the close of the l6th century, are as modern as Voltaire's. Meanwhile the drama was emerging from the medieval mysteries; and the classical type, made popular by Garnier's genius, was elaborated, as in Italy, upon the model of Seneca and the canons of the three unities. The tradition thus formed was continued and fortified by the illustrious playwrights of the I7th century. Translation from Greek and Latin into French progressed rapidly at the commencement of this period. It was a marked characteristic of the Renaissance in France to appropriate the spoils of Greece and Rome for the profit of the mother tongue. Amyot's Plutarch and his Daphnis and Chloe rank among the most exquisite examples of beautiful French prose. Prose had now the charm of simplicity combined with grace. To mention Bran- t&me is to mention the most entertaining of gossips. To speak of Montaigne is to speak of the best as well as the first of essayists. In all the literary work which has been mentioned, the originality and freshness of the French genius are no less conspicuous than its saturation with the new learning and with Italian studies. But the greatest name of the epoch, the name which is synonymous with the Renaissance in France, has yet to be uttered. That, of course, is Rabelais. His incommensurable and indescribable masterpiece of mingled humour, wisdom, satire, erudition, indecency, profundity, levity, imagina- tion, realism, reflects the' whole age in its mirror of hyper- Aristophanic farce. What Ariosto is for Italy, Cervantes for Spain, Erasmus for Holland, Luther for Germany, Shakespeare for England, that is Rabelais for France. The Renaissance can- not be comprehended in its true character without familiarity with these six representatives of its manifold and many-sided inspiration. The French Renaissance, so rich on the side of arts and letters, was hardly less rich on the side of classical studies. The revival of learning has a noble muster-roll of names in France: Turnebus, the patriarch of Hellenistic studies; the „. Etiennes of Paris, equalling in numbers, industry and e learning their Venetian rivals; the two Scaligers; impas- ' sioned Dolet; eloquent Muret; learned Cujas; terrible Calvin; Ramus, the intrepid antagonist of Aristotle; De Thou and De Beze i\ponderous Casaubon; brilliant young Saumaise. The distinguishing characteristics of French humanism are vivid intelligence, critical audacity and polemical acumen, perspicuity of exposition, learning directed in its appli- cations by logical sense rather than by artistic ideals of taste. Some of the names just mentioned remind us that in France, as in Germany and Holland, the Reformation was closely connected with the revival of learning. Humanism has never been in the narrow sense of that term Protestant; still less has it been strictly Catholic. In Italy it fostered a temper of mind decidedly averse to theological speculation and religious earnestness. In Holland and Germany, with Erasmus, Reuchlin and Melanchthon, it de- veloped types of character, urbane, reflective, pointedly or gently critical, which, left to themselves, would not have plunged the north of Europe into the whirlpool of belligerent reform. Yet none the less was the new learning, through the open spirit of inquiry it nourished, its vindication of the private reason, its enthusiasm for republican antiquity, and its proud assertion of the rights of human independence, linked by a strong and subtle chain to that turbid revolt of the individual consciousness against spiritual despotism draped in fallacies and throned upon abuses. To this rebellion we give the name of Reformation. But, while the necessities of •antagonism to papal Rome made it assume at first the form of French scholar- tioa In France. narrow and sectarian opposition, it marked in fact a vital struggle of the intellect towards truth and freedom, involving future results of scepticism and rationalistic audacity from which its earlier champions would have shrunk. It marked, moreover, in the con- dition of armed resistance against established authority which was forced upon it by the Counter-Reformation, a firm resolve to assert political liberty, leading in the course of time to a revolution with which the rebellious spirit of the Revival was sympathetic. This being the relation of humanism in general to reform, French learn- ing in particular displayed such innovating boldness as threw many of its most conspicuous professors into the camp at war with Rome. Calvin, a French student of Picard origin, created the type of Protestantism to which the majority of French Huguenots adhered. This too was a moment at which philosophical seclusion was hardly possible. In a nation so tumultuously agitated one side or the other had to be adopted. Those of the French humanists who did not proclaim Huguenot opinions found themselves obliged with Muretus to lend their talents to the Counter-Reformation, or to surfer persecution for heterodoxy, like Dolet. The church, terrified and infuriated by the progress of reform, suspected learning on its own account. To be an eminent scholar was to be accused of immorality, heresy and atheism in a single indictment; and the defence of weaker minds lay in joining the Jesuits, as Heinsius was fain to do. France had already absorbed the earlier Renaissance in an Italianizing spirit before the Reformation made itself felt as a political actuality. This fact, together with the strong Italian bias of the Valois, serves to explain in some degree the reason why the Counter-Reformation entailed those fierce entangled civil wars, massacres of St Bartholomew, murders of the Guises, regicides, treasons and empoisonments that ter- minated with the compromise of Henry IV. It is no part of the present subject to analyse the political, religious and social interests of that struggle. The upshot was the triumph of the Counter- Reformation, and the establishment of its principle, absolutism, as the basis of French government. It was a French king who, when the nation had been reduced to order, uttered the famous word of absolutism, " L'Etat, c'est moi." The Renaissance in the Low Countries, as elsewhere, had its brilliant age of arts and letters. During the middle ages the wealthy free towns of Flanders flourished under conditions not _. dissimilar to those of the Italian republics. They raised Tf* miracles of architectural beauty, which were modified in 0* the isth and 1 6th centuries by characteristic elements ?." . . of the new style. The Van Eycks, followed by Memling, ^™ * Metsys, Mabuse, Lucas van Leyden, struck out a new path rjutch in the revival of painting and taught Europe the secret painting of oil-colouring. But it was reserved for the 1 7th century to witness the flower and fruit time of this powerful art in the work of Porbus, Rubens and Vandyck, in the Dutch schools of landscape and home-life, and in the unique masterpieces of Rembrandt. We have a right to connect this later period with the Renaissance, because the distracted state of the Netherlands during the l6th century suspended, while it could not extinguish, their aesthetic development. The various schools of the tyth century, moreover, are animated with the Renaissance spirit no less surely than the Florentine school of the l§th or the Venetian of the l6th. The animal vigour and carnal enjoyment of Rubens, the refined Italianizing beauty of Vandyck, the mystery of light and gloom on Rembrandt's panels, the love of nature in Ruysdael, Cuyp and Van Hooghe, with their luminously misty skies, silvery daylight and broad expanse of landscape, the interest in common life displayed by Ter Borch, Van Steen, Douw, Ostade and Teniers, the instinct for the beauty of animals in Potter, the vast sea spaces of Vanderveldt, the grasp on reality, the acute intuition into char- acter in portraits, the scientific study of the world and man, the robust sympathy with natural appetites, which distinguish the whole art of the Low Countries, are a direct emanation from the Renaissance. The vernacular in the Netherlands profited at first but little by the impulse which raised Italian, Spanish, French and English to the rank of classic languages. But humanism, first of „. . . all in its protagonist Erasmus, afterwards in the long *™^ . list of critical scholars and editors, Lipsius, Heinsius scfto/a^. and Grotius, in the printers Elzevir and Plantin, developed w itself from the centre of the Leiden university with massive energy, and proved that it was still a motive force of intellectual progress. In the fields of classical learning the students of the Low Countries broke new ground chiefly by methodical collection, classification and comprehensive criticism of previously accumulated stores. Their works were solid and sub- stantial edifices, forming the substratum for future scholarship. In addition to this they brought philosophy and scientific thorough- ness to bear on studies which had been pursued in a more literary spirit. It would, however, be uncritical to pursue this subject further; for the encyclopaedic labours of the Dutch philologers belong to a period when tte Renaissance was overpast. For the same reason it is inadmissible to do more than mention the name of Spinoza here. RENAISSANCE The Netherlands became the battlefield of Reformation and Counter-Reformation in even a stricter sense than France. Here Dutch t'ie antagonistic principles were plainly posed in the wars of course of struggle against foreign despotism. The Indeoead- con^'ct ended in the assertion of political independence as opposed to absolute dominion. Europe in large measure owes the modern ideal of political liberty to that spirit of stubborn resistance which broke the power of Spain. Recent history, and in particular the history of democracy, claims for its province the several stages whereby this principle was developed in England and America, and its outburst in the frenzy of the French Revolution. It is enough here to have alluded to the part played by the Low Countries in the genesis of a motive force which may be described as the last manifestation of the Renaissance striving after self -emancipation. The insular position of England, combined with the nature of the English people, has allowed us to feel the vibration of England European movements later and with less of shock in the Re- than any of the continental nations. Before a 'wave naissance of progress has reached our shores we have had the opportunity of watching it as spectators, and of con- period. sidering how we shall receive it. Revolutions have passed from the tumultuous stages of their origin into some settled and recognizable state before we have been called upon to cope with them. It was thus that England took the influences of the Renaissance and Reformation simultaneously, and almost at the same time found herself engaged in that struggle with the Counter-Reformation which, crowned by the defeat of the Spanish Armada, stimulated the sense of nationality and developed the naval forces of the race. Both Renaissance and Reformation had been anticipated by at least a century in England. Chaucer's poetry, which owed so much to Italian examples, gave an early foretaste of the former. Wickliffe's teaching was a vital moment in the latter. But the French wars, the Wars of the Roses and the persecution of the .Lollards deferred the coming of the new age; and the year 1536, when Henry VIII. passed the Act of Supremacy through parliament, may be fixed as the date when England entered definitively upon a career of intellectual development abreast with the foremost nations of the continent. The circumstances just now insisted on explain the specific character of the English Renaissance. The Reformation had been adopted by consent of the king, lords and commons; and this change in the state religion, though it was not confirmed without reaction, agitation and bloodshed, cost the nation comparatively Combined little disturbance. Humanism, before it affected the 'ot'senals- bulk °f the English People, had already permeated sanceand Italian and French literature. Classical erudition Retorma- had been adapted to the needs of modern thought. tion. The hard work of collecting, printing, annotating and translating Greek and Latin authors had been accomplished. The masterpieces of antiquity had been interpreted and made intelligible. Much of the learning popularized by our poets and dramatists was derived at second hand from modern literature. This does not mean that England was deficient in ripe and sound scholars. More, Colet, Ascham, Cheke, Camden were men whose familiarity with the classics was both intimate and easy. Public schools and universities conformed to the modern methods of study; nor were there wanting opportunities for youths of humble origin to obtain an education which placed them on a level with Italian scholars. The single case of Ben Jonson sufficiently proves this. Yet learning did not at this epoch become a marked speciality in England. There was no class corresponding to the humanists. It should also be remembered that the best works of Italian literature were introduced into Great Britain together with the classics. Phaer's Virgil, Chapman's Homer, Harrington's Orlando, Marlowe's Hero and Leander, Fairfax's Jerusalem Delivered, North's Plutarch, Hoby's Courtier— to mention only a few examples— placed English readers simultaneously in posses- sion of the most eminent and representative works of Greece, Rome and Italy. At the same time "Spanish influences reached them through the imitators of Guevara and the dramatists; French influences in the versions of romances; German in- Arts, letters and the drama. fluences in popular translations of the Faust legend, Eultn- spiegel and similar productions. The authorized version of the Bible had also been recently given to the people — so that almost at the same period of time England obtained in the vernacular an extensive library of ancient and modern authors. This was a privilege enjoyed in like measure by no other nation. It sufficiently accounts for the richness and variety of Elizabethan literature, and for the enthusiasm with which the English language was cultivated. Speaking strictly, England borrowed little in the region of the arts from other nations, and developed still less that was original. What is called Jacobean architecture marks indeed an interesting stage in the transition from the Gothic style. But, compared with Italian, French, Spanish, German and Flemish work of a like period, it is both timid and dry. Sculpture was represented in London for a brief space by Torrigiani; painting by Holbein and Antonio More; music by Italians and Frenchmen of the Chapel Royal. But no Englishmen rose to European eminence in these departments. With literature the case was very different. Wyat and Surrey began by engrafting the forms and graces of Italian poetry upon the native stock. They introduced the sonnet and blank verse. Sidney followed with the sestine and terza rima and with various experiments in classic metres, none of which took root on English soil. The translators handled the octave stanza. Marlowe gave new vigour to the couplet. The first period of the English Renaissance was one of imitation and assimilation. Academies after the Italian type were founded. Tragedies in the style of Seneca, rivalling Italian and French dramas of the epoch, were produced. Attempts to Latinize ancestral rhythms, similar to those which had failed in Italy and France, were made. Tentative essays in criticism and dissertations on the art of poetry abounded. It seemed as though the Renaissance ran a risk of being throttled in its cradle by superfluity of foreign and pedantic nutriment. But the natural vigour of the English genius resisted influences alien to itself, and showed a robust capacity for digesting the varied diet offered to it. As there was nothing despotic in the temper of the ruling classes, nothing oppressive in English culture, the literature of that age evolved itself freely from the people. It was under these conditions that Spenser gave his romantic epic to the world, a poem which derived its allegory from the middle ages, its decorative richness from the Italian Renaissance, its sweetness, purity, harmony and imaginative splendour from the most poetic nation of the modern world. Under the same conditions the Elizabethan drama, which in its totality is the real exponent of the English Renaissance, came into existence. This drama very early freed itself from the pseudo-classic mannerism which imposed on taste in Italy and France. Depicting feudalism in the vivid colours of an age at war with feudal institutions, breathing into antique histories the breath of actual life, embracing the romance of Italy and Spain, the mysteries of German legend, the fictions of poetic fancy and the facts of daily life, humours of the moment and abstrac- tions of philosophical speculation, in one homogeneous amalgam instinct with intense vitality, this extraordinary birth of time, with Shakespeare for the master of all ages, left a monument of the Re- naissance unrivalled for pure creative power by any other product of that epoch. To complete the sketch, we must set Bacon, the expositor of modern scientific method, beside Spenser and Shake- speare, as the third representative of the Renaissance in England. Nor should Raleigh, Drake, Hawkins, the semi-buccaneer explorers of the ocean, be omitted. They, following the lead of Envliih Portuguese and Spaniards, combating the Counter-Re- * formation on the seas, opened for England her career of colonization and plantation. All this while the political cthii policy of Tudors and Stewarts tended towards monarchical . absolutism, while the Reformation in England, modified ' by contact with the Low Countries during their struggles, f°\ was narrowing into strict reactionary intolerance. Puri- , . tanism indicated a revolt of the religious conscience of f™' the nation against the arts and manners of the Renais- ao< sance, against theencroachmentsof belligerentCatholicism, nalssattce against the corrupt and Italianated court of James I., cu"ure- against the absolutist pretensions of his son Charles. In its final manifestation during the Commonwealth, Puritanism won a tran- sient victory over the mundane forces of both Reformation and Renaissance, as these had taken shape in England. It also secured the eventual triumph of constitutional independence. Milton, the greatest humanistic poet of the English race, lent his pen and moral energies during the best: years of his life to securing that principle on which modern political systems at present rest. Thus the geo- graphical isolation of England, and the comparatively late adoption by the English of matured Italian and German influences, give peculiar complexity to the phenomena of Reformation and Re- naissance simultaneously developed on our island. The period of our history between 1536 and 1642 shows how difficult it is to separate these two factors in the re-birth of Europe, both of which contributed so powerfully to the formation of modern English nationality. RENAIX— RENAN 93 It has been impossible to avoid an air of superficiality, and the repetition of facts known to every schoolboy, in this sketch New °f so complicated a subject as the Renaissance, — em- poiitical bracing many nations, a great variety of topics and relations an indefinite period of time. Yet no other treatment dating'1'6 was possible upon the lines laid down at the outset, from the where it was explained why the term Renaissance Renais- cannot now be confined to the Revival of Learning and the effect of antique studies upon literary and artistic ideals. The purpose of this article has been to show that, while the Renaissance implied a new way of regarding the material world and human nature, a new concep- tion of man's destiny and duties on this planet, a new culture and new intellectual perceptions penetrating every sphere of thought and energy, it also involved new reciprocal relations between the members of the European group of nations. The Renaissance closed the middle ages and opened the modern era, — not merely because the mental and moral ideas which then sprang into activity and owed their force in large measure to the revival of classical learning were opposed to medieval modes of thinking and feeling, but also because the political and international relations specific to it as an age were at variance with fundamental theories of the past. Instead of empire and church, the sun and moon of the medieval system, a federation of peoples, separate in type and divergent in interests, yet bound together by common tendencies, common culture and common efforts, came into existence. For obedi- ence to central authority was substituted balance of power. Henceforth the hegemony of Europe attached to no crown, imperial or papal, but to the nation which was capable of winning it, in the spiritual region by mental ascendancy, and in the temporal by force. That this is the right way of regarding the subject appears from the events of the first two decades of the i6th century, Conserva- those years in which the humanistic revival attained its tive and highest point in Italy. Luther published his theses in 1517, sixty-four years after the fall of Constantinople, parties la twenty-three years after the expedition of Charles modern VIII. to Naples, ten years before the sack of Europe. Rome, at a moment when France, Spain and England had only felt the influences of Italian culture but feebly. From that date forward two parties wrestled for supremacy in Europe, to which may be given the familiar names of Liberalism and Conservatism, the party of pro- gress and the party of established institutions. The triumph of the former was most signal among the Teutonic peoples. The Latin races, championed by Spain and supported by the papacy, fought the battle of the latter, and succeeded for a time in rolling back the tide of revolutionary conquest. Mean- while that liberal culture which had been created for Europe by the Italians before the contest of the Reformation began continued to spread, although it was stifled in Italy and Spain, retarded in France and the Low Countries, well-nigh extirpated by wars in Germany, and diverted from its course in England by the counter-movement of Puritanism. The aulos da ft of Seville and Madrid, the flames to which Bruno, Dolet and Paleario were flung, the dungeon of Campanella and the seclu- sion of Galileo, the massacre of St Bartholomew and the faggots of Smithfield, the desolated plains of Germany and the cruelties of Alva in the Netherlands, disillusioned Europe of those golden dreams which had arisen in the earlier days of humanism, and which had been so pleasantly indulged by Rabelais. In truth the Renaissance was ruled by no Astraea redux, but rather by a severe spirit which brought no peace but a sword, reminding men of sternest duties, testing what of moral force and tenacity was in them, compelling them to strike for the old order or the new, suffering no lukewarm halting between two opinions. That, in spite of retardation and retrogression, the old order of ideas should have yielded to the new all over Europe, — that science should have won firm standing-ground, and political liberty should have struggled through those birth-throes of its origin, — was in the nature of things. Had this not been, the Renaissance or re-birth of Europe would be a term without a meaning. (J. A. S.) LITERATURE. — The special articles on the several arts and the literatures of modern Europe, and on the biographies of great men mentioned in this essay, will give details of necessity here omitted. Of works on the Renaissance in general may be mentioned Jacob Burckhardt, Die Cultur der Renaissance in Italien (Eng. trans., 1878) ; G. Voigt, Wiederbelebung des Classischen Alterthums (2 vols. 3rd ed., by M. Lehnerdt, 1893); J. A. Symonds, Renaissance in Italy; Marc Monnier, Renaissance de Dante a Luther; Eugene Miintz, Precur- seurs de la Renaissance (1882), Renaissance en Italie et en France (1885), and Hist, de I'art pendant la Renaissance (1889-95); Ludwie Geiger, Humanismus und Renaissance in Italien und Deutschland (1882), and Cambridge Modern History, vol. i., " The Renaissance " (Cambridge, 1903), where full bibliographies will be found. RENAIX, a town of Belgium in the province of East Flanders, 8 m. S. of Oudenarde. It has extensive dyeworks, bleaching grounds and manufactories for linen and woollen goods. Pop. (1904) 20,760. RENAN, ERNEST (1823-1892), French philosopher and Orientalist, was born on the 27th of February 1823 at Treguier. His father's people were of the fisher-clan of Renans or Ronans; his grandfather, having made a small fortune by his fishing smack, bought a house at Treguier and settled there, and his father, captain of a small cutter and an ardent Republican, married the daughter of Royalist trading-folk from the neigh- bouring town of Lannion. All his life Renan was divided between his father's and his mother's political beliefs. He was only five years old when his father died, and hjs sister Henriette, twelve years older than Ernest, a girl of remarkable character, was henceforth morally the head of the household. Having in vain attempted to keep a school for girls at Treguier, she left her native place and went to Paris as teacher in a young ladies' boarding-school. Ernest meanwhile was educated in the ecclesiastical seminary of his native place. His good-conduct notes for this period describe him as " docile, patient, diligent, painstaking, thorough." We do not hear that he was brilliant, but the priests cared little for such qualities. While the priests were grounding him in mathematics and Latin, his mother completed his education. She was only half a Breton. Her paternal ancestors came from Bordeaux, and Renan used to say that in his own nature the Gascon and the Breton were con- stantly at odds. In the summer of 1838 Renan carried off all the prizes at the college of Treguier. His sister in Paris told the doctor of the school in which she taught about the success of her brother, and he carried the news to F. A. P. Dupanloup, then engaged in organizing the ecclesiastical college of St Nicholas du Char- donnet, a school in which the young Catholic nobility and the most gifted pupils of the Catholic seminaries were to be educated together, with a view to cementing the bond between the aristocracy and the priesthood. Dupanloup sent for Renan at once. He was fifteen and a half. He had never been outside his Breton province. " I learned with stupor that knowledge was not a privilege of the church ... I awoke to the meaning of the words talent, fame, celebrity." Above all, religion seemed to him wholly different in Treguier and in Paris. The super- ficial, brilliant, pseudo-scientific Catholicism of the capital did not satisfy Renan, who had accepted the austere faith of his Breton masters. In 1840 Renan left St Nicholas to study philosophy at the seminary of Issy. He entered with a passion for Catholic scholasticism. The rhetoric of St Nicholas had wearied him, and his serious intelligence hoped to satisfy itself with the vast and solid material of Catholic theology. Reid and Malebranche first attracted him among the philosophers, and after these he turned to Hegel, Kant and Herder. Renan began to perceive the essential contradiction between the metaphysics which he studied and the faith that he professed, but an appetite for truths that can be verified restrained his scepticism. " Philo- sophy excites and only half satisfies the appetite for truth; I am eager for mathematics," he wrote to his sister Henriette. Henriette had accepted in the family of Count Zamoyski an en- gagement more lucrative than her former place. She exercised 94 RENAN the strongest influence over her brother, and her published letters reveal a mind almost equal, a moral nature superior, to his own. It was not mathematics but philology which was to settle the gathering doubts of Ernest Renan. His course completed at Issy, he entered the college of St Sulpice in order to take his degree in philology prior to entering the church; and here he began the study of Hebrew. He saw that the second part of Isaiah differs from the first not only in style but in date; that the grammar and the history of the Pentateuch are posterior to the time of Moses; that the book of Daniel is clearly apocryphal. It followed from his training that, if you admit one error in a revealed text, you incriminate the whole. Secretly, Renan felt himself cut off from the communion of saints, and yet with his whole heart he desired to live the life of a Catholic priest Hence a struggle between vocation and conviction; owing to Henriette, conviction gained the day. In October 1845 Renan left the seminary of St Sulpice for Stavistas, a lay college of the Oratorians. Finding himself even there too much under the domination of the church, a few weeks later he reluctantly broke the last tie which bound him to the religious life and entered M. Crouzet's school for boys as an usher. It is always dangerous to educate a really great mind in only one order of truth. Renan, brought up by priests in a world ruled by authority and curious only of feeling and opinion, was to accept the scientific ideal with an extraordinary expansion of all his faculties. He was henceforth ravished by the splendour of the cosmos. At the end of his life he wrote of Amiel, " The man who has time to keep a private diary has never understood the immensity of the universe." The certitudes of physical and natural science were revealed to Renan in 1846 by the chemist Marcellin Berthelot, then a boy of eighteen, his pupil at M. Crouzet's school. To the day of Renan's death their friendship continued. Renan was occupied as usher only in the evenings. In the daytime he continued his researches in Semitic philology. In 1847 he obtained the Prix Volney — one of the principal dis- tinctions awarded by the Academy of Inscriptions — for the manuscript of his " General History of Semitic Languages." In 1847 he took his degree as Agrege de Philosophic; that is to say, fellow of the university, and was offered a place as master in the lycee of Vend6me. In 1848 a small temporary appoint- ment to the lycee of Versailles permitted him to return to the capital and resume his studies. The revolution of 1848 aroused in Renan that side of him which loved the priesthood because " the priest lives for his fellows." He for the first time confronted the problems of Democracy. The result was an immense volume, The Future of Science, which remained in manuscript until 1890. L'Avenir de la science is an attempt to conciliate the privileges of a necessary elite with the diffusion of the greatest good of the greatest number. The difficulty haunted Renan throughout his life. By the time he had finished his elaborate scheme for regenerating society by means of a devoted aristocracy of knowledge, and the diffusion of culture, the year 1848 was past, and with it his fever of Democracy. In 1849 the French government sent him to Italy on a scientific mission. He remained eight months abroad, during which he forgot his anxiety about the toilers' lot. Hitherto he had known nothing of art. In Italy the artist in him awoke and triumphed over the savant and the reformer. On his return to Paris Renan lived with his sister Henriette. A small post at the National Library, .together with his sister's savings, furnished him with the means of livelihood. In the evenings he wrote for the Revue des deux mondes and the Debats the exquisite essays which appeared in 1857 and 1859 under the titles Etudes d'histoire religieuse and Essais de morale et de critique. In 1852 his book on Averroes had brought him not only his doctor's degree, but his first reputation as a thinker. In his two volumes of essays Renan shows himself a Liberal, but no longer a Democrat. Nothing, according to his philosophy, is less important than prosperity. The greatest good of the greatest number is a theory as dangerous as it is illusory. Man is not born to be prosperous, but to realize, in a little vanguard of chosen spirits, an ideal superior to the ideal of yesterday. Only the few can attain a complete development. Yet there is a solidarity between the chosen few and the masses which produce them; each has a duty to the other. The acceptance of this duty is the only foundation for a moral and just society The aristocratic idea has seldom been better stated. The success of the Etudes d'histoire religieuse and the Essais de morale had made the name of Renan known to a cultivated public. While Mademoiselle Renan remained shut up at home copying her brother's manuscripts or compiling material for his work, the young philosopher began to frequent more than one Parisian salon, and especially the studio of Ary Scheffer, at that time a noted social centre. In 1856 he proposed to marry Cornelie Scheffer, the niece and adopted daughter of the great Dutch painter. Not without a struggle Henriette consented not only to the marriage, but to make her home with the young couple, whose housekeeping depended on the sum that she could contribute. The history of this romance has been told by Renan in the memorial essay which he wrote some six years later, entitled Ma Sceur Henriette, His marriage brought much brightness into his life, a naturalness into his style and a greater attention to the picturesque. He did not forsake his studies in Semitic philology, and in 1859 appeared his translation of the' Book of Job with an introductory essay, followed in 1859 by the Song of Songs. Renan was now a candidate for the chair of Hebrew and Chaldaic languages at the College de France, which he had desired since first he studied Hebrew at the seminary of St Sulpice. The death of the scholar Quatremere had left this post vacant in 1857. No one in France save Renan was capable of filling it. The Catholic party, upheld by the empress, would not appoint an unfrocked seminarist, a notorious heretic, to a chair of Biblical exegesis. Yet the emperor wished to conciliate Ernest Renan. He offered to send the young scholar on an archaeological mission to Phoenicia. Renan immediately accepted. Leaving his wife at home with their baby son, Renan left France, accompanied by his sister, in the summer of 1860. Madame Renan joined them in January 1861, returning to France in July. The mission proved fruitful in Phoenician inscriptions which Renan published in his Mission de Phenicie. They form the base of that Corpus Inscription-urn Semiticarum on which he used in later years to declare that he founded his claim to re- membrance. He wished to complete his exploration of the upper range of Lebanon; he remained, therefore, with Henriette to affront the dangerous miasma of a Syrian autumn. At Amshit, near Byblos, Henriette Renan died of intermittent fever on the 24th of September 1861. Her brother, himself at death's door, was carried unconscious on board a ship waiting in harbour and bound for France. The sea air revived him, but he reached France broken apparently in heart and health. His sister in her last days had entreated him not to give up his candidature for the chair of Hebrew, and on the nth of January 1862 the Minister of Public Instruction ratified Renan's election to the post. But his opening lecture, in which, amid the applause of the students, Renan declared Jesus Christ " an incomparable Man," alarmed the Catholic party. Renan's lectures were pronounced a disturbance of the public peace, and he was suspended. On the 2nd of June 1864, on opening the newspaper, Renan saw that he had been transferred from the chair of Hebrew at the College of France to the post of sub- librarian at the National Library. He wrote to the Minister of Public Instruction: " Pecunia tua tecum sit!" He refused the new position, was deprived of his chair, and henceforth depended solely upon his pen. Henriette had told him to write the life of Jesus. They had begun it together ih Syria, she copying the pages as he wrote them, with a New Testament and a Josephus for all his library. The book bears the mark of its origin — it is filled with the atmosphere of the East. It is the work of a man familiar with the Bible and theology, and no less acquainted with the inscrip- tions, monuments, types and landscapes of Syria. But it is scarcely the work of a great scholar: Renan's debt to the school RENARD 95 of Tubingen has been exaggerated, in so far as regards the Life of Jesus. The book appeared on the 2$rd of June 1863; before November sixty thousand copies of it were in circulation. Renan still used his literary gifts to pursue a scientific ideal. In the days when he had composed his huge, immature treatise on the Future of Science, he had written: " I envy the man who shall evoke from the past the origins of Christianity. Such a writer would compose the most important book of the century." He set to work to realize this project, and produced the Apostles in 1866, and Si Paul in 1869, after having visited Asia Minor with his wife, where he studied the scenes of the labours of St Paul as minutely as in 1861 he had observed the material surroundings of the life of Jesus. Renan was not only a scholar. In St Paul, as in the Apostles, he shows his concern with the larger social life, his sense of fraternity, and a revival of the democratic sentiment which had inspired L'Avenir de la science. In 1869 he presented himself as the candidate of the liberal opposition at the parlia- mentary election for Meaux. While his temper had become less aristocratic, his Liberalism had grown more tolerant. On the eve of its dissolution Renan was half prepared to accept the Empire, and, had he been elected to the Chamber of Deputies, he would have joined the group of ['Empire liberal. But he was not elected. A year later war was declared with Germany, the Empire fell, and Napoleon III. went into exile. The Franco-German War was a turning-point in Renan's history. Germany had always been to him the asylum of thought and disinterested science. Now he saw the land of his ideal destroy and ruin the land of his birth; he beheld the German no longer as a priest, but as an invader. His heart turned to France. In La Rejorme intellectuellc et morale (1871) he endeavoured at least to bind her wounds, to safeguard her future. Yet he was still under the influence of Germany. The ideal and the discipline which he proposed to his defeated country were those of her conqueror — a feudal society, a monarchical government, an elite, which the rest of the nation exists merely to support and nourish; an ideal of honour and duty imposed by a chosen few on the recalcitrant and subject multitude. The errors of the Commune confirmed Renan in this reaction. At the same time the irony always perceptible in his work grows more bitter. His Dialogues philosophiques, written in 1871, his Ecclesiastes (1882) and his Antichrist (1876) (the fourth volume of the Origins of Christianity, dealing with the reign of Nero) are incomparable in their literary genius, but they are examples of a disenchanted and sceptical temper. He had vainly tried to make his country follow his precepts. He resigned himself to watch her drift towards perdition. The progress of events showed him, on the contrary, a France which every day left a little stronger, and he aroused himself from his disbelieving, disillusioned mood, and observed with genuine interest the struggle for justice and liberty of a democratic society. For his mind was the broadest of the age. The fifth and sixth volumes of the Origins of Christianity Hhe Christian Church and Marcus Aurelius) show him reconciled with democracy, confident in the gradual ascent of man, aware that the greatest catastrophes do not really interrupt the sure if imperceptible progress of the world — reconciled also in some measure, if not with the truths, at least with the moral beauties of Catholicism, and with the remembrance of his pious youth. On the threshold of old age the philosopher cast a glance at the days of his childhood. He was nearly sixty when, in 1883, he published those Souvenirs d'enfance et de jeunesse which, after the Life of Jesus, are the work by which he is chiefly known. They possess that lyric note of personal utterance which the public prizes in a man already famous. They showed the blase modern reader that a world no less poetic, no less primitive than that of the Origins of Christianity exists, or still existed within living memory, on the north-western coast of France. They have the Celtic magic of ancient romance and the simplicity, the naturalness, the veracity which the igth century prized so highly. But his Ecclesiastes, published a few months earlier, his Dramcs philosophiques, collected in 1888, give a more adequate image of his fastidious critical, disen- chanted, yet not unhopeful spirit. These books are often bitter and melancholy, yet not destitute of optimism. They show the attitude towards uncultured Socialism of a philosopher liberal by conviction, by temperament an aristocrat. We learn in them how Caliban (democracy), the mindless brute, educated to his own responsibility, makes after all an adequate ruler; how Prospero (the aristocratic principle, or, if we will, the mind) accepts his dethronement for the sake of greater liberty in the intellectual world, since Caliban proves an effective policeman, and leaves his superiors a free hand in the laboratory; how Ariel (the religious principle) acquires a firmer hold on life, and no longer gives up the ghost at the faintest hint of change. Indeed, Ariel flourishes in the service of Prospero under the external government of the many-headed brute. For the one thing needful is not destined to succumb. Religion and knowledge are as imperishable as the world they dignify. Thus out of the depths rises unvanquished the essential idealism of Ernest Renan. Renan was a great worker. At sixty years of age, having finished the Origins of Christianity, he began his History of Israel, based on a lifelong study of the Old Testament and on the Corpus Inscriptionum Semiticarum, published by the Academic des Inscriptions under Renan's direction from the year 1881 till the end of his life. The first volume of the History of Israel appeared in 1887, the third and finest volume in 1891, the last two only after the historian's decease. As a history of facts and theories the book has many faults; as an essay on the evolution of the religious idea it is (despite some passages of frivolity, irony, or incoherence) of extraordinary importance; as a reflec- tion of the mind of Ernest Renan it is the most lifelike of images. In a volume of collected essays, Feuilles delachees, published also in 1891, we find the same mental attitude, an affirmation of the necessity of piety independent of dogma. On the i2th of October 1892 he died after a few days' illness. In his last years he received many marks of honour, being made an administrator of the College de France and grand officer of the Legion of Honour. Two volumes of the History of Israel, his correspondence with his sister Henriette, his Letters to M. Berthelot, and the History of the Religious Policy of Philippe-le- Bel, which he wrote in the years immediately before his marriage, all appeared during the last eight years of the igth century See Desportesand Bournand, E. Renan, savieet son auvre (1892); E. Grant Duff, Ernest Renan, in memoriam (1893); Seailles, E. Renan, essai de biographie psychologique (1894); G. Monod, Les maitres de I'histoire (1894) ; Allier, La Philosophic d'E. Renan (1895) ; M. J. Darmesteter, La vie de E. R. (1898); Platzhoff, E. Renan, ein Lebensbild (1900); Brauer, Philosophy of Ernest Renan (1904); W. Barry, Renan (1905) ; Sorel, Le Systeme historique de R. (1905-1906). (A. M. F. D.;X.) RENARD, ALPHONSE FRANCOIS (1842-1903), Belgian geolo- gist and petrographer, was born at Renaix, in Eastern Flanders, on the 27th of September 1842. He was educated for the church of Rome, and from 1866 to 1869 he was superintendent at the College de la Paix, Namur. In 1870 he entered the Jesuit Train- ing College at the old abbey of Maria Laach in the Eifel, and there, while engaged in studying philosophy and science, he became interested in the geology of the district, and especially in the volcanic rocks. Thenceforth he worked at chemistry and mineralogy, and qualified himself for those petrographical researches for which he was distinguished. In 1874 he became professor of chemistry and geology in the college of the Belgian Jesuits at Louvain, a few years later he was appointed one of the curators of the Royal Natural History Museum at Brussels, and in 1882 he relinquished his post at Louvain. In 1888 he was chosen professor of geology at the university of Ghent, and retained the post until the close of his life. Meanwhile he had been ordained priest in 1877, and had intended to enter the Society of Jesus. He was known as the Abbe Renard; but, as remarked by Sir A. Geikie, " As years passed, the longing for •nental freedom grew ever stronger, until at last it overmastered all the traditions and associations of a lifetime, and he finally separated himself from the church of Rome." His first work, 96 RENAUD DE MONTAUBAN— RENAUDOT, T. written in conjunction with Charles de la VaI16e-Poussin (1827- 1904), was the Memoir e sur les caracteres miner alogiques el stratigraphiques des roches dites plutoniennes de la Belgique et de I'Ardenne franqaise (1876). In later essays and papers he dealt with the structure and mineral composition of many igneous and sedimentary rocks, and with the phenomena of metamorphism in Belgium and other countries. In acknow- ledgment of his work the Bigsby Medal was in 1885 awarded to him by the Geological Society of London. Still more important were his later researches connected with the Challenger Expedi- tion. The various rock specimens and oceanic deposits were submitted to him for examination in association with Sir John Murray, and their detailed observations were embodied in the Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S, " Chal- lenger." Deep Sea Deposits (1891) The more striking additions to our knowledge included " the detection and description of cosmic dust, which as fine rain slowly accumulates on the ocean floor; the development of zeolitic crystals on the sea-bottom at temperatures of 3 2° and under ; and the distribution and mode of occurrence of manganiferous concretions and of phos- phatic and glauconite deposits on the bed of the ocean " (Geikie). Renard died at Brussels on the 9th of July 1903. Obituaries by Sir A. Geikie in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., Ix. 1904, and in Geol. Mag,, Nov. 1903. RENAUD DE MONTAUBAN (Rinaldo di Montalbano), one of the most famous figures of French and Italian romance. His story was attached to the geste of Boon of Mayence by the 13th- century trouvere who wrote the chanson de geste of Renaus de Montauban, better known perhaps as Les quatre fils Aymon. The four sons of Aymon give their name to inns and streets in nearly every town of France, and the numerous prose versions show what a hold the story gained on the popular imagination. Renaud's sword Floberge, and his horse Bayard passed with him into popular legend. The poem of Renaus de Montauban opens with the story of the dissensions between Charlemagne and the sons of Boon of Mayence, Beuves d'Aigremont, Boon •de Nanteuil and Aymon de Bordone. The rebellious vassals are defeated by the imperial army near Troyes, and, peace established, Aymon rises in favour at court, and supports the emperor, even in his persecution of his four sons, Renaud, Alard, Guichard and Richard. A second feud arises from a quarrel between Renaud and Bertolai, Charlemagne's nephew, over a game of chess, in the course of which Renaud kills Ber- tolai with the chess-board. The hero then mounts his steed Bayard, and escapes with his brothers to the Ardennes, where they build the castle of Montessor overlooking the Meuse. At Chateau Renaud, near Sedan, there existed in the 1 8th century a ruined castle with a tower called the " tour Maugis " and the reputed stable of Bayard. The outlaws are eventually persuaded to seek their fortune outside Charlemagne's kingdom, and cross the Loire to take service with King Yon of Gascony against the Saracens, accompanied by their cousin, the enchanter Maugis. Yon, however, is compelled by Charlemagne to withdraw his protection, and the castle of Montauban, which the brothers have built on the Bordogne, is besieged by the emperor. They next seek refuge beyond the Rhine, and sustain a third siege at Tremoigne (Bortmund), after which the emperor is per- suaded by the barons to make peace. Bayard is abandoned to Charlemagne, and thrown into the Meuse, only to rise again. He still gallops over the hills of the Ardennes on St John's Eve. Renaud, who throughout the story is a type of the Christian and chivalric virtues, makes a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and is invested with some of the exploits of Godfrey de Bouillon. On his return he gives himself up to religion, working as a mason on the church of St Peter at Cologne, where he receives martyrdom at the hands of his jealous fellow-labourers. The story is closely connected with the legend of Girard de Roussillon. The chanson de geste of Renaus de Montauban falls into sections which had probably been originally the subject of separate recitals. These may have arisen at different dates, and were not necessarily told in the first instance of the same person, the account of Renaud on the crusade being obviously a late interpolation. The outlaw life of the brothers in the Ardennes bears the marks of trustworthy popular tradition, and it was even at one time suggested that the Gascon and Rhenish episodes were reduplications of the story of Montessor. The connexion of the four brothers with Montessor, Bortmund, Mayence and Cologne, and the abundant local tradition, mark the heroes as originating from the region between the Rhine and the Meuse. Nevertheless, their adventures in Gascony are corroborated by historical evidence, and this section of the poem is the oldest. The enemy of Renaud was Charles Martel, not Charlemagne; Yon was Odo of Gascony, known indifferently as duke, prince, or king; the victory over the Saracens at Toulouse, in which the brothers are alleged to have taken part, was won by him in 721, and in 719 he sheltered refugees from the dominions of Charles Martel, Chil- peric II., king of Neustria, and his mayor of the palace, Ragin- fred, whom he was compelled to abandon. In a local chronicle of Cologne it is stated that Saint Reinoldus died in 697, and in the Latin rhythmical Vita his martyrdom is said to have taken place under Bishop Agilolf (d. 717). Thus the romance was evidently composite before it took its place in the Carolingian cycle. In Italy Renaud had his greatest vogue. His connexion with the treacherous family of Mayence was thrust into the back- ground, and many episodes were added, as well as the personage of the hero's sister, Bradamante. Rinaldo di Montalbano had been the subject of many Italian poems before // Rinaldo of Tasso. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The chanson of Maugis d'Aigremont and the prose romance of the Conqueste de Trebizonde belong to the same cycle. The prose Ystoire de Regnault de Montauban (Lyons, c. 1480) had a great vogue. It was generally printed as Les quatre fils Aymon, and was published in English, The Foure Sonnes of Aymon, by William Caxton, and subsequently by Wynkyn de Worde and William Copland. See Hist. litt. de la France, xxii., analysis by Paulin Paris; Renaus de Montauban (Stuttgart, 1862), edited by H. Michelant; F. Wulff, Recherches sur les sagas de Maeus et de Geirard (Lund, 1873) ; Magus saga, ed. G. Cederschiold (Lund, 1876); Renout von Montalbaen, ed. J. C. Matthis (Groningen, 1873); A. .Longnon, in Revue des questions historiques (1879); R. Z wick, Vber die Sprache des Renaut von Montauban (Halle, 1 884) ; F. Pfaff, Das deutsche Volksbuch von den Heymonskindern (Freiburg in Breisgau, 1887), with a general introduction to the study of the saga; The Four Sonnes of Aimon (E. E. Text. Soc., ed. Octavia Richardson, 1884); a special bibliography of the printed editions of the prose romance in L. Gautier's Bibl. des chansons de geste (1897); rejuvenations of the story by Karl Simrock (Frankfort, 1845), and by Richard Steel (London, 1897); Storia di Rinaldino, ed. C. Minutoli (Bologna, 1865). Stage versions are: Renaud de Montauban, a play translated from Lope de Vega was played at the Th6citre italien, Paris, in 1717; Les quatre fils Aymon, op6ra comique by MM. de Leuven and Brunswick, music by Balfe, in 1884. RENAUDOT, EUSEBE (1646-1720), French theologian and Orientalist, was born in Paris in 1646, and educated for the church. Notwithstanding his taste for theology and his title of abbe, much of his life was spent at the French court, where he attracted the notice of Colbert and was often employed in confidential affairs. The unusual learning in Eastern tongues which he acquired in his youth and maintained amid the dis- tractions of court life did not bear fruit till he was sixty-two. His best-known books are HistoriaPatriarcharutn Alexandrinorum (Paris, 1713) and Liturgiarum orientalium collectio (2 vols., 1715-16). The latter was designed to supply proofs of the " perpetuity of the faith " of the church on the subject of the sacraments, the topic on which most of his theological writings turned, and which was then, in consequence of the controversies attaching to Arnauld's Perpetuite de lafoi, a burning one between French Catholics and Protestants. Renaudot was not a fair controversialist, but his learning and industry are unquestion- able. He died in 1720. RENAUDOT, TH60PHRASTE (1586-1653), French physician and philanthropist, was born at Loudun (Vienna), and studied surgery in Paris. He was only nineteen when he received, by favour apparently, the degree of doctor at Mont- pellier. After some time spent in travel he began to practise in his native town. In 1612 he was summoned to Paris by RENDEZVOUS— RENE I. 97 Richelieu, partly because of his medical reputation, but more because of his philanthropy. He received the titles of physician and councillor to the king, and was desired to organize a scheme of public assistance. Many difficulties were put in his way, however, and he therefore returned until 1624 to Poitou, where Richelieu made him " commissary general of the poor." It was six years before he was able to begin his work in Paris by opening an information bureau at the sign of the Grand Coq near the Pont Saint-Michel. This bureau d'adresse was labour bureau, intelligence department, exchange and charity organiza- tion in one; and the sick were directed to doctors prepared to give them free treatment. Presently he established a free dispensary in the teeth of the opposition of the faculty in Paris. The Paris faculty refused to accept the new medicaments pro- posed by the heretic from Montpellier, restricting themselves to the old prescriptions of blood-letting and purgation. In addition to his bureau d'adresse Renaud established a system of lectures and debates on scientific subjects, the reports of which from 1633 to 1642 were published in 1651 with the title Recueil des conferences publiques. Under the protection of Richelieu he started the first French newspaper, the Gazette (1631), which appeared weekly and contained political and foreign news. He also edited the Mercure franc,ais and published all manner of reports and pamphlets. In 1637 he opened in Paris the first Mont de Piete, an institution of which he had seen the advantages in Italy. In 1640 the medical faculty, headed by Guy Patin, started a campaign against the innovator of the Grand Coq. After the death of Richelieu and of Louis XIII. the victory of Renaudot's enemies was practically certain. The parlement of Paris ordered him to return the letters patent for the establish- ment of his bureau and his Mont de Piete, and refused to allow him to practise medicine in Paris. The Gazette remained, and in 1646 Renaudot was appointed by Mazarin historiographer to the king. During the first Fronde he had his printing presses at Saint-Germain. He died on the 25th of October 1653. His difficulties had been increased by his Protestant opinions. His sons Isaac (d. 1688) and Eusebe (d. 1679) were students for ten years before they could obtain their doctorates from the faculty. They carried on their father's work, and defended the virtues •of antimony, laudanum and quinine against the schools. See E. Hatin, Theodore Renaudot (Poitiers, 1883), and La Maison du Coq (Paris, 1885) ; Michel Emery, Renaudot el I' introduction de la medication chimique (Paris, 1889); and G. Bonnefont, Un Oublie. Theophraste Renaudot (Limoges, n.d.). RENDEZVOUS, a place of meeting appointed or arranged for the assembling of troops, ships or persons. The word was adopted in English at the end of the i6th century from the French substantival use of the imperative rendez vous, i.e. " render or betake yourselves." RENDSBURG, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, situated on the Eider and on the Kaiser Wilhelm canal, in a flat and sandy districts 20 m. W. of Kiel, on the Altona-Vamdrup railway. Pop. (1905) 15,577. It consists of three parts — the crowded Altstadt, on an island in the Eider; the Neuwerk, on the south bank of the river; and the Kronwerk, on the north bank. Rendsburg is the chief place in the basin of the Eider, and when in the possession of Denmark was main- tained as a fortress. Its present importance, however, rests on the commercial facilities afforded by its connexion with the North Sea and the Baltic through the Kaiser Wilhelm canal, by which transit trade is carried on in grain, timber, Swedish iron and coals. The principal industries are cotton-weaving, tanning and the manufacture of artificial manures. Rendsburg came into existence under the shelter of a castle founded by the Danes about the year noo on an island of the Eider, and was an object of dispute between the Danish kings and the counts of Holstein. In 1252 it was adjudged to the latter. The town was surrounded with ramparts in 1539, but the fortifications of the Kronwerk were not constructed till the end of the i7th century. During the Thirty Years' War Rendsburg was taken both by the Imperialists and the Swedes, but in 1645 it successfully resisted a second siege by the latter. The war of 1848-50 began with the capture of Rendsburg by the Holsteiners by a coup de main, and it formed the centre of the German operations. On the departure of the German troops in 1852 the Danes demolished the fortifications on the north side. Immediately after the death of King Frederick VII. (iSth of November 1863) the town was occupied by the Saxon troops acting as the executive of the German Confederation, and it was the base of the operations of the Austrians and Prussians against Schleswig in the spring of the following year. On the termination of the Danish war in 1864 Rendsburg was jointly occupied by Austrian and Prussian military until 1866, when it fell to Prussia. See Warmstedt, Rendsburg (Kiel, 1850). RENE I. (1400-1480), duke of Anjou, of Lorraine and Bar, count of Provence and of Piedmont, king of Naples, Sicily and Jerusalem, was born at Angers on the i6th of January 1409, the second son of Louis II., king of Sicily, duke of Anjou, count of Provence, and of Yolande of Aragon. Louis II. died in 1417, and his sons, together with their brother-in-law, after- wards Charles VII. of France, were brought up under the guardianship of their mother. The elder, Louis III., succeeded to the crown of Sicily and to the duchy of Anjou, Rene being known as the count of Guise. By his marriage treaty (1419) with Isabel, elder daughter of Charles II., duke of Lorraine, he became heir to the duchy of Bar, which was claimed as the inheritance of his mother Yolande, and, in right of his wife, heir to the duchy of Lorraine. Rene, then only ten, wa"s'to be brought up in Lorraine under the guardianship of Charles II. and Louis, cardinal of Bar, both of whom were attached to the Burgundian party, but he retained the right to bear the arms of Anjou. He was far from sympathizing with the Burgundians, and, joining the French army at Reims in 1429, was present at the coronation of Charles VII. When Louis of Bar died in 1430 Rene came into sole possession of his duchy, and in the next year, on his father-in-law's death, he succeeded to the duchy of Lorraine. But the inheritance was claimed by the heir-male, Antoine de Vaudemont, who with Burgundian help defeated Rene at Bulgneville in July 1431. The Duchess Isabel effected a truce with Antoine de Vaudemont, but the duke remained a prisoner of the Burgundians until April 1432, when he recovered his liberty on parole on yielding up as hostages his two sons, Jean and Louis of Anjou. His title as duke of Lorraine was confirmed by his suzerain, the Emperor Sigismund, at Basel in 1434. This proceeding roused the anger of the Burgundian duke, Philip the Good, who required him early in the next year to return to his prison, from which he was released two years later on payment of a heavy ransom. He had succeeded to the kingdom of Naples through the deaths of his brother Louis III. and of Jeanne II. de Duras, queen of Naples, the last heir of the earlier dynasty. Louis had been adopted by her in 1431, and she now left her inheritance to Rene. The marriage of Marie de Bourbon, niece of Philip of Burgundy, with John, duke of Calabria, Rene's eldest son, cemented peace between the two princes. After appointing a regency in Bar and Lorraine, he visited his provinces of Anjou and Provence, and in 1438 set sail for Naples, which had been held for him by the Duchess Isabel. Rent's captivity, and the poverty of the Angevin resources due to his ransom, enabled Alphonso of Aragon, who had been first adopted and then repudiated by Jeanne II., to make some headway in the kingdom of Naples, especially as he was already in possession of the island of Sicily. In 1441 Alphonso laid siege to Naples, which he sacked after a six months' siege. Rene returned to France in the same year, and though he retained the title of king of Naples his effective rule was never recovered. Later efforts to recover his rights in Italy failed. His mother Yolande, who had governed Anjou in his absence, died in 1442. Ren6 took part in the negotiations with the English at Tours in 1444, and peace was consolidated by the marriage of his younger daughter, Margaret, with Henry VI. at Nancy. Rene now made over the government of Lorraine to John, duke of Calabria, who was, however, only formally installed as duke of Lorraine on the death of Queen Isabel in xxm. 4 98 RENEE OF FRANCE— RENFREWSHIRE 1453. Ren4 had the confidence of Charles VII., and is said to have initiated the reduction of the men-at-arms set on foot by the king, with whose military operations against the English he was closely associated. He entered Rouen with him in November 1449, and was also with him at Formigny and Caen. After his second marriage with Jeanne de Laval, daughter of Guy XIV., count of Laval, and Isabel of Brittany, Rene took a less active part in public affairs, and devoted himself more to artistic and literary pursuits. The fortunes of his house declined in his old age. The duke of Calabria, after repeated misfortunes in Italy, was offered the crown of Aragon in 1467, but died, apparently by poison, at Barcelona on the i6th of December 1470; the duke's eldest son Nicholas perished in 1473, also under suspicion of poisoning; Rene's daughter Margaret was a refugee from England, her son Prince Edward was murdered in 1471, and she herself became a prisoner, to be rescued by Louis XI. in 1476. His only surviving male descendant was then Rene II., duke of Lorraine, son of his daughter Yolande, comtesse de Vaudemont, who was gained over to the party of Louis XL, who suspected the king of Sicily of complicity with his enemies, the duke of Brittany and the Constable Saint- Pol. Rene retired to Provence, and in 1474 made a will by which he left Bar to his grandson Rene II., duke of Lorraine; Anjou and Provence to his nephew Charles, count of Le Maine. Louis seized Anjou and Bar, and two years later sought to compel the king of Sicily to exchange the two duchies for a pension. The offer was rejected, but further negotiations assured the lapse to the crown of the duchy of Anjou, and the annexation of Provence was only postponed until the death of the count of Le Maine. Rene died on the loth of July 1480, his charities having earned for him the title of " the good." He founded an order of chivalry, the Ordre du Croissant, which was anterior to the royal foundation of St Michael, but did not survive Rene. The king of Sicily's fame as an amateur of painting has led to the attribution to him of many old paintings in Anjou and Provence, in many cases simply because they bear his arms. These works are generally in the Flemish style, and were probably executed under his patronage and direction, so that he may be said to have formed a school of the fine arts in sculpture, painting, gold work and tapestry. Two of the most famous works formerly attributed to Rene are the triptych, the " Burning Bush," in the cathedral of Aix, showing portraits of Rene and his second wife, Jeanne de Laval, and an illumin- ated Book of Hours in the Bibliotheque nationale, Paris. The " Burning Bush " was in fact the work of Nicolas Froment, a painter of Avignon. Among the men of letters attached to his court was Antoine de la Sale, whom he made tutor to his son, the duke of Calabria. He encouraged the performance of mystery plays; on the performance of a mystery of the Passion at Saumur in 1462 he remitted four years of taxes to the town, and the representations of the Passion at Angers were carried out under his auspices. He exchanged verses with his kinsman, the poet Charles of Orleans. The best of his poems is the idyl of Regnault and Jeanneton, representing his own courtship of Jeanne de Laval. Le Livre des lournois, a book of ceremonial, and the allegorical romance, Conqueste qu'un chevalier nomme le Cuer d'amour espris feist d'une dame appelie Doulce Mercy, with other works ascribed to him, were perhaps dictated to his secretaries, or at least compiled under his direc- tion. His (Euvres were published by the comte de Quatrebarbes (4 vols., Paris and Angers, 1845-46). See A. Lecoy de la Marche, Le Roi Rene (2 vols., 1875) ; A. Vallet de Viriville, in the Nouvelle Biographie generate, where there is some account of the MSS. of his works; and J. Renouvier, Les Peinlres et enlumineurs du roi Rene (Montpellier, 1857). RENEE OF FRANCE (1510-1575), second daughter 'of Louis XII. and Anne of Brittany, was born at Blois on the 25th of October 1510. After being betrothed successively to Gaston de Foix, Charles of Austria (the future emperor Charles V.), his brother Ferdinand, Henry VIII. of England, and the elector Joachim II. of Brandenburg, she married in 1528 Hercules of Este, son of the duke of Ferrara, who succeeded his father six years later. Renee's court became a rendezvous of men of letters and a refuge for the persecuted French Calvinists. She received Clement Marot and Calvin at her court, and finally embraced the reformed religion. Her husband, however, who viewed these proceedings with disfavour, banished her friends, took her children from her, threw her into prison, and eventually made her abandon at any rate the outward forms of Calvinism. After his death in 1559, Renee returned to France and turned her duchy of Montargis into a centre of Protestant propaganda. During the wars of religion she was several times molested by the Catholic troops, and in 1562 her chateau was besieged by her son-in-law, the duke of Guise. She died at Montargis. See B. Fontana, Renata di Francia (Rome, 1889 seq.); and E. Rodocanachi, Renee de France (Paris, 1896). RENEVIER, EUGENE (1831- ), Swiss geologist, was born at Lausanne on the 26th of March 1831. In 1857 he became professor of geology and palaeontology in the university at Lausanne. He is distinguished for his researches on the geology and palaeontology of the Alps, on which subjects he published numerous papers in the proceedings of the scientific societies in Switzerland and France. With F. J. Pictet he wrote a memoir on the Fossiles du terrain aptien de la Perte-du- Rhone (1854). In 1894 he was appointed president of the Swiss Geological Commission, and also of the International Geological Congress held^hat year at Zurich, in the previous meetings of which he had taken a prominent part. He published a noteworthy Tableau des terrains sedimentaires (1874); and a second more elaborate edition, accompanied by an explanatory article Chronographe geologique, was issued in 1897 as a supplement to the Report of the Zurich Congress. This new table was printed on coloured sheets, the colours for each geological system corresponding with those adopted on the International geological map of Europe. RENFREW, a royal, municipal and police burgh and county town of Renfrewshire, Scotland, near the southern bank of the Clyde, 7 m. W. by N. of Glasgow, via Cardonald, by the Glasgow & South-Western and Caledonian railways (5 m. by road). Pop. (1891) 6777; (1901) 9296. Industries include ship- building (the construction of dredgers and floating docks is a speciality), engineering, dyeing, weaving, chemicals and cabinet- making. The Clyde trust has constructed a large dock here. Renfrew belongs to the Kilmarnock district group of parlia- mentary burghs (with Kilmarnock, Dumbarton, Rutherglen and Port Glasgow). Robert III. gave a charter in 1396, but it was a burgh (Renifry) at least 250 years earlier. About 1160 Walter Fitzalan, the first high steward of Scotland, built a castle on an eminence by the side of the Clyde (still called Castle Hill), the original seat of the royal house of Stewart. Close to the town, on the site of Elderslie House, Somerled, lord of the Isles, was defeated and slain in 1 164 by the forces of Malcolm IV., against whom he had rebelled. In 1464 Robert II. bestowed upon his son James (afterwards James I.) the title of Baron of Renfrew, still borne by the prince of Wales. RENFREWSHIRE, a south-western county of Scotland, bounded N. by the river and firth of Clyde, E. by Lanarkshire, S. and S.W. by Ayrshire and W. by the firth of Clyde. A small detached portion of the parish of Renfrew, situated on the northern bank of the Clyde, is surrounded on the landward side by Dumbartonshire. The county has an area of 153,332 acres, or 239-6 sq. m. Excepting towards the Ayrshire border on the south-west, where the principal heights are Hill of Stake (171 1 ft.), East Girt Hill (1673), Misty Law (1663) and Creuch Hill (1446), and the confines^ of Lanarkshire on the south-east, where a few points attain an altitude of 1200 ft. — the surface is undulating rather than rugged. Much of the higher land in the centre is well wooded. The Clyde forms part of the northern boundary of the shire. In the N.W. Loch Thorn and Gryfe Reservoir provide Greenock with water, and Balgray Reservoir and Glen Reservoir reinforce the water-supply of a portion of the Glasgow area. The other lakes are situated in the S. and S.E. and RENFREWSHIRE 99 include Castle Semple Loch, Long Loch, Brother Loch, Black Loch, Binend Loch and Dunwan Dam. The Glasgow, Paisley and Johnstone canal has been converted since 1882 into the track of the Glasgow & South-Western railway. Strathgryfe is the only considerable vale in the shire. It extends from the reservoir to below Bridge of Weir, a distance of 10 m. The scenery at its head is somewhat wild and bleak, but the lower reaches are pasture land. The wooded ravine of Glenkillock, to the south of Paisley, is watered by Killock Burn, on which are three falls. Geology. — Carboniferous rocks form the substratum of this county. The hilly ground from the neighbourhood of Eaglesham north- westward is formed of volcanic rocks, basalts, porphyrites, tuffs and agglomerates of the age of the Cementstone group of the Cal- ciferous Sandstone series. Here and there the sites of the volcanic cones are distinguishable, the best being those between Misty Law and Queenside Muir. Beneath the volcanic rocks are some red sandstones and conglomerates which occupy a small tract between Loch Thorn and the neighbourhood of Inverkip. Resting upon the volcanic rocks is the Carboniferous Limestone series which at the base consists of ashy sandstones and grits followed by the three subdivisions prevalent in southern Scotland. With unimportant exceptions, all the area north of the volcanic rocks is occupied by the Carboniferous Limestone series. The beds lie in a faulted basin around Linwood, and the following strata may be distinguished from below upwards: the Hurlet coal and limestone, Lillies oil shale, Hosie limestone, Johnstone clay ironstone and Cowglass lime- stone along with other beds of ironstone and coal. The sandstone of Giffnock, used for building; the limestone and coal of Orchard with a very fossiliferous shale bed; and the limestone and coal of Arden all belong to the same series. Besides the contemporaneous volcanic rocks numerous intrusive sheets are found in the Carbon- iferous rocks such as the large mass of basalt south of Johnstone; and doleritic sheet of Quarrelton and the similar sheets N.E. of Paisley. In the eastern part of the county, near the border the coals and ironstones of this series near Shawlands and Crossmyloof are faulted directly against the coal measures of Rutherglen. Tertiary basalt dikes cut the older rocks in a S.E.-N.W. direction, for example those on Misty Law. Glacial striae abound on the hilly ground, those in the north indicating that the ice took a south-easterly direction which farther south became south-westerly. Boulder clays, gravels and sands also cover considerable areas. Copper ore has been worked in the volcanic rocks near Lochwinnoch and in the grey sandstones near Gourock. Climate and Agriculture. — The climate is variable. As the prevailing west and south-west winds come in from the Atlantic warm and full of moisture, contact with the land causes heavy rains, and the western area of the shire is one of the wettest districts in Scotland, the mean annual rainfall exceeding 60 in. The temperature for the year averages about 48° F., for January 38°-5 F., and for July 58°-5 F. The hilly tract contains much peat-moss and moorland, but over those areas which are not thus covered the soil, which is a light earth on a substratum of gravel, is deep enough to produce good pasture. In the undulating central region the soil is better, particularly in the basins of the streams, while on the flat lands adjoining the Clyde there is a rich alluvium which, except when soured by excessive rain, yields heavy crops. Of the total area three-fifths is under cultivation, more than half of this being permanent pasture. Oats are grown extensively, and wheat and barley are also cultivated. Potatoes, turnips and swedes, and beans are the leading green crops. Near the populous centres orchards and market gardens are found, and an increasing acreage is under wood. Horses are kept mostly for farming operations, and the bulk of the cattle are maintained in connexion with dairying. Sheep-farming, though on the increase, is not prosecuted so vigor- ously as in the other southern counties of Scotland, and pig-rearing is on the decline. Other Industries. — Coal, iron, oil-shale and fireclay are the prin- cipal minerals. Limestone is largely quarried for smelting purposes, and for the manufacture of lime. Sandstone is also quarried. The thread industry at Paisley is the most important in the world. Cotton spinning, printing, bleaching and dyeing are carried on at Paisley, Pollokshaws, Renfrew, Barrhead and elsewhere; woollens and worsteds are produced at Paisley, Greenock and Renfrew. Engineering works and iron and brass foundries are found at Greenock, Port-Glasgow, Paisley, Renfrew, Barrhead and Johnstone. Sugar is a staple article of trade in Greenock and there are chemical works at Hurlet, Nltshill and Renfrew. Brewing and distilling are carried on at Greenock, Paisley and other places. Shipbuilding is especially important at Greenock and Port-Glasgow. Paper mills are established in Greenock, Cathcart and Johnstone, and tanneries in Paisley and Kilbarchan. Numerous miscellaneous industries — such as the making of starch, cornflour and preserves — • have also grown up in Paisley and elsewhere. The sea and river ports are Greenock, Port-Glasgow and Renfrew. Railway communication is ample in the north, the centre and towards the south-west. The Caledonian railway runs westwards from Glasgow by Paisley to Greenock, Gourock and Wemyss Bay ; south-westwards to Barrhead and other stations; and southwards to Busby. The Glasgow & South-Western railway runs to Greenock by Paisley, Johnstone and Kilmalcolm ; to Nitshill and other places south-westwards; by Lochwinnoch (for Dairy and Ardrossan in Ayrshire); and to Renfrew jointly with the Cale- donian. The Clyde and the railway steamers call at Renfrew, Prince's Pier (Greenock), Gourock and Wemyss Bay. Population and Administration. — In 1891 the population numbered 230,812, and in 1901 it was 268,980, or 1123 to the sq. m. In 1901 there were 40 persons who spoke Gaelic only and 5585 Gaelic and English. Thus though the shire is but twenty-seventh in point of size of the 33 Scottish counties, it is fifth in respect of population, and only Lanarkshire and Mid Lothian are more densely populated. The county is divided into the upper ward, embracing the easterly two-thirds, with Paisley as district centre, and the lower ward, consisting of the parishes of Inverkip, Greenock, Port-Glasgow and Kil- malcolm, with Greenock as district centre. The chief towns are Paisley (pop. 79,363), Greenock (68,142), Port-Glasgow (16,857), Pollokshaws (11,369), Johnstone (11,331), Barrhead (9855), Renfrew (9296), Gourock (5261), Cathcart (5808). The shire returns one member to parliament for the eastern, and another for the western division. Paisley and Greenock return each one member, and Renfrew and Port-Glasgow belong to the Kilmarnock district, group of parliamentary burghs. Renfrew- shire forms a sheriffdom with Bute, and there is a resident sheriff-substitute at Paisley and one at Greenock-. The county is under school-board jurisdiction. For secondary and special- ized education there are an academy at Greenock and a grammar school and technical school at Paisley, while some of the schools in the county earn grants for higher education. The county secondary committee also makes provision for the free educa- tion of Renfrewshire children in Glasgow High School and the Spier School at Beith. The Paisley Technical School and the Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College are subsidized out of the " residue " grant, part of which also defrays the travelling expenses of students and supports science and art and technological classes in the burghs and towns in the county. History. — At the time of the Roman advance from the Solway the land was peopled by the British tribe of Damnonii. To hold the natives in check the conquerors built in 84 the fort of Vanduara on high ground now covered by houses and streets in Paisley; but after the Romans retired (410) the territory was overrun by Cumbrian Britons and formed part of the kingdom of Strathclyde, the capital of which was situated at Alclyde, the modern Dumbarton. In the 7th and 8th cen- turies the region practically passed under the supremacy of Northumbria, but in the reign of Malcolm Canmore became incorporated with the rest of Scotland. During the first half of the 1 2th century, Walter Fitzalan, high steward of Scotland, ancestor of the royal house of Stuart, settled in Renfrewshire on an estate granted to him by David I. Till their accession to the throne the Stuarts identified themselves with the district, which, however, was only disjoined from Lanarkshire in 1404. In that year Robert III. erected the barony of Renfrew and the Stuart estates into a separate county, which, along with the earldom of Carrick and the barony of King's Kyle (both in Ayrshire), was bestowed upon his son, afterwards James I. From their grant are derived the titles of earl of Carrick and baron of Renfrew, borne by the eldest son of the sovereign. Apart from such isolated incidents as the defeat of Somerled near Renfrew in 1164, the battle of Langside in 1568 and the capture of the 9th earl of Argyll at Inchinnan in 1685, the history of the shire is scarcely separable from that of Paisley or the neighbouring county of Lanark. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Description of the Sheriffdom of Lanark and Renfrew (Maitland Club, 1831); W. Hector, Lichens from an Old Abbey (Paisley, 1876); Vanduara (Paisley, 1881); Gilmour, Paisley, Weavers of Other Days (Paisley, 1879); D. Campbell, His- torical Sketches of the Town and Harbours of Greenock (1879-81); Old Greenock (Greenock, 1888); Craig, Historical Notes on Paisley (Paisley, 1881); A. H. Millar, Castles and Mansions of Renfrew (Glasgow, 1889). IOO RENNELL— RENNEVILLE RENNELL, JAMES (1742-1830), British geographer, was born on the 3rd of December 1742, near Chudleigh in Devonshire. His father, an officer in the Artillery, was killed in action shortly after the birth of his son. He entered the navy as a mid- shipman in 1756, and was present at the attack on Cherbourg (1758), and the disastrous action of St Cast in the same year. At the end of the Seven Years' War, seeing no chance of pro- motion, he entered the service of the East India Company, and was appointed surveyor of the Company's dominions in Bengal (1764), with the rank of captain in the Bengal Engineers. To this work he devoted the next thirteen years. In 1766 he received a severe wound in an encounter with some Sannyasis, or religious fanatics, from which he never thoroughly recovered; and in 1777 he retired as major on a pension of £600 a year. The remaining fifty-three years of his life were spent in London, and were devoted to geographical research chiefly among the materials in the East India House. His most valuable works include the Bengal Atlas (1779), the first approximately correct map of India (1783), the Geographical System of Herodotus (1800), the Comparative Geography of Western Asia (1831), and im- portant studies on the geography of northern Africa — in intro- ductions to the Travels of Mungo Park and Hornemann — and the currents of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. He also contributed papers to Archaeologia on the site of Babylon, the island of St Paul's shipwreck, and the landing-place of Caesar in Britain. He was elected F.R.S. in 1781; and he received the Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1791, and the gold medal of the Royal Society of Literature in 1825. While in India he had married (1772) Jane Thackeray, a great-aunt of the novelist. He died on the zgth of March 1830, and was buried in the nave of Westminster Abbey. See Sir Clements Markham, Major James Rennell and the Rise of Modern English Geography (London, 1895). RENNES, a town of western France, formerly the capital of Brittany and now the chief town of the department of Ille-et- Vilaine. Pop. town, 62,024; commune, 75,640. Rennes is situated at the meeting of the Ille and the Vilaine and at the junction of several lines of railway connecting it with Paris (232 m. E.N.E.), St Malo (51 m. N.N.W.), Brest (155 m. W.N.W.). A few narrow winding streets with old houses are left in the vicinity of the cathedral, but the town was for the most part rebuilt on a regular plan after the seven days' fire of 1720. Dark granite was used as building material. The old town or Ville-Haute, where the chief buildings are situated, occupies a hill bounded on the south by the Vilaine, on the west by the canalized Ille. The Vilaine flows in a deep hollow bordered with quays and crossed by six bridges leading to the new town or Ville-Basse on its left bank. The cathedral of Rennes was rebuilt in a pseudo-Ionic style between 1787 and 1844 on the site of two churches dating originally from the 4th century. The west facade with its twin towers was finished in 1700 and is in the Renaissance style. The interior is richly decorated, a German altar-piece of the isth century being conspicuous for its carving and gilding. The archbishop's palace occupies in part the site of the abbey dedicated to St Melaine, whose church is the sole specimen of n-i3th cen- tury architecture among the numerous churches in the town. A colossal statue of the Virgin was placed above its dome in 1867. The Mordelaise Gate, by which the dukes and bishops used to make their state entry into the town, is a curious example of isth-century architecture, and preserves a Latin inscription of the 3rd century, a dedication by the Redones to the emperor Gordianus. The finest building in Rennes is the old parliament house (now the law-court), designed by Jacques Debrosse in the 1 7th century, and decorated with statues of legal celebrities, carving, and paintings by Jean Jouvenet and other well-known artists. The town hall was erected in the first half of the i8th century. It contains the library and the municipal archives, which are of great importance for the history of Brittany. In the Palais Universitaire, a modern building occupied by the university, there are scientific collections and important galleries of painting and sculpture, the chief work being the " Perseus delivering Andromeda " of Paul Veronese. About 2 m. from the town is the castle (i6th century) of La Prevalaye, a hamlet famous for its butter. Rennes is the seat of an archbishop and a prefect, head- quarters of the X. army corps and centre of an acadimie (educa- tional division). Its university has faculties of law, science and letters, and a preparatory school of medicine and pharmacy, and there are training colleges, a Iyc6e and schools of agriculture, dairying, music, art, architecture and industry (£cole pratique). The town is also the seat of a court of appeal, of a court of assizes, of tribunals of first instance and commerce, and of a chamber of commerce, and has a branch of the Bank of France. Tanning, iron-founding, timber-sawing and the production of furniture and wooden goods, flour-milling, flax-spinning and the manufacture of tenting and other coarse fabrics, bleaching and various smaller industries are carried on. Trade is chiefly in butter made in the neighbourhood, and in grain, flour, leather, poultry, eggs and honey. Rennes, the chief c.ty of the Redones, was formerly (like some other places in Gaul) called Condate (hence Condat, Conde), probably from its position at the confluence of two streams. Under the Roman empire it was included in Lugdunensis Tertia, and became the centre of various Roman roads still recognizable in the vicinity The name Urbs Rubra given to it on the oldest chronicles is explained by the bands of red brick in the founda- tions of its first circuit of walls. About the close of the loth century Conan le Tort, count of Rennes, subdued the whole province, and his son and successor Geoffrey first took the title duke of Brittany. The dukes were crowned at Rennes, and before entering the city by the Mordelaise Gate they had to swear to preserve the privileges of the church, the nobles and the commons of Brittany. During the War of Succession the city more than once suffered siege, notably in 1356-57, when Bertrand du Gu'esclin saved it from capture by the English under Henry, first duke of Lancaster. The parlement of Brittany, founded in 1551, held its sessions at Rennes from 1561, they having been previously shared with Nantes. During the troubles of the League Philip Emmanuel, duke of Mercosur, attempted to make himself independent at Rennes (1589), but his scheme was defeated by the loyalty of the parlement. Henry IV. entered the city in state on the 9th of May 1598. In 1675 an insurrection at Rennes, caused by the taxes imposed by Louis XIV. in spite of the advice of the parlement, was cruelly suppressed by Charles, duke of Chaulnes, governor of the province. The parlement was banished to Vannes till 1689, and the inhabitants crushed with forfeits and put to death in great numbers. The fire of 1720, which destroyed eight hundred houses, completed the ruin of the town. At the beginning of the Revolution Rennes was again the scene of bloodshed, caused by the discussion about doubling the third estate for the con- vocation of the states-general. In January 1789, Jean Victor Moreau (afterwards general) led the law-students in their demonstrations on behalf of the parlement against the royal government. During the Reign of Terror Rennes suffered less than Nantes, partly through the courage and uprightness of the mayor, Jean Leperdit. It was soon afterwards the centre of the operations of the Republican army against the Vendeans. The bishopric, founded in the 5th century, in 1859 became an arch- bishopric, a rank to which it had previously been raised from 1790 to 1802. In 1899 the revision of the sentence of Captain Alfred Dreyfus was carried out at Rennes. See Grain, Rennes et ses environs (Reims, 1904). RENNEVILLE, RENE AUGUSTE CONSTANTIN DE (1650- 1723), French writer, was born at Caen in 1650. In consequence of his Protestant principles, he left France for Holland in 1699, and on his return three years later he was denounced as a spy and imprisoned in the Bastille, where he remained until 1713. During his imprisonment he wrote on the margins of a copy of Auteurs deguises (Paris, 1690) poems which he called Olia bastiliaca. These were rediscovered by Mr James Tregaski in 1906. Renneville was set at liberty through the intercession of Queen Anne, and made his way to England, where he published RENNIE— RENOUF 101 his Histoiredela Bastille (7 vols., 1713-24), dedicated to George I. At the time of his death in 1723 he was a major of artillery in the " service of the elector of Hesse. His other important work is a Recueil des voyages qui ont servi A I'etablissement de la Compagnie des Indes Orientals aux Provinces Unies (10 vols., new ed., Rouen, 1725). RENNIE, JOHN (i 761-1821), British engineer, was the youngest son of James Rennie, a farmer at Phantassie, Haddingtonshire, where he was born on the 7th of June 1761. On his way to the parish school at East Linton he used to pass the workshop of Andrew Meikle (1710-1800), the inventor of the threshing machine, and its attractions were such that he spent there much of the time that was supposed to be spent at school. In his twelfth year he was placed under Meikle, but after two years he was sent to Dunbar High School, where he showed marked aptitude for mathematics. On his return to Phantassie he occasionally assisted Meikle, and soon began to erect corn mills on his own account. In 1780, while continuing his millwright's business, he began to attend the classes on physical science at Edinburgh University. Four years later he was commissioned by Boulton and Watt, to whom he was introduced by Professor John Robison (1739-1805), his teacher at Edinburgh, to super- intend the construction of the machinery for the Albion flour mills, which they were building at the south end of Blackfriars Bridge, London, and a feature of his work there was the use of iron for many portions of the machines which had formerly been made of wood. The completion of these mills established his reputation as a mechanical engineer, and soon secured him a large business as a maker of millwork of all descriptions. But his fame chiefly rests on his achievements in civil engineering. As a canal engineer his services began to be in request about 1790, and the Avon and Kennet, the Rochdale and the Lancaster canals may be mentioned among his numerous works in England. His skill solved the problem of draining and'reclaiming extensive tracts of marsh in the eastern counties and on the Sol way Firth. As a bridge engineer he was responsible for many structures in England and Scotland, among the most conspicuous being three over the Thames — Waterloo Bridge, Southwark Bridge and London Bridge — the last of which he did not live to see com- pleted. A noteworthy feature in many of his designs was the flat roadway. Among the harbours and docks in the construction of which he was concerned may be mentioned those at Wick, Torquay, Grimsby, Holyhead, Howth, Kingstown and Hull, together with the London dock and the East India dock on the Thames, and he was consulted by the government in respect of improvements at the dockyards of Portsmouth, Sheerness, Chatham and Plymouth, where the breakwater was built from his plans. He died in London on the 4th of October 1821, and was buried in St Paul's. In person he was of great stature and strength, and a bust of him by Chantrey (now in the National Gallery), when exhibited at Somerset House, obtained the name of Jupiter Tonans. Of his family, the eldest son George, who was born in London on the 3rd of September 1791 and died there on the 3oth of March 1866, carried on his father's business in partnership with the second son John, who was born in London on the 30th of August 1794 and died near Hertford on the 3rd of September 1874. George devoted himself especially to the mechanical side of the business. John completed the con- struction of London Bridge, and at its opening in 1831 was made a knight. He succeeded his father as engineer to the Admiralty, and finished the Plymouth breakwater, of which he published an account in 1848. He was also the author of a book on the Theory, Formation and Construction of British and Foreign Harbours (1851-54), and his Autobiography appeared in 1875. He was elected president of the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1845, and held the office for three years. RENO, a city and the county-seat of Washoe county, Nevada, U.S.A., in the W. part of the state, on the Truckee river, and about 244 m. E. of San Francisco. Pop. (1890) 3563; (1900) 4500 (915 foreign-born); (1910 census) 10,867. It is served by the Southern Pacific, the Virginia & Truckee and the Nevada- California-Oregon railways. The city lies near the foot of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, 4484 ft. above the sea, and is in the most humid district of a state which has little rainfall. Among the public institutions are the university of Nevada (see NEVADA), a United States Agricultural Experiment Station, a public library (1903), the Nevada Hospital for Mental Diseases (1882), the City and County Hospital and the People's Hospital. At Reno are railway shops (of the Nevada-California-Oregon railway) and re- duction works, and the manufactures include flour, foundry and machine-shop products, lumber, beer, plaster and packed meats. Farming and stock-raising are carried on extensively in the vicinity. On the site of the present city a road house was erected in 1859 for the accommodation of travellers and freight teams on their way to and from California. By 1863 this place had become known as Lake's Crossing, and five years later it was chosen as a site for a station by the Central (now the Southern) Pacific railway, then building through the Truckee Valley. The new station was then named Reno, in honour of Gen. Jesse Lee Reno (1823-1862), a Federal officer during the Civil War, who was commissioned brigadier-general of volunteers in November 1861 and major-general of volunteers in July 1862, and led the Ninth Corps at South Mountain, where he was killed. The city twice suffered from destructive fires, in 1873 and 1879. Reno was incorporated as a town in 1879 and chartered as a city in 1899. Its city charter was withdrawn in 1901, but it was rechartered in 1903. RENOIR, FIRMIN AUGUSTE (1841- ), French painter, was born at Limoges in 1841. In his early work he followed, with pronounced modern modifications, certain traditions of the French 18th-century school, more particularly of Boucher, of whom we are reminded by the decorative tendency, the pink and ivory flesh tints and the facile technique of Renoir. In the 'seventies he threw himself into the impressionist movement and became one of its leaders. In some of his paintings he carried the new principle of the division of tones to its extreme, but in his best work, notably in some of his paintings of the nude, he retained much of the refined sense of beauty of colour of the 1 8th century. Renoir has tried his skill almost in every genre — in portraiture, landscape, flower-painting, scenes of modern life and figure subject; and though he is perhaps the most un- equal of the great impressionists, his finest works rank among the masterpieces of the modern French school. Among these are some of his nude " Bathers," the " Rowers' Luncheon," the " Ball at the Moulin de la Galette," " The Box," " The Terrace," " La Pensee," and the portrait of " Jeanne Samary." He is represented in the Caillebotte toom at the Luxembourg, in the collection of M. Durand-Ruel, and in most of the collections of impressionist paintings in France and in the United States. Comparatively few of his works have come to England, but the full range of his capacity was seen at the exhibition of impres- sionist art held at the Grafton Galleries in London in 1905. At the Viau sale in Paris in 1907, a garden scene by Renoir, " La Tonnelle," realized 26,000 frs., and a little head, " Ingenue," 25,100 frs. RENOUF, SIR PETER LE PAGE (1822-1897), Egyptologist, was born in Guernsey, on the 23rd of August 1822. He was educated at Elizabeth College there, and proceeded to Oxford, which, upon his becoming a Roman Catholic, under the influence of Dr Newman, he quitted without taking a degree. Like many other Anglican converts, he proved a thorn in the side of the Ultramontane party in the Roman Church, though he did not, like some of them, return to the communion of the Church of England. He opposed the promulgation of the dogma of Papal Infallibility, and his treatise (1868) upon the condemnation of Pope Honorius for heresy by the council of Constantinople in A.D. 680 was placed upon the index of prohibited books. He had been from 1855 to 1864 professor of ancient history and Oriental languages in the Roman Catholic university which Newman vainly strove to establish in Dublin, and during part of this period edited the Atlantis and the Home and Foreign Review, which latter had to be discontinued on account of the hostility of the Roman Catholic hierarchy. In 1864 he was appointed a government inspector of schools, which position he 102 RENOUVIER— RENT held until 1886, when his growing celebrity as an Egyptologist procured him the appointment of Keeper of Oriental Antiquities in the British Museum, in succession to Dr Samuel Birch. He was also elected in 1887 president of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, to whose Proceedings he was a constant contri- butor. The most important of his contributions to Egyptology are his Hibbert Lectures on " The Religion of the Egyptians," delivered in 1879; and the translation of The Book of the Dead, with an ample commentary, published in the Transactions of the society over which he presided. He retired from the Museum under the superannuation rule in 1891, and died in London on the 1 4th of October 1897. He had been knighted the year before his death. He married in 1857 Ludovica von Brentano, member of a well-known German literary family. RENOUVIER, CHARLES BERNARD (1815-1903), French philosopher, was born at Montpellier on the ist of January 1818, and educated in Paris at the Ecole Polytechnique. In early life he took an interest in politics, and the approval extended by Hippolyte Carnot to his Manuel republicain de I'homme et du citoyen (1848) was the occasion of that minister's fall. He never held public employment, but spent his life writing, retired from the world. He died on the ist of September 1903. Ren- ouvier was the first Frenchman after Malebranche to formulate a complete idealistic system, and had a vast influence on the development of French thought. His system is based on Kant's, as his chosen term " Neo-criticisme " indicates; but it is a trans- formation rather than a continuation of Kantianism. The two leading ideas are a dislike to the Unknowable in all its forms, and a reliance on the validity of our personal experience. The former accounts for his acceptance of Kant's phenomenalism, combined with rejection of the thing in itself. It accounts, too, for his polemic on the one hand against a Substantial Soul, a Buddhistic Absolute, an Infinite Spiritual Substance; on the other hand against the no less mysterious material or dynamic substratum by which naturalistic Monism explains the world. He holds that nothing exists except presentations, which are not merely sensational, and have an objective aspect no less than a subjective. To explain the formal organization of our experience he adopts a modified version of the Kantian categories. The insistence on the validity of personal experience leads Renouvier to a yet more important divergence from Kant in his treatment of volition. Liberty, he says, in a much wider sense than Kant, is man's fundamental characteristic. Human freedom acts in the phenomenal, not in an imaginary noiimenal sphere. Belief is not intellectual merely, but is determined by an act of will affirming what we hold to be morally good. In his religious views Renouvier makes a considerable approxima- tion to Leibnitz. He holds that we are rationally justified in affirming human immortality and the existence of a finite God who is to be a constitutional ruler, but not a despot, over the souls of men. He would, however, regard atheism as preferable to a belief in an infinite Deity. His chief works are: Essais de critique generate (1854-64), Science de la morale (1869), Uchronie (1876), Esquisse d'une classification systematique des doctrines philosophiqu.es (1885-86), Philosophie analytique de I'histoire (1896-97), Histoire et solution des problemes metaphysiques (1901); Victor Hugo: Le Polite (1893), Le Philo- sophe (1900); Les Dilemmes de la metaphysique pure (1901); Le Personnalisme (1903) ; Critique de la doctrine de Kant (J9O6, pub- lished by L. Prat). See L. Prat, Les Verniers entreiiens de Charles Renouvier (1904) ; M. Ascher, Renouvier und der franzosische Neu-Kriticismus (1900) ; E. Janssens, Le Neocriticisme de C. R. (1904); A. Darlu, La Morale de Renouvier (1904); G. Seailles, La Philosophie de C. R. (1905); A. Arnal, La Philosophie religieuse de C. R. (1907). RENSSELAER, a city of Rensselaer county, New York, U.S.A., in the eastern part of the state, on the E. bank of the Hudson river, opposite Albany. Pop. (1900) 7466, of whom 1089 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 10,711. It is served by the New York Central and the Boston & Albany rail- ways, which have shops here, and is connected with Albany by three bridges across the Hudson. Rensselaer, originally called Greenbush, was first settled in 1631, and the site formed part of the large tract bought from the Indians by the agents of Killian van Rensselaer and known as Rensselaerwyck. In 1810 a square mile of land within the present city limits was acquired by a land speculator, was divided into lots and offered for sale. Development followed, and five years later the village was incorporated. In 1897 Greenbush was chartered as a city, and its name was changed to Rensselaer. Its limits were extended in 1902 by the annexation of the village of Bath (pop. in 1900, 2504) and the western part of the township of East Greenbush. Rensselaer manufactures knit-goods, wool shoddy, felt, &c. RENT. Various species of rent appear in Roman Law: rent (canon) under the long leasehold tenure of Emphyteusis; rent (reditus) of a farm; ground-rent (solarium); rent of state lands (wctigal); and the annual rent (prensio) payable for the jus superficiarum or right to the perpetual enjoy- ment of anything built on the surface of land. (See ROMAN LAW.) ENGLISH LAW. (As to the rent of apartments, &c., see LODGER AND LODGINGS.) — Rent is a certain and periodical payment or service made or rendered by the tenant of a corporeal hereditament and issuing out of (the property of) such heredita- ment. Its characteristics, therefore, are (i) certainty in amount; (2) periodicity in payment or rendering; (3) the fact that rent is yielded and is, therefore, said " to lie in render," as distinguished from profits d prendre in general, which are taken, and are, therefore, said to lie in prendre; (4) that it must issue out of (the profits of) a corporeal hereditament. A rent cannot be reserved out of incorporeal hereditaments such as advowsons (Co. Litt. 473, I42a). But rent may be reserved out of estates in reversion or remainder (see REAL PROPERTY) which are not purely incorporeal. It is not essential that rent should consist in a payment of money. Apart from the rendering of services, the delivery of hens, horses, wheat, &c., may constitute a rent. But, at the present day, rent is generally a sum of money paid for the occupation of land. It is important to notice that this conception of rent was attained at a comparatively late period in the history of the law. The earliest rent seems to have been a form of personal service, generally labour on land, and was fixed by custom. The exaction of a competition or rack rent beyond that limited by custom was, if one may judge from the old Brehon law of Ireland, due to the presence upon the land of strangers in blood, probably at first outcasts from some other group.1 The strict feudal theory of rent admitted labour on the lord's land as a lower form, and developed the military service due to the crown or a lord as a higher form. Rent service is the oldest and most dignified kind of existing rent. It is the only one to which the power of distress attaches at common law, giving the landlord a preferential right over other creditors exercisable without the intervention of judicial authority (see DISTRESS). The increasing importance of socage tenure, arising in part from the convenience of paying a certain amount, whether in money or kind, rather than comparatively uncertain services, led to the gradual evolution of the modern view of rent as a sum due by contract between two independent persons. At the same time the primitive feeling which regarded the position of landlord and tenant from a social rather than a commercial point of view is still of importance. Rents, as they now exist in England, are divided passes / of Keats. into two great classes — rent service and rent charge. Rent Service. — A rent service is so called because by it a tenure by means of service is created between the landlord and the tenant. The service is now represented by fealty, and is nothing more than nominal. Rent service is said to be incident to the reversion — that is, a grant of the reversion carries the rent with it (see REMAINDER) . A power of distress is incident '"The three rents are: rack rent from a person of a strange tribe, a fair rent from one of the tribe, and the stipulated rent which is paid equally by the tribe and the strange tribe." — Senchus Mor, p. 159, cited by Maine, Village Communities, p. 187. See also Vinogradoff, Villainage in England (Oxford, 1892), pp. 181, 188, 215; The Growth of the Manor (by the same author) (London, 1905), pp. 230, 328; Pollock and Maitland, Hist. Eng. Law (Cambridge, 1895), ii. 128-134. RENT 103 at common law to this form of rent. Copyhold rents and rents reserved on lease fall into this class. Rent Charge. — A rent charge is a grant of an annual sum payable out of lands in which the grantor has an estate. It may be in fee, in tail, for life — the most common form — or for years. It must be created by deed or will, and may be either at common law or under the Statute of Uses (1536). The grantor has no reversion, and the grantee has at common law no power of distress, though such power may be given him by the instrument creating the rent charge. The Statute of Uses (1536) gave a power of distress for a rent charge created under the statute. The Conveyancing Act 1881, § 44, has given a power of distress for a sum due on any rent charge which is twenty-one days in arrear. By § 45 a power of redemption of certain per- petual rents in the nature of rent charges is given to the owner of the land out of which the rent issues. Rent charges granted since April 26th, 1855, otherwise than by marriage settlement or will for a life or lives or for any estate determinable on a life or lives must, in order to bind lands against purchasers, mort- gagees or creditors, be registered in the Land Registry in Lincoln's Inn Fields (Judgments Act 1855 and Land Charges Act 1900). In certain other cases it is also necessary to register rent charges, for instance, under the Improvement of Land Act 1864 and the Land Transfer Acts 1875 and 1897. Rent charges are barred by non-payment or non-acknowledgment for twelve years. The period of limitation for the arrears of such rent is six years. Various Forms of Rent Charge. — Forms of rent charge of special interest are tithe rent charge (see TITHES), and the rent charges formerly used for the purpose of creating " faggot votes." The device was adopted of creating parliamentary voters by splitting up freehold interests into a number of rent-charges of the annual value of 405., so as to satisfy the freeholders' franchise. But such rent charges are now rendered ineffective by the Repre- sentation of the People Act 1884, § 4, which enacts (subject to a saving for existing rights and an exception in favour of owners of tithe rent charge) that a man shall not be entitled to be registered as a voter in respect of the ownership of any rent charge. A rent charge reserved without power of distress is termed a rent-seek (reditus siccus) or " dry rent," from the absence of the power of distress. But, as power of distress for rents-seek was given by the Landlord and Tenant Act 1736, the legal effect of such rents has been since the act the same as that of a rent charge. Other Varieties of Rent. — Rents of assize or Quit rents are a relic of the old customary rents. They are presumed to have been established by usage, and cannot be increased or diminished. A Quit rent (quietus reditus) is a yearly payment made from time immemorial by freeholders or copyholders of a manor to the lord. The term implies that the tenant thereby becomes free and quit from all other services. Owing to the change in the value of money, these rents are now of little value. Under the Conveyancing Act 1 88 1 (s. 45) they may be compulsorily redeemed by the freehold tenant; and the Copyhold Act 1894 provides similarly for their extinction in the case of manors. Quit rents, like ordinary rent charges, are barred by non-payment, or non-acknowledgment, for twelve years. Those paid by freeholders are called chief rents. Fee farm rents are rents reserved on grants in fee. According to some authorities, they must be at least one-fourth of the value of the lands. They, like quit rents, now occur only in manors, unless existing before the Statute of Quia Emptores or created by the crown (see REAL PROPERTY). A rent which is equivalent or nearly equivalent in amount to the full annual value of the land is a rack rent. A rent which falls appreciably short of a rack rent is usually styled a ground rent (q.v.). It is generally reserved on land which the lessee agrees to cover with buildings, and is calculated on the value of the land, though the buildings to be erected increase the security for the rent and revert to the Tessor at the end of the term. A dead rent is a fixed annual sum paid by a person working a mine or quarry, in addition to royalties varying according to the amount of minerals taken. The object of a dead rent is twofold — first, to provide a specified income on which the lessor can rely; secondly (and this is the more important reason), as a security that the mine will be worked, and worked with reasonable rapidity. Rents in kind still exist to a limited extent; thus the corporation of London is tenant of some lands in Shropshire by payment to the crown of an annual rent of a fagot. All peppercorn, or nominal, rents seem to fall under this head.1 The object of the peppercorn rent is to secure the acknowledgment by the tenant ot the landlord's right. In modern building leases a peppercorn rent is sometimes reserved as the rent for the first few years. Services rendered in lieu of payment by tenants in grand and petit serjeanty may also be regarded as examples of rents in kind. Grand serjeanty is a form of tenure in chivalry under which the king's tenants (servientes) in chief owed special military or personal services to the king; e.g. carrying his banner. Petit serjeanty — a form of tenure in socage — was usually applied to tenure of the king or a mcsne lord by some fixed service of trivial value, e.g. feeding his hounds. These forms of tenure were abolished in 1660. Labour rents are represented by those cases, not unfrequent in agricultural leases, where the tenant is bound to render the landlord a certain amount of team work or other labour as a part of his rent. It was held in the court of queen's bench in 1845 that tenants who occupied houses on the terms of sweeping the parish church and of ringing the church belt paid rent within the meaning of the Limitation Act of 1833 (see Doe v. Benham (1845), 7 Q.B. 976). As to the apportionment of rents, see APPORTIONMENT. Payment of Rent. — Rent is due in the morning of the day appointed for payment, but a tenant is not in arrears until after midnight on that day. Rent made payable in advance by agreement between a landlord and his tenant is called forehand rent. It is not uncommon in letting payment. a furnished house, or as to the last quarter of the term of a lease of unfurnished premises, to stipulate that the rent shall be paid in advance. As soon as such rent is payable under the agreement the landlord has the same rights in regard to it as he has in the case of ordinary rent. If' a tenant pays his rent before the day on which it is due, he runs the risk of being called upon in certain circumstances to pay it over again. Such a 'payment is an advance to the landlord, subject to an agreement that, when the rent becomes due, the advance shall be treated as a fulfilment of the tenant's obligation to pay rent. The payment is, therefore, generally speaking, a defence to an action by the landlord or his heirs. But if the landlord mortgages his reversion, either before or after the advance, the assignee will, by giving notice to the tenant, before the proper rent-day, to pay rent to him, become entitled to the rent then falling due. Pay- ment by cheque is conditional payment only, and if the cheque is dishonoured the original obligation revives. Where a cheque in payment of rent is lost in the course of transmission through the post, the loss falls on the tenant, unless the landlord has expressly or impliedly authorized it to be forwarded in that way: and the landlord's consent to take the risk of such trans- mission will not be inferred from the fact that payments were ordinarily made in this manner in the dealings between the parties. A tenant may deduct from his rent (i) the " land- lord's property tax " (on the annual value of the premises for income tax purposes), which is paid by the tenant, if the statute imposing the tax authorizes the deduction (which should be made from the rent next due after the payment); (ii) taxes or rates which the landlord had undertaken to pay but had not paid, payment having thereupon been made by the tenant; (iii) payments made by the tenant which ought to have been made by the landlord, e.g. rent due to a superior landlord; (iv) com- pensation under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1900. Remedies for Non-payment of Rent. — A landlord's main remedy for non-payment of rent is distress (Lat. distringere, to draw asunder, detain, occupy), i.e. the right to seize all goods found upon the demised premises, whether those of the tenant or of a stranger, except goods specially privileged, and to detain and, if need be, to sell them, in satisfaction of his claim. The requisites of a valid distress are these: (a) There must be " a certain and proper rent," i.e. rent due in respect of an actual tenancy of corporeal hereditaments: (b) the rent must be in arrear; (c) there must be a reversion in the person distrain- ing; and (d) there must be goods on the premises liable to be distrained. 1 When peppercorn rents were instituted, in the middle ages, they were not, however, nominal, the cost of spices being then very great. A peppercorn rent, generally an obligation to pay I ft of pepper at the usual rent flays, constituted a substantial impost even as late as the i8th century. IO4 RENT All personal chattels are distrainable with the following excep tions: (i) Goods absolutely privileged — (a) fixtures (q.v.); (b) goods sent to the tenant in the way of trade; (c) things which cannot be restored, e.g. meat and milk; growing corn and corn in sheaves formerly fell within this category, but the Distress for Rent Act !737 (s- 8) abolished this exemption in the case of the former, and a statute of 1690 abolished it in that of the latter; (d) things in actual use, e.g. a horse while it is drawing a cart ; (e) animals ferae naturae (dogs and tame deer or deer in an enclosed park may be distrained) ; (/) things in the custody of the law, e.g. in the possession of a sheriff under an execution (q.v.) ; (g) straying cattle; (h) in the case of agricultural holdings under the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1900 hired agricultural machinery and breeding stock; (i) the wearing apparel and " bedding " — a term which includes " bedstead " — of tenant and his family, and the tools and implements of his trade to the value of £5 (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888) ; (j) the goods of ambassadors and their suites (Diplomatic Privileges Act 1708). (ii) Goods conditionally privileged, i.e. privileged if there are sufficient goods of other kinds on the premises to satisfy the distress — (a) implements of trade not in actual use; (b) beasts of the plough and sheep; (c) agisted cattle; (d) growing crops sold under an execution (Landlord and Tenant Act 1851, s. 2); (e) lodgers' goods. The Lodgers' Goods Protection Act 1871 provides that where a lodger's goods have been seized by the superior landlord the lodger may serve him with a notice stating that the intermediate landlord had no interest in the property seized, but that it is the property, or in the lawful possession, of the lodger, and setting forth the amount of the rent due by the lodger to his immediate landlord. On payment or tender of such rent the landlord cannot proceed with the distress against the goods in question. In general, a landlord cannot distrain except upon the premises demised, but he has a statutory right to follow things clandestinely or fraudulently removed from the premises within 30 days after their removal, unless they have been in the meantime sold bona fide and for valuable consideration. A landlord may, by statute (Landlord and Tenant Act 1709, s. 6), distrain within six months after the determination of the lease provided that the tenant has remained in possession. A distress must be made in the daytime, i.e. not before sunrise or after sunset. Six years' arrears of rent only are recoverable by distress (Real Property Limitation Act 1833, s. 12): the Real Property Limitation Act 1874 (s. i), which bars distress for rent after twelve years, applies to rent-charges and not to rent under a lease, and the six years' arrears may be recovered in spite of the lapse of time. In the case of agricultural tenancies falling within the Agricultural Holdings Acts 1883-1900, the right of distress is confined to one year's arrears of rent. Where the tenant is bankrupt, a distress levied after the bankruptcy is limited to six months' rent accrued due prior to the date of adjudica- tion; see Bankruptcy Act 1883 (s. 42) and 1890 (s. 28). Where a company is being wound up, the landlord may not distrain without the leave of the court. An extension of time is allowed in cases where in the ordinary course of dealing between landlord and tenant the payment of rent has been allowed to be deferred for a quarter or half year after the rent became legally due (act of 1883, s. 4). The landlord may distrain in person or may employ a certificated bailiff (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888, s. 7). An uncerti- ficated person levying a distress is liable to a fine of £10, without prejudice to his civil liability (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895, s. 2). The seizure must not be excessive (statute of Henry III., 1267); but enough must be taken to satisfy the claim, for the landlord cannot distrain twice for the same rent where he could have taken sufficient in the first instance. After being seized, the goods must be impounded (Distress for Rent Act 1707, s. 10; and see the statute of 1690, s. 3, on impounding of corn, straw, hay; the Distress for Rent Act 1737, s. 8, on impounding of growing crops; and the statute of 1554 and the Cruelty to Animals Act 1849, s. 5, on impounding of cattle) ; and the landlord has a statutory power of sale (statute of 1690, s. 5). It is illegal to proceed with a distress if the tenant tenders the rent before the impounding; and a tenant has, by statute (1690, c. 5), five clear days' grace, excluding the date of seizure, between impounding and sale. On the written request of the tenant, this period will be extended to fifteen days (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1888, s. 6). A tenant may, before sale, recover goods illegally distrained by an action of replevin (L. Lat. replegiare, to redeem a thing taken by another). Where no rent was due to the distrainer the tenant may recover by action double the value of the goods sold (statute 1690, s. 5); and summary remedies for the recovery of the property have been created by modern enactments (Law of Distress Amendment Act 1895, s. 4, on distress of privileged goods; Agricultural Holdings Act 1883, s. 46). Where rent was due, but the distress was irregular, the tenant can only recover special damage (Distress for Rent Act 1737, s. 19). Goods taken under an execution (q.v.) are not removable till one year's rent has been paid to the landlord (Landlord and Tenant Act 1709). The landlord has, besides distress, his ordinary remedy by action. In addition, special statutory remedies are given in the case of tenants holding over after the expiration of their tenancy. By the Distress for Rent Act 1737 any tenant giving notice to quit, and holding over, is liable to pay double rent for such time as he continues in possession (see further under EJECTMENT). Ireland. — The main differences between Irish and English law have been caused by legislation (see EJECTMENT; LAND- LORD AND TENANT). Scotland. — Rent is properly the payment made by tenant to landlord for the use of lands held under lease (see LANDLORD AND TENANT). In agricultural tenancies the legal terms for the payment of rent are at Whitsunday after the crop has been shown, and at Martinmas after it has been reaped. But a landlord and tenant may substitute conventional terms of payment, either anticipating (fore, or forehand rent) or post- poning (back, or backhand rent) the legal term. The rent paid by vassal to superior is called feu-duty (see FEU). Its nearest English equivalent is the fee farm rent. The remedy of dis- tress does not exist in Scots law. Rents are recovered (i) by summary diligence, proceeding on a clause, in the lease, of consent to registration for execution; (ii) by an ordinary peti- tory action; (iii) by an action of " maills and duties " (the rents of an estate in money or grain: " maills " was a coin at one time current in Scotland) in the Sheriff Court or the Court of Session; and (iv) in non-agricultural tenancies by procedure under the right of hypothec, where that still exists; the right of hypothec over land exceeding 2 acres in extent let for agri- culture or pasture was abolished as from November ii, 1881 (see HYPOTHEC); (v) by action of removing (see EJECTMENT). Arrears of rent prescribe in five years from the time of the tenant's removal from the land. Labour or service rents were at one time very frequent in Scot- land. The events of 1715 and 1745 showed the vast influence over the tenantry that the great proprietors acquired by such means. Accordingly acts of 1716 and 1746 provided for the commutation of services into money rents. Such services may still be created by agreement, subject to the summary power of commutation by the sheriff given by the Conveyancing Act 1874 (§§ 20, 21). " In the more remote parts of Scotland it is understood that there still exist customary returns in produce of various kinds, which being regulated by the usage of the district or of the barony or estate cannot be comprehended under any general rule " (Hunter, Landlord and Tenant, ii. 298). Up to 1848 or 1850 there existed in Scot- land " steelbow " leases — analogous to the chetel de fer of French law (see LANDLORD AND TENANT)— by which the landlord stocked the farm with corn, cattle, implements, &c., the tenant returning similar articles at the expiration of his tenancy and paying in addition to the ordinary rent a steelbow rent of 5 % on the value of the stock. As to the rent of apartments, &c., see LODGER AND LODGINGS. United Stales. — The law is in general accordance with that of England. The tendency of modern state legislation is unfavourable to the continuance of distress as a remedy. In the New England states, attachment on mesne process has, to a- large extent, superseded it. In New York and Missouri it has been abolished by statute; in Mississippi the landlord has a claim for one year's rent on goods seized under an execution and a lien on the growing crop. In Ohio, Tennessee and Alabama it is not recognized, but in Ohio the landlord has a share in the growing crops in preference to the execution creditor. The legislatures of nearly all the states agree with the law of England as to the exemption from distress of household goods, wearing apparel, &c. (see Dillon's Laws and Jurisprudence of England and America, pp. 360, 361; also HOMESTEAD). As to the rent of apartments, &c., see LODGER AND LODGINGS. Fee farm rents exist in some states, like Pennsylvania, which have not adopted the statute of Quia Emptores as a part of their common law (Washburn's Real Property, ii. 252). Other Laws. — Under the French Code Civil (art. 2102) the land- lord is a privileged creditor for his rent. If the lease is by authentic act, or under private signature for a fixed term, he has a right over the year's harvest and produce, the furniture of the house and everything employed to keep it up, and (if a farm) to work it, in order to satisfy all rent due up to the end of the term. If the lease is not by authentic act nor for a specified term, the landlord's claim is limited to the current year and the year next following (see law of I2th Feb.' 1872). The goods of a sub-lessee are protected : and goods bailed or deposited with the tenant are in general not RENTON— REPLEVIN 105 liable to be seized. The French law is in force in Mauritius, and has been reproduced in substance in the Civil Codes of Quebec (arts. 2005 et seq.) and St Lucia (arts. 1888 et seq.). There are analogous provisions in the Spanish Civil Code (art. 1922). The subject of privileges and hypothecs is regulated in Belgium by a special law of the i6th Dec. 1851; and in Germany by ss. 1113 et seq. of the Civil Code. The law of British India as to rent (Transfer and Property Act 1882) and distress (cf., e.g., Act 15 of 1882) is similar to English law. The British dominions generally tend in the same direction. See, e.g.. New South Wales (the consolidating Landlord and Tenant Act 1899); Newfoundland (Act 4 of 1899); Ontario (Act I of 1902, s. 22, giving a tenant five days for tender of rent and expenses after distress); Jamaica (Law 17 of 1900, certification of landlord's bailiffs) ; Queensland (Act 15 of 1904). AUTHORITIES. — English Law: Woodfall, Landlord and Tenant (i8th ed., London, 1907) ; Foa, Landlord and Tenant (Ath ed., London, 1907); Fawcett, Landlord and Tenant (yd ed., London, 1905); Gilbert on Distress and Replevin (London, 1823); Sullen, Law of Distress (2nd ed., London, 1899) ; Oldham and Foster, Law of Distress (2nd ed., London, 1889). Scots Law: Hunter on Landlord and Tenant (4th ed., Edin., 1876) ; Erskine's Principles (2Oth ed., by Rankine, Edin., 1903); Rankine's Law of Landownership in Scot- land (3rd ed., Edin., 1891); Rankine's Law of Leases in Scotland (2nd ed., Edin., 1893). American Law: McAdam, Law of Landlord and Tenant (New York, 1900) ; Bouvier's Law Dictionary (ed. G. Rawle) (London and Boston, 1897), tit. " Distress " in " Ruling Cases"; Landlord and Tenant (American Notes) (London and Boston, 1894-1901). (A. W. R.) RENTON, a manufacturing town of Dumbartonshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 5067. It is situated on the Leven, 2 m. N.N.W. of Dumbarton by the North British and Caledonian railways. The leading industry is Turkey red dyeing, and calico-printing and bleaching are also carried on. A parish church stands on the site of Dalquhurn House, the birthplace of Tobias Smollett the novelist, to whose memory a- Tuscan column was erected in 1774, the inscription for which was revised by Dr Johnson when he visited Bonhill in that year with Boswell. The town was founded in ^782 by Mrs Smollett — previously Mrs Telfer — of Bonhill (sister of Tobias Smollett), who resumed her maiden name when she succeeded to the Smollett estates; it was named after Cecilia Renton, daughter of John Renton of Blackadder, who had married Mrs Smollett's son, Alexander Telfer. RENWICK, JAMES (1662-1688), Scottish covenanting leader, was born at Moniaive in Dumfriesshire on the isth of February 1662, being the son of a weaver, Andrew Renwick. Educated at Edinburgh University, he joined the section of the Covenanters known as the Cameronians about 1681 and soon became pro- minent among them. Afterwards he studied theology at the university of Groningen and was ordained a minister in 1683. Returning to Scotland " full of zeal and breathing forth threats of organized assassination," says Mr Andrew Lang, he became one of the field-preachers and was declared a rebel by the privy council. He was largely responsible for the " apologetical declaration " of 1684 by which he and his followers disowned the authority of Charles II.; the privy council replied by ordering every one to abjure this declaration on pain of death. Unlike some of his associates, Renwick refused to join the rising under the earl of Argyll in 1685; in 1687, when the declarations of indulgence allowed some liberty of worship to the Presbyterians, he and his followers, often called Renwickites, continued to hold meetings in the fields, which were still illegal. A reward was offered for his capture, and early in 1688 he was seized in Edinburgh. Tried and found guilty of disowning the royal authority and other offences, he refused to apply for a pardon and was hanged on the I7th of February 1688. Ren- wick was the last of the convenanting martyrs. See R. Wodrow, History of the Sufferings of the Church of Scot- land, vol. iv. (Glasgow, 1838); and A. Smellie, Men of the Covenant (1904) ; also Renwick's life by Alexander Shields in the Biographia Presbyteriana (1827). REP, REPP, or REPS, a cloth made of silk, wool or cotton. The name is said to have been adapted from the French reps, a word of unknown origin; it has also been suggested that it is a corruption of " rib." It is woven in fine cords or ribs across the width of the piece. In silk it is used for dresses, and to some extent for ecclesiastical vestments, &c. In wool and cotton it is used for various upholstery purposes. REPAIRS (from Lat. reparare, to make ready again), acts necessary to restore things to a sound state after damage; the question of repairs is important in the relations between landlord and tenant. (See the articles FLAT; LANDLORD AND TENANT.) REPEAL (O.F. rapel, modern rappel, from rapder, rappeler, revoke, re and appeler, appeal), the abrogation, revocation or annulling of a law (see ABROGATION and STATUTE). The word is particularly used in English history of the movement led by Daniel O'Connell (q.v.) for the repeal of the act of Union between Great Britain and Ireland hi 1830 and 1841-46, which in its later development became known as the Nationalist or Home Rule movement (see IRELAND, History). REPIN, ILJA JEFIMOVICH (1844- ), Russian painter, was born in 1844 at Tschuguev in the department of Charkov, the son of parents in straitened circumstances. He learned the rudiments of art under a painter of saints named Bunakov, for three years gaining his living at this humble craft. In 1863 he obtained a studentship at the Academy of Fine Arts of St Petersburg, where he remained for six years, winning the gold medal and a travelling scholarship which enabled him to visit France and Italy. He returned to Russia after a short absence, and devoted himself exclusively to subjects having strong national characteristics. In 1894 he became professor of historical painting at the St Petersburg Academy. Repin's paintings are powerfully drawn, with not a little imagination and with strong dramatic force and characterization. A brilliant colourist, and a portrait-painter of the 'first rank, he also became known as a sculptor and etcher of ability. His chief pictures are " Procession in the Government of Kiev," " Home-coming," " The Arrest," " Ivan the Terrible's murder of his Son," and, best known of all, " The Reply of the Cossacks to Sultan Mahmoud IV." The portraits of the Baroness V. I. Ulskiil, of Anton Rubinstein and of Count Leo Tolstoy are among his best achievements in this class. The Tretiakov gallery at Moscow contains a very large collection of his work. See " Professor Repin," by Prince Bojidar Karageorgevich, in the Magazine of Art, xxiii. p. 783 (1899) ; " Russian Art," a paper by E. Bray ley Hodgetts in the Proceedings of the Anglo-Russian Literary Society (jjjth of May 1896); " Ilja Jefimovich Repin," by Julius Norden, in Velhagen and Klasing's Monatshefte, xx. p. I (1905) ; also R. Muther, History of Modern Painting (ed. 1907), iv. 272. (E. F. S.) REPINGTON (or REPYNGDON), PHILIP (d. 1424), English bishop and cardinal, was educated at Oxford and became an Augustinian canon at Leicester before 1382. A man of some learning, he came to the front as a defender of the doctrines taught by John Wycliffe; for this he Was suspended and after- wards excommunicated, but in a short time he was pardoned and restored by Archbishop William Courtenay, and he appears to have completely abandoned his unorthodox opinions. In 1394 he was made abbot of St Mary de Pre at Leicester, and after the accession of Henry IV. to the English throne in 1399 he became chaplain and confessor to this king, being described as " clericus specialissimus domini regis Henrici." In 1404 he was chosen bishop of Lincoln, and in 1408 Pope Gregory XII. made him a cardinal. He resigned his bishopric in 1419. Some of Repington's sermons are in manuscript at Oxford and at Cambridge. REPLEVIN, an Anglo-French law term (derived from replevir, to replevy; see PLEDGE for further etymology) signifying the recovery by a person of goods unlawfully taken out of his possession by means of a special form of legal process; this falls into two divisions — (i) the " replevy," the steps which the owner takes to secure the physical possession of the goods, by giving security for prosecuting the action and for the return of the goods if the case goes against him, and (2) the " action of replevin " itself. The jurisdiction in the first case is in the County Court; in the second case the Supreme Court has also jurisdiction in certain circumstances. The proceedings are now regulated by the County Courts Act 1888. At common law, the ordinary action for the recovery of goods wrongfully taken would be one of detinue; but no means of immediate recovery xxin. 4 a io6 REPNIN— REPORTING was possible till the action was tried, and until the Common Law Procedure Act 1854 the defendant might exercise an option of paying damages instead of restoring the actual goods. The earliest regulations with regard to the action of replevin are to be found in the Statute of Marlborough (Marlebridge), 1267, cap. 21. For the early history, see Blackstone's Com- mentaries, iii. 145 seq. Only goods and cattle can be the subjects of an action for replevin. Although the action can be brought for the wrongful taking of goods generally, as long as the initial taking was wrongful and it was from the possession of the owner; it is practically confined to goods taken by an illegal as opposed to an excessive distress (see DISTRESS and RENT, § Legal). REPNIN, the name of an old Russian princely family, the first of whom to gain distinction was PRINCE ANIKITA IVANOVICH REPNIN (1668-1726), Russian general, and one of the collaborators of Peter the Great, with whom he grew up. On the occasion of the Sophian insurrection of 1689, he carefully guarded Peter in the Troitsa monastery, and subsequently took part in the Azov expedition, during which he was raised to the grade of general. He took part in all the principal engagements of the Great Northern War. Defeated by Charles XII. at Holowczyn, he was degraded to the ranks, but was pardoned as a reward for his valour at Lyesna and recovered all his lost dignities. At Poltava he commanded the centre. From the Ukraine he was transferred to the Baltic Provinces and was made the first governor-general of Riga after its capture in 1710. In 1724 he succeeded the temporarily disgraced favourite, Menshikov, as war minister. Catherine I. created him a field-marshal. See A. Bauman, Russian Statesmen of the Olden Time (Rus.), vol. i. (Petersburg, 1877). His grandson, PRINCE NIKOLAI VASILEVICH REPNIN (1734- 1801), Russian statesman and general, served under his father, Prince Vasily Anikitovich, during the Rhenish campaign of 1748' and subsequently resided for some time abroad, where he acquired " a thoroughly sound German education." He also participated in the Seven Years' War in a subordinate capacity. Peter III. sent him as ambassador in 1 763 to Berlin. The same year Catherine transferred him to Warsaw as minister pleni- potentiary, with especial instructions to form a Russian party in Poland from among the dissidents, who were to receive equal rights with the Catholics. Repnin convinced himself that the dissidents were too poor and insignificant to be of any real support to Russia, and that the whole agitation in their favour was factitious. At last, indeed, the dissidents themselves even petitioned the empress to leave them alone. It is clear from his correspondence that Repnin, a singularly proud and high- spirited man, much disliked the very dirty work he was called upon to do. -Nevertheless he faithfully obeyed his instructions, and, by means more or less violent or discreditable, forced the diet of 1 768 to concede everything. The immediate result was the Confederation of Bar, which practically destroyed the ambas- sador's handiwork. Repnin resigned his post for the more congenial occupation of fighting the Turks. At the head of an independent command in Moldavia and Walachia, he prevented a large Turkish army from crossing the Pruth (1770); distin- guished himself at the actions of Larga and Kagula; and captured Izmail and Kilia. In 1771 he received the supreme command in Walachia and routed the Turks at Bucharest. A quarrel with the commander-in-chief , Rumyantsev, then induced him to send in his resignation, but in 1774 he participated in the capture of Silistria and in the negotiations which led to the peace of Kuchuk-Kainarji. In 1775-76 he was ambassador at the Porte. On the outbreak of the war of the Bavarian Suc- cession he led 30,000 men to Breslau, and at the subsequent congress of Teschen, where he was Russian plenipotentiary, compelled Austria to make peace with Prussia. During the second Turkish war (1787-92) Repnin was, after Suvarov, the most successful of the Russian commanders. He defeated the Turks at Sakha, captured the whole camp of the seraskier, Hassan Pasha, shut him up in Izmail, and was preparing to reduce the place when he was forbidden to do so by Potemkin (1789^. On the retirement of Potemkin (- employed to express it. The simple idea of the substi- tution of one person for another, in some connexion, e.g. hostage, pledge, victim, is so old as to be only describable as primitive; it is found in the proxy system, e.g. in marriage, and in diplo- macy, the legate or ambassador being the alter ego of his sovereign; but, so far as general political legislative action, by one man in an assembly on behalf of others, is concerned, no systematic employment of a " deputy " (the word still used both in a general sense and in politics as a synonym for "repre- sentative ") is known among the ancients. So long as political power rests in a small privileged class, such an idea must be slow to develop; and the primitive notion of a law-making body is that of all the members present in person, as in ancient Greece. But, as Stubbs (Const. Hist. i. 586) points out, the early English jury system (see JURY) shows the germ of the true idea of representation in England; it was the established practice of electing or selecting juries to present criminal matters before the king's judges, and assessors to levy taxes on the county, that suggested the introduction of popular representation in the English political system, and thus brought " the commons " into play in addition to the Crown and the nobles. Under Henry III., in 1254, we have the writ (see PARLIAMENT) requir- ing the sheriff of each county to " cause to come3 before the King's Council two good and discreet Knights of the Shire, whom the men of the county shall have chosen for this purpose in the stead of all and of each of them, to consider along with knights of other shires what aid they will grant the king." But the definite establishment of the principle of political representa- tion, in a shape from which the later English system of repre- sentation lineally descended, may be traced rather to the year 1295, in Edward I.'s famous writ of summons to parliament, of which the following is the important part. In the volume of Select Documents of English Constitutional History (1901), selected by G. B. Adams and H. M. Stephens, whose version from the Latin we quote, the section is headed (ante-dating the use of the vital word), " Summons of representatives of the counties and boroughs ": — " The king to the sheriff of Northamptonshire. Since we intend to have a consultation and meeting with the earls, barons and other principal men of our kingdom with regard to providing remedies 1 The New English Dictionary, for its first citation of " repre- sentation " in an assembly, quotes Burke, Late St Nat., Works, ii. 138, i.e. in 1769. * No tallage or aid shall be laid or levied by us or our heirs in our realm, without the goodwill and assent of the archbishops, bishops, earls, barons, knights, burgesses and other freemen of our realm.' 1 " Venire facias," not " elegi facias." no REPRESENTATION against the dangers which are in these days threatening the same kingdom: and on that account have commanded them to be with us on the Lord's Day next after the feast of St Martin in the ap- proaching winter, at Westminster, to consider, ordain and dp as may be necessary for the avoidance of these dangers: we strictly require you to cause two knights from the aforesaid county, two citizens from each city in the same county and two burgesses from each borough, of those who are especially discreet and capable of labouring, to be elected without delay, and to cause them to come to us at the aforesaid time and place. Moreover, the said knights are to have full and sufficient power for themselves and for the com- munity of the aforesaid county, and the said citizens and burgesses for themselves and the communities of the aforesaid cities and boroughs separately, then and there, for doing what shall then be ordained according to the Common Council in the premises, so that the aforesaid business shall not remain unfinished in any way for defect of this power. And you shall have there the names of the knights, citizens and burgesses, and this writ." The words " Elegi facias," instead of " venire facias " (which were retained in 1275; see PARLIAMENT), still appear to make the parliament of 1295 the model, rather than that of 1275, though in other respects the latter appears now to have established the summoning of county and borough representatives. In this summoning by the king of the two knights and two burgesses with full and sufficient power for themselves and for Growth ^te communtiy> we find therefore the origin of political ofrepre- representation of the commons, as opposed to the seatatioa actual presence and personal attendance of the peers. '" The older English national assemblies had consisted of the privileged class fully summoned as individuals. The change involved has been well explained by E. A. Freeman (Ency. Brit., gth ed., viii. 297), when he says: " The national assemblies changed their character ... by no cause so much as by the growth of the practice of summons. ... In the great assembly at Salisbury (1086), where all the land- owners of England became the men of the king (William the Conqueror), we see the first germs of Lords and Commons. The Witan are distinguished from the ' land-sitting men.' By the Witan, so called long after the Conquest, we are doubtless to understand those great men of the realm who were usually summoned to every assembly. The vast multitude who came to do their homage to the king were summoned only for that particular occasion. The personal right of summons is the essence of the peerage. . . . The earls and bishops of England, by never losing their right to the personal summons, have kept that right to personal attendance in the national assembly which was once common to ah1 freemen, but which other free- men have lost. The House of Lords represents1 by unbroken succession the Witan of the assembly of Salisbury; that is, it represents by unbroken succession the old assemblies of the Teutonic democracy. . . . The ' land-sitting men,' on the other hand, not summoned personally or regularly, but summoned in a mass when their attendance was specially needed, gradually lost the right of personal attendance, till in the end they gained the more practical right of appearing by their representatives." From the same authority the account of the intermediate stages in the adoption of the representative principle may be further quoted: — " By the time of Henry II. the force of circumstances, especially the working of the practice of summons, had gradually changed the ancient assembly of the whole nation into a mere gathering of the great men of the realm. ... It is in the reign of Richard I. that we begin to see the first faint glimmerings of parliamentary represen- tation. . . . The object of his wise ministers, of Archbishop Hubert among the first, was to gain the greatest amount of money for their master with the least amount of oppression towards the nation. Under Hubert's administration, chosen bodies of knights or other lawful men, acting in characters which became more and more dis- tinctly representative, were summoned for every kind of purpose. How far they were nominated, how far freely elected, is not always clear. It seems most likely that in one stage they were nominated by the sheriff in the county court, while at a later stage they were chosen by the county court itself. In other words, the principle of representation was first established, and then the next stage naturally 'The inevitable use of the word " represent " in its wider sense (" corresponds to "), is worth noting in this passage from Freeman, side by side with the more technical one in " representative " (" chosen delegate "). was that the representatives should be freely chosen. Summoned bodies of knights appear in characters which are the forerunners of grand jurors and of justices of the peace. They appear also in a character which makes them distinctly forerunners of the knights of the shire which were soon to come. A chosen body of knights have to assess the imposts on each shire. From assessing the taxes the next stage was to vote or to refuse them. In 1213 the sheriffs are called on to summon four discreet men from each shire, to come and speak with the king about the affairs of the realm. When we have reached this stage, we have come very near to a parliament, name and thing. The reign of John, in short, is marked by common consent as the time from which Englishmen date the birth of their national freedom in its later form. . , The (Great) Charter (1215) is the first solemn act of the united English nation after Norman conquerors and Norman settlers had become naturalized Englishmen. . . . Representation was already fast growing up; but it had hardly yet reached such a stage that it could be ordained in legal form. But rules are laid down out of which, even if it had not begun already, representation in the strictest sense could not fail shortly to arise. The distinction which had been growing up ever since the Conquest, and indeed before, between the Witan and the land-sitting men, now receives a legal sanction. The practice of summons makes the distinction. Certain great men, prelates, earls and greater barons, are to receive the personal summons. The rest of the king's tenants-in-chief are to be summoned only in a body. Here we have almost come to a separation of Lords and Commons. But in modern ideas those names imply two distinct houses; and it was not yet settled, it had not yet come into men's minds to consider, whether the national council should consist of one house or a dozen. But it is decreed in so many words that the acts of those who came would bind those who stayed away. On such a provision, representation, and not only representation but election of the representatives, follows almost as a matter of course. The mass stay away: a few appear, specially commissioned to act in the name of the rest. The Charter mentions only the king's tenants-in-chief; so far had things been marred or feudalized by the influence of the Conquest. But as the election could only be made in the ancient county court, every freeholder at least, if not every freeman, won back his ancient right. If he could not come himself to say Yea or Nay, he at least had a voice in choosing those who could do so with greater effect." (Ibid. pp. 307, 308.) " The constitution of the (national) assembly, as defined in the Great Charter, did not absolutely imply representation ; but it showed that the full establishment of representation could not be long delayed. The work of the period 1217-1340 was to call up, alongside of the gathering of prelates, earls and other great men specially summoned, into which the ancient Witanagemot had shrunk up, another assembly directly representing all other classes of the nation which enjoyed political rights. This assembly, chosen by various local bodies, communitates or universitates, having a quasi corporate being, came gradually to bear the name of the commons. The knights of the shire, the barons, citizens and burgesses of the towns, were severally chosen by the communa or communitas of that part of the people which they represented." ! " The notion of local representation, by which shires and boroughs chose representatives of their own communities, had to some extent to strive with another doctrine, that of the representation of estates or classes of men. The I3th century was the age when the national assemblies, not only of England but of most other Euro- pean countries, were putting on their definite shape. And in most of them the system of estates prevailed. These in most countries were three, — clergy, nobles and commons. By these last were commonly meant only the communities of the chartered towns, while the noblesse of foreign countries answered to the lesser barons and knights, who in England were reckoned among the commons. The English system thus went far to take in the whole free popula- tion, while the estates of other countries, the commons no less than the clergy and nobles, must be looked on as privileged bodies. In England we had in truth no estates: we had no nobility in the foreign sense. . . . Yet the continental theory of estates so far worked in the development of our parliamentary system that the ' Three Estates of England ' became a familiar phrase. It was meant to denote the lords, the commons and the clergy in their parliamentary character. For it is plain that it was the intention of Edward I. to organize the clergy as a parliamentary estate, alongside of the lords and commons. This scheme failed, mainly through the unwillingness of the clergy themselves to attend in a secular assembly. This left, so far as there were any estates at all, two estates only, — lords and commons. This led to the common 2 Professor Maste/man, lecturing (1908) on the House of Commons, has pointed out how fortunate it was that this beginning of the organization of the communes into a central body did not come earlier than it did. Had there been one assembly representing the local communitates at any earlier time it would have been far too sectional in character and far too little conscious of any common interest. The organization did not begin till England had become a self-conscious body, realizing its common interests and the common destiny that belonged to it as a nation. REPRESENTATION in mistake of fancying the three estates to be king, lords and commons. The ecclesiastical members of the House of Lords kept their seats there; but the parliamentary representation of the clergy as an estate came to nothing. So far as the clergy kept any parliamentary powers, they exercised them in the two provincial convocations. These anomalous assemblies, fluctuating between the character of an ecclesiastical synod and of a parliamentary estate, kept, from Edward I. to Charles II., the parliamentary power of self-taxation. For a long time lords and commons taxed themselves separately. So did the clergy ; so sometimes did other bodies. . . . " During the reign of Henry III. assemblies were constantly held, and their constitution is often vaguely described. But in a great many cases phrases are used which, however vague, imply a popular element. We read of knights, of tenants in chief, of freemen, sometimes even of freemen and villeins, sometimes, more vaguely still, of ' univcrsi,' ' universitas Angliae,' and the like. In some cases we are able better to interpret these vague phrases. For instance, in 1224 each shire sends four knights chosen by the 4 milites et probi homines.' Whether these knights were or were not to vote along with the magnates, they were at all events to transact business with them. We must always remember that in these times formal voting in the modern sense is not to be looked for." l (Ibid. pp. 314, 315.) This summary shows clearly how the idea of " representa- tion " as opposed to " presence in person " was applied to the The English parliament, so as to give the commons a Theory of proper voice in it as well as the lords. It is unnecessary Repre- here to trace further the gradual increase in power of seatation. ^e House of Commons till it became the predominant partner in the English bicameral constitution (see PARLIAMENT). But from the point of view of historical theory it is important to note that its representative character does not essentially depend upon the particular method (election by vole) by which its members have for so long been chosen. It is a common error to regard the House of Commons as having a national authority higher than that of the House of Lords merely on the ground that it is composed of elected members, and to stigmatize the House of Lords as "unrepresentative" because it is not elected. But in strictness the question of election, as such, has nothing to do with the matter.2 The proper distinction (ignoring for the moment the later inclusion in the House of Lords of a certain representative element — strictly so regarded — in the Scotch and Irish peers) is that the House of Lords, as still constituted in 1910, remained a presentative chamber, while the House of Commons was essentially a representative one; in the former the members, summoned personally as individuals, were entitled to speak in the great council of the nation, while in the latter the members were returned as the mouthpieces of whole communi- tates, to whom, in the person of the sheriffs, the summons had been directed to send persons to speak for them.3 The pre- ponderant authority of the House of Commons is due not to its members being elected — that is only one way of settling who the mouthpieces of the commons shall be — but to the progress of 1 " Election " in these early times has its simple meaning of " choice." " We must guard ourselves from supposing that the citizens and burgesses, who were summoned to Parliament, were absolutely elected by the inhabitants of the towns as their repre- sentatives. Their presence in Parliament is another instance of representation without election. They were often nominated by the sheriff of the county, and even when that great officer, from negli- gence or favour, permitted the return to be made by those interested in the transaction, the nomination was confined to the small govern- ing body, who returned two of their members, in general very un- willing missionaries, to the great council " (Disraeli, Vindication of the British Constitution, 1835). 2 In the American federal system the bicameral legislature is divided into a " House of Representatives," composed of members elected by popular vote in each state, and a " Senate," composed of members elected by the legislature in each state. In spite of the nomenclature, both houses are really composed of " representatives." But under a republican system there is no room for a purely pre- sentative assembly, and the term " representative " comes to imply a more direct choice by the " commons." 3 There was at one time, it may be noted, a sort of " representative " element even in the case of the House of Lords, in so far as peers (including peeresses in their own right, abbesses, &c.) could send deputies or proxies. But it must be remembered that the privilege flowed directly from the personal and presentative character of the summons to a peer, who as such could name a deputy. It is quite illegitimate to strain from it an analogy with the election of a repre- sentative by the commons, who had no personal right to a summons. popular government. The two British houses have historically existed as assemblies of the separate estates of the realm— the House of Lords of the two estates of lords spiritual and temporal, and the House of Commons of the commons. The third estate has so increased in power as to become predominant in the country; but the authority of its own assembly simply depends on the powers of those it represents. If the balance of political power had not been shifted in the country itself, the authority and competence of the peers, speaking for themselves in a primary assembly, would in theory actually appear higher, so far as their order is concerned, than that of members of the House of Commons, who can only " represent " the popular constituencies. Moreover, the fact that most members of the House of Commons are elected by a party vote is apt to make them very often even less authoritative spokesmen of their constituencies — the communitates — than if they were selected by some method which would indicate that they had the full confidence of the whole body they " represent." It is notorious that many members of a modern House of Commons, or of any other " representative " assembly, have only been elected by the votes of a minority of their constituency, or (where there have been more than two candidates) a minority even of those who voted; and there always comes a time when it is certain that if a representative has to come again before the electorate for their votes he will be defeated; he, in fact, no longer reflects their views, while he still sits and legislates. The real desires of the commons in a certain British constituency may even be more faithfully, even if only accidentally, reflected by a local peer whose only right to speak in parliament is technically presentative. In his Vindication of the British Constitution (1835), Disraeli, writing of the Reform Bill of 1832, observed that " in the effort to get rid of representation without election, it will be well if eventually we do not discover that we have only obtained election without representation." A truer word was never spoken. A man may be representative, practically consensu omnium, although no vote, resulting from a division of opinion, has been taken for the purpose of selecting him. The vote is merely a method of selection when there is a definite division of opinion involving an uncertainty; and even in the modern House of Commons many members are returned " un- opposed," no actual voting taking place. A well-recognized representative character (as regards the functions involved) attaches, for instance, in British public life to other persons in whose selection the method of popular voting has had no place; such as the king himself, the Cabinet (in relation to the political party in power), or the bishops (as regards the Church of England). The question of remodelling the constitution of the British House of Lords was prominently before the country in 1910 ; and a large number even of those who were prepared to Thf defend its actions in the past were ready to accept British changes which would make it in form and composi- Houses tion a Second Chamber representative of the nation ofPariia- rather than presentative of its historic order. But it is important to remember, in connexion with the House of Lords question, that, in a country like England, where the con- stitution has provided for a Second Chamber which is composed of members of an estate or estates distinct in the nation from the estate of the commons, these persons may to a predominant degree nevertheless be really representative men by common consent; while their being so, though not theoretically the reason for their legislative power, is substantially the reason why it has so long persisted. In the absence of a written constitution, theoretical considerations have in England always been second to the force of circumstances. Most people regarded the House of Lords, as still unreformed in 1910, as purely a hereditary body; its members had been summoned to parliament as peers (the important question of their right to a summons need not here be discussed), and most peers enjoyed their titles by hereditary succession. But the constant creation of peers by both political parties had in fact introduced even into the constitution of the House of Lords 112 REPRESENTATION an essentially representative element (though not resulting from direct election), apart altogether from the fact that heredity maintained there a number of persons whose title had des- cended from men who were originally representative Englishmen, and whose successors, on the whole, were no less so. In the days when kings really governed in England, the most powerful check on the king, in the interest of the nation at large, was the peerage; the earls and barons, in parliament, were the chief bulwark of the people against tyranny. It was they who stood for the nation in extorting Magna Carta from King John; and as time went on, the representation of the commons in parliament was largely due, not to any direct popular pressure, but to the desire of the kings to influence the lower ranks of society independently of the nobles. Up to the reign of Charles I., at all events, the House of Lords was actually the predominant partner in parliament; the House of Commons was recruited from and returned by only a smaE section of the commons as now understood; and Oliver Cromwell — certainly a " popular " leader in the ordinary sense — made as short work of it as he did of the king himself. Up to 1832, when the first modern Reform Act was passed, the House of Commons was an oli- garchical body, and the electors themselves were a small and privileged class. It is only since then — except in the granting of supplies — that first equality, and then predominance, in respect of the House of Lords, has been asserted by the House of Commons, owing to the fact that an extended suffrage has made the estate of the commons more adequately coincident with the nation as a whole. Prior to 1832 it was the king who directly made and unmade ministries; in 1835 for the first time the result of a general election caused a change of ministry; and the modern view of the House of Lords as purely a revising chamber dates only from then. But the very fact that the responsibility for creating new peerages now passed to ministers dependent on popular suffrage may well justify the contention that hence- forth it indirectly included a select number of representative men of the nation, holding their seats in virtue of authoritative nomination and not by heredity. In the sixty years preceding 1906 no fewer than 419 new peerages were created, 238 by the Liberal party, 1 8 1 by the Conservative, or a balance of 5 7 creations on the Liberal side.1 It is fair to assume that all these new peers were created as being representative men in the nation for one reason or another. And an analysis of the composition of the House of Lords in 1906 would have led an unprejudiced outside observer to suppose that its competence to speak on national affairs had not been ' weakened by any dependence on the hereditary title. It included 166 men who had been M.P.'s (i.e. had been elected by popular vote to the House of Commons) , 172 who had held government office, 140 who had been mayors of county councils, 207 who had served in the army or navy, 40 who had been judges or lawyers, 7 ex- viceroys, 16 ex- governors of colonies, 50 who had been eminent in art, letters, manufactures or trade, and 21 archbishops or bishops (appointed by ministerial recommendation, but only after they had worked up to eminence from being curates, and therefore had wide experience of the social life of the people). It is possible to compare a chamber so composed some- what favourably with a modern House of Commons, if the point at issue — the provision of " representative men " (i.e. men generally accepted as national spokesmen) — be strictly considered, apart from the method of selecting them by direct popular vote.2 In the House of Lords the method is heredity plus selection by the political party which the popular vote has put in power; while in the election of members of the House ' l Between January 1906 and January 1910 thirty-five more new peers were created by Liberal premiers, and seven more in June 1910. 'Speaking at Oldham on December 15, 1909, Lord Curzon said: I have taken out the figures of the past 200 years, and I tell you this, that during that time 41 of our prime ministers have sat in the Lords and only 17 in the Commons; of our foreign secretaries, 56 in the Lords and only 8 in the Commons; of our colonial secretaries, 46 in the Lords and 25 in the Commons; of our war ministers, 29 in the Lords and 31 in the Commons; of first lords of the Admiralty, 48 in the Lords and_28 in the Commons." of Commons the popular choice is doubly limited — first, by the fact that only the enfranchised commons can vote (in 1910 about 7^ millions out of 43); and secondly, because the choice must be made from among candidates who are themselves not disqualified for various reasons (for instance they must not be clergymen, nor entitled to seats in the House of Lords). Now, to carry out the real " will of the nation " in parliament must require (i) a reasonable knowledge of the wishes of the nation, and (2) an understanding of the best ways of expressing those wishes in legislation and adminis- tration. In the case of the peers, those who sit as having been originally created and therefore selected for the purpose — a considerable section of those actively attending — the quali- fications are obvious: and it is only necessary to deal with those qualified by inheritance of title. Here too, in a number of cases, preceding experience in the House of Commons, to which the popular vote has returned them while they were only in the succession to a peerage, is a frequent factor; but, apart from that, the art of legislation is one which may well be con- sidered to require a certain special disposition and mental equipment. Though allowance must be made for exceptional cases, it is obvious that the son of a man who has been respon- sible for legislating, who has himself been brought up as one who will have to take his part in legislating, is most likely, .hi any society, to have qualified himself for the business, as in the case of any profession or trade. He has been accustomed to breathe the parliamentary atmosphere, and as one of a leisured class has had the opportunity to study the subject of legislation, and to obtain experience of its conditions. This is so generally accepted that, hi fact, the same theory is com- monly applied to candidates for the House of Commons, and predominantly to members of that House who are given office. The names of more than one generation are writ large in English history in the case of the Pitts, Foxes, Grenvilles, Cannings, Cecils, Stanleys and Cavendishes. The sons of famous political commoners, a Gladstone, a Harcourt, a Churchill, a Primrose, a Chamberlain, have by consent a superior claim, even within the radical or popular party, by no means resting originally- or primarily on known personal merit or proved experience, for selection as candidates and then for preferment to office; and it is a very common occurrence for younger sons of peers to be selected as candidates (liberal as much as conservative) for parliament, even though from general intellectual considera- tions they may appear in no way the equals of other men. They have been brought up to the business; and they are therefore adapted for it by heredity. If the House of Commons were deprived of those members who obtained their seats or their offices primarily for reasons of heredity, it would lose many of its best men — as indeed it occasionally does, to its disadvantage and possibly to the chagrin of the individuals themselves, when succession to a peerage forces a prominent parliamentarian to relinquish his seat in the Lower House and to take his place in the " unrepresentative " chamber. It remains nevertheless the fact that, in politics, " repre- sentative " government means not so much government by men really representative of the nation as government in Expres. the name of the whole body of citizens (and predomi- s/oa of nantly the estate of the commons) through a chamber the " will or chambers composed of elected deputies. The £^*£ „ object in view is the expression of the " will of the people " — the people, that is, who are sovereign. Clearly the only pure case of such government can be in a republic, where there is only one " estate," the free citizens. The home and historical type of representative government, the United Kingdom, is strictly no such case, since the monarchy and the House of Lords exist and work on lines constitutionally independent of any direct contact with the electorate. British practice, however, is of vital importance for the theory of repre- sentative institutions, and it is worth while to point out that the " will of the people " may even so be effectively expressed — some people may think even more effectively expressed than in a pure republic. The king and the House of Lords, quA REPRESENTATION estates of the realm, are just as much part of " the people," in the widest sense, as " the commons " are; they are an integral part of the nation. In a republic they would as individuals be equal citizens, able to become candidates for the representative chamber or chambers; but as it is, since they are expressly debarred from taking part in elections to the House of Commons, they remain entitled and expected to use their historic method of playing a part in the government of the state. They assist to constitute " the people " in the wider sense, and in the narrower sense " the people " (i.e. the commons) know it and rely on it. • Under the British constitution the commons have habitually relied on the monarchy and the House of Lords to play their part in the state, and on many occasions it has been proved, by various methods by which it is open to the commons themselves to show their real feeling, that action on the part of the monarch (e.g. in foreign affairs) or the House of Lords (in rejecting or modifying bills sent up by the House of Commons), in which a popular vote has played no initiating or controlling part, is welcomed and ratified, by consent of a large majority, on the part of the nation at large. So much is this so that it is notorious, in the case of the House of Lords, that elected members of the House of Commons, tied by purely party allegiance and pledges, have constantly voted for a measure they did not want to see passed, relying on the House of Lords to throw it out. Ultimately, no doubt, the reconciliation of this " presentative " element in the British form of constitution with the -growth of democracy and the predominance of the " representative " system depends purely on the waiving of historical theory both by king and peers, and its adaptation to the fact of popular government through the recognition that their action rests for its efficient authority upon conformity with the " will of the people." Thus it has become an established maxim in England that while it is the proper function of the House of Lords to reject a measure which in their opinion is not in accordance with the wishes of the nation, they could not repeat such a rejection after a general election had shown that its authors in the House of Commons were supported by the country. The experience of politics from 183210 1910 gave abundant justification to the House of Lords for supposing that in such cases they were interpreting the desire of the country better than the House of Commons; the case of the Irish Home Rule bill of 1893 is, of course, the classical example.1 So that in practice the House of Lords only acts in opposition to the House of Commons, subject to the remedy of a dissolution of parliament (which depends strictly on the prerogative of the Crown, but in practice on the advice of the leader of the majority in the House of Commons) , at which the view of the House of Commons might be confirmed and reasserted, and in that case would prevail. The violent attacks made on the House of Lords by the Liberal party, on occasions when that party has had a majority in the commons and has had its measures rejected or distastefully amended, have always been open to the criticism that if the majority in the House of Commons were really supported by the electorate in the country they had the remedy in their own hands. If it were shown by the result of a general election that their defeated measure were the " will of the people," the House of Lords, as was generally understood, must give way. Such a position, though naturally objectionable to a party in power in the House of Commons (because general elections are uncertain things in every respect but that of trouble and expense), could clearly be strong only in view of the confidence of the House of Lords in its action being more truly representative of public opinion. It therefore must be said to have acted, however clumsily and indirectly — and no direct way would be feasible except that of the Referendum — as a " representative " body, i.e. as carrying out what it judged to be the national will and not merely the will of the peers, although not constituted as 1 The result of the general election of January 1910, following on the rejection of the Budget by the House of Lords, cannot properly be said to show anything to the contrary. It was notorious that there was no genuine majority in the new House of Commons for the Budget, and that the Irish Nationalists only voted for it as part of an arrangement for ulterior purposes. such in the narrower sense. In practice, and in accordance with this view, it has on more than one occasion (e.g. in the case of the Trades Disputes Act of 1906) accepted and passed measures which it was notorious, and indeed avowed, that the peers themselves regarded as bad. The immense extension of the " representative principle " in government, by means of popular election, and its adaptation to municipal as well as national councils, has in recent times resulted in attracting much attention to the ^/ multicellular plant the products of division remain coherent, and add to the number of the cells of which the plant consists, in a unicellular plant they separate and constitute new individuals. In more highly organized plants vegetative propagation may be effected by the separation of the different parts of the body from each other, each such part developing the missing members and thus constituting a new individual. This takes place spontaneously in rhizomatous plants, in which the main stem gradually dies away from behind forwards; the lateral branches thus become isolated and constitute new individuals. The remarkable regenerative capacity of plant-members is largely made use of for the artificial propagation of plants. A branch removed from a parent-plant will, under appropriate conditions, develop roots, and so constitute a new plant; this is the theory of propagation by " cuttings." A portion of a root will similarly develop one or more shoots, and thus give rise to a new plant. An isolated leaf will, in many cases, produce a shoot and a root, that is, a new plant; it is in this way that new begonias, for instance, are propagated. The production of plants from leaves occurs also in nature, as, for instance, in certain so-called " viviparous " plants, of which Bryophyllum calycinum (Crassulaceae) and many ferns [Nephrodium (Laslraea) Filix-mas, Asplenium (Athyrium) Filix-foemina and other species of Asplenium] are examples. But it is in the mosses, Of all plants, that the capacity for vegetative propagation is most widely diffused. Any part of a moss, whether it be the stem, the leaves, the rhizoids, or the sporogonium, is capable, under appropriate conditions, of giving rise to filamentous protonema, on which new moss-plants are then developed as lateral buds. In a large number of plants provision is made for vegetative propagation by the development of more or less highly specialized organs. In lichens, for instance, there are the soredia, which are minute buds of the thallus containing both algal and fungal elements; these are set free on the surface in large numbers, and each grows into a thallus. In the Characeae there are the bulbils or " starch-stars " of Char a stelligera, which are under- ground nodes, and the branches with naked base and the pro- embryonic branches found by Pringsheim on old nodes of Chara fragilis. In the mosses small tuberous bulbils frequently occur •on the rhizoids, and in many instances (Bryum annotinum, Aulacomnion androgynum, Tetraphis pellucida, &c.) stalked fusiform or lenticular multicellular bodies containing chlorophyll, termed gemmae, are produced on the shoots, either in the axils of the leaves or in special receptacles at the summit of the stem. "Gemmae of this kind are produced in vast numbers in Marchantia and Lumdaria among the liverworts. Similar gemmae are also produced by the prothallia of ferns. In some ferns (e.g. Nephro- lepis tuberosa and undulata) the buds borne on the leaves or in their axils become swollen and filled with nutritive materials, constituting bulbils which fall off and give rise to new plants. This conversion of buds into bulbils, which subserve vegetative multiplication, occurs also occasionally among Phanerogams, as for instance in Lilium bulbiferum, species of Poa, Polygonum viviparum, &c. But many other adaptations of the same kind occur among Phanerogams. Bulbous plants, for instance, produce each year at least one bulb or corm from which a new plant is produced in the succeeding year. In the potato, tubers are developed from subterranean snoots, each of which in the following year gives rise to a new individual. In the dahlia, Thladiantha dubia, &c., tuberous swellings are found on the roots, from each of which a new individual may spring. II. True Reproduction. This is effected by cells formed by the proper reproductive organs. These cells are of two principal kinds. There are, first, those cells each of which is capable of developing by itself into a new organism: these are the asexual reproductive cells, known generally as spores. Secondly, there are the cells which are incapable of independent germination; it is not until these cells have fused together in pairs that a new organism can be developed: these are the sexual reproductive cells or gametes. In some exceptional cases the normal mode of reproduction, sexual or asexual, does not take place: instead, the new organism is developed vegetatively from the parent. When sexual reproduction is suppressed the case is one of apogamy; when asexual reproduction by spores is suppressed the case is one of apospory. (Apogamy and apospory are discussed below in the section on Abnormalities of Reproduction.) Asexual Reproduction. — Reproduction by means of some kind of spore (using the term in its widest sense, so as to include all asexually produced reproductive cells) is common to nearly all families of plants; it is wanting in certain Algae (Conjugatae, Fucaceae, Characeae), and in certain fungi (e.g. some Perono- sporeae). The structure of a spore is essentially this: it consists of a nucleated mass of protoplasm, enclosing, starch or oil as re- serve nutritive material, usually invested by a cell-wall. In those cases in which the spore is capable of germinating immediately on its development the cell-wall is a single delicate membrane consisting of cellulose; but in those cases in which the spore may or must pass through a period of quiescence before germina- tion the wall becomes thickened and may consist of two layers, an inner, the endospore, which is delicate and consists of cellulose, and an outer, the exospore, which is thick and rigid, frequently darkly coloured and beset externally with spines or bosses, and which consists of cutin. In some few cases among the fungi, multicellular or septate spores are produced; these approximate somewhat to the gemmae mentioned above as highly specialized organs for vegetative propagation. In some cases, particularly among the algae, and also in some fungi (Peronosporeae, Saprolegnieae, Chytridiaceae, and the Myxomycetes), spores are produced which are usually destitute of any cell-wall, and are further peculiar in that they are motile, and are therefore termed zoospores; they move sometimes in an amoeboid manner by the protrusion of pseudopodia, but more frequently they are provided with one, two, or many delicate vibratile protoplasmic filaments, termed cilia, by the lashing of which the spore is propelled through the water. The zoospore eventually comes to rest, withdraws its cilia, surrounds itself with a cell-wall, and then germinates. In the simplest case a single spore is developed from the cell of the unicellular plant, the protoplasm of which surrounds itself with the characteristic thick wall. This occurs only in plants of low organization such as the Schizophyta. In other cases the contents of the cell undergo division, each portion of the protoplasm constituting a spore. Examples of this are afforded, among unicellular plants, by yeast and the Protococcaceae; and in multicellular plants by the Pandorineae, Confervaceae, Ulvaceae, &c., where any cell of the body may produce spores. In such cases the spore-producing cell may be regarded as a rudimentary reproductive organ of the nature of a sporangium. In more highly organized plants special organs are differentiated for the production of spores. In the majority of cases the special organ is a sporangium, that is, a capsule in the interior of which the spores are developed; but in many fungi the spores are formed by abstriction from an organ termed a sporophore. In the Thallophyta the sporangium is commonly a single cell. In the Bryophyta it is a multicellular capsule. In the Pteridophyta the sporangium is mullicellular, but simple in structure, and this is true also of the Phanerogams. 122 REPRODUCTION [PLANTS It is important to note that in all the Bryophyta and in some of the Pteridophyta (most of the Filicinae, all existing Equisetinae, and the Lycopodiaceae and Psilotaceae) there is but one kind of sporangium and spore, the plants being homo- sporous or isosporous, whereas the rest of the Pteridophyta (Hydropterideae, Selaginellaceae) and the Phanerogams are heterosporous, having sporangia of two kinds; some produce one or a few large spores (megaspores), and are hence termed mega- sporangia, while others give rise to a larger number of small spores (microspores) and are hence termed microsporangia. In the Phanerogams the two kinds of sporangia have received special names: the megasporangium, which produces as a rule only one mature spore (embryo-sac), is termed the ovule; the microsporangium, which produces a large number of micro- spores (pollen-grains), is termed the pollen-sac. The development of spores, except in the simpler Thallophyta, is more or less restricted to definite parts of the body. Thus in the Red Algae (Florideae) there are the organs known as stichidia, nemathecia. In the fungi the number and variety of such organs is very great; they may be described generally as simple and compound sporophorcs: but for a description the article FUNGI should be consulted. In the higher plants the organs are less various. In the Bryophyta the production of spores is restricted to the sporogonium. In the vascular plants (Pteridophyta, Phanerogams) the development of sporangia, speaking generally, is confined to the leaves. In most ferns the sporangiferous leaves (sporophylls) do not differ in appearance from the foliage leaves; but in other Pteridophyta (Equisetaceae, Marsiliaceae, some species of Lycopodium and Selaginella) they present considerable adaptation, and notably in the Phanero- gams. In the Phanerogams the specialization is so great that the sporophylls have received special names; those which bear the microsporangia (pollen-sacs) are termed the stamens, and those which bear the megasporangia (ovules) are termed the carpels. The sporophylls are usually aggregated together on a short stem, forming a shoot that constitutes a flower. Many terms are employed to indicate the nature of the various kinds of spores, especially among the fungi, but the endless varieties of asexual (and asexually produced) reproductive cells may be grouped under two heads — (i) Gonidia, (2) Spores proper. The distinction between these two kinds of asexual repro- ductive cells is as fellows. The gonidium is a reproductive cell that gives rise, on germina- tion, to an organism resembling the parent. For instance, among the algae, the " zoospore " of Vaucheria develops into a Vaucheria-plant. There is thus a close connexion between vegetative multiplication and multiplication by means of gonida. The production of gonida is entirely limited to the Thallophyta, and is especially marked in the fungi, though the nature of all the many kinds of reproductive cells formed in this group has not yet been fully investigated. It is, however, wanting in certain algae (Conjugatae, Fucaceae, Characeae) and fungi (some Peronosporeae and Ascomycetes). The spore proper is a reproductive cell that as a rule gives rise, on germination, to an organism unlike that which produced it. For instance, the spore of a fern when it germinates gives rise, not to a fern-plant, but to a prothallium. The apparent exceptions to this rule occur only among the Thallophyta, and are explained below in the section on Life-history. The true spore is developed, usually in a sporangium, after a process of division which presents certain features that call for special notice. Observation of the process of division of the nucleus (karyo- kinesis) in plants generally has shown (for details see CYTOLOGY) that the linin-reticulum of the resting nucleus breaks up into a definite number of segments, the chromosomes, each of which bears a series of minute bodies, the chromalin-disks or chroma- meres, consisting largely of a substance termed chromatin. In the ordinary homotype divisions of the nuclei the characteristic number of chromosomes is always observable: but when the spore-mother-cells are being formed the number of chromosomes is reduced to one-half. This, if the number of chromosomes of the parent plant be expressed as 2X the number in the spore will be x. To take a concrete case: it has been observed by Guignard and others that in the early divisions taking place in the developing anther and ovule of the lily the number of chromosomes is 24; whereas in the later divisions which give rise to the pollen-mother-cells in the one case and to the mother- cell of the embryo-sac in the other, the number of chromosomes is only 12. Thus the development of a spore (as distinguished from a gonidium) is always preceded by a reducing- or heterotype- division, a process now more generally termed meiosis (Farmer). The reduced number of chromosomes in the nucleus of the spore-mother-cell persists in the spore, and in all the cells of the organism to which the spore may give rise. (Meiosis is discussed below in the section on Sexual Reproduction.) It should be explained that cells, to which the name " spore " has also been applied, are formed as the result of a sexual act: such are zygospores, oospores, and some carpospores. But these cells differ from spores proper not only in their mode of origin but also in that their nuclei contain the full double number (2*) of chromosomes; hence they may be distinguished as diplospores. Sexual Reproduction. — Sexual reproduction involves the development of sexual organs (gametangia) and sexual cells (gametes). When the organism is unicellular, as in the lower Green Algae (e.g. Protococcaceae, Conjugatae), the cell becomes a sexual organ and its whole protoplasm gives rise to one or more sexual cells: in the higher forms certain parts of the body are specialized as sexual organs. In many of the lower plants the organs present no external distinction of sex (e.g. lower Green Algae: the Chytridiaceae, Mucorinae, and some Ascomycetes among the fungi): it is impossible to distinguish between the male and female organs, although it cannot be doubted that the essential physiological difference exists; consequently the organs are merely described as gametangia. The gap between these plants and those with differentiated sexual organs is, however, bridged over by intermediate forms, as explained in the article ALGAE. When the sexual organs are more or less obviously differ- entiated into male and female, they present considerable variety of form in different groups of plants, and accordingly bear different names. Thus the male organ is a pollinodium in most of the fungi, a spermogonium in others (certain Ascomycetes, Uredineae) ; in all other plants it is an antheridium. Similarly the female organ is an oogonium in various Thallophyta (Green and Brown Algae: Oomycetous Fungi); a procarp in the Red Algae; an archicarp in certain Ascomycetous Fungi and in the Uredineae; an archegonium in all the higher plants. It is generally the case that the protoplasm of the sexual organ is differentiated into one or more sexual cells. Thus the game- tangium usually gives rise to cells which, as they are externally similar, are termed isogametes or simply gametes. Certain forms of the male organ, the spermogonium and the antheridium, give rise to male cells which are termed spermatia when they are non- ciliate, spermatozoids when they are ciliated and free-swimming. Again, the female organs termed oogonia and archegonia produce one or more female cells called oospheres. But there are im- portant exceptions to this rule. Thus the protoplasm is not differentiated into cells in the gametangium of the Mucorinae; in the male organ (pollinodium), of fungi generally; and in the female organ (procarp) of the Red Algae and (archicarp) of the Ascomycetes and Uredineae. The immediate product of the fusion of cells, or of undifferenti- ated protoplasm, derived from sexual organs of opposite sex may be generally termed the zygote; but it is not always of the same kind. Thus when two isogametes, or the undifferentiated contents of two gametangia, fuse together, the process is desig- nated conjugation, and the product is usually a single cell termed zygospore. When an oosphere fuses with a male cell, or with the undifferentiated contents of a male organ, the process is fertilization, and the product is a single cell termed oospore. When, finally, a female organ with undifferentiated contents receives a male cell, the process again is fertilization; here the PLANTS] REPRODUCTION 123 product is not a single cell, but a fructification termed cystocarp (Red Algae), or ascocarp (Ascomycetes) or aecidium (Uredineae), containing many spores (carpospores). As a consequence of the diversity in the sexual organs and cells, in the details of the sexual act, and in the product of it, several modes of the sexual process have to be distinguished, which may be conveniently summarized as follows: — I. Isogamy: the sexual process consists in the fusion of either two similar sexual cells (isogametes) , or two similar sexual organs (gametangia) : it is termed conjugation, and the product is a zygospore. Its varieties are: — (a) Gametes ciliated and free-swimming (planogametes), set free into the water where they meet and fuse: lower Green Algae (Protococcaceae, Pandorineae, most Siphonaceae and Confervaceae) ; some Brown Algae (Phaeo- sporeae) : (b) Gametangia fuse in pairs, and a gamete is differentiated in each: the gametes of each pair fuse, but are not set free and are not ciliated (the Conjugate Green Algae) : or, no gametes are differentiated, the undifferentiated con- tents of the gametangia fusing (Mucorinae among the Fungi). II. Ooeamy: male and female organs distinct: the protoplasm of the female organ is differentiated into one or (rarely) more oospheres which usually remain enclosed in the female organ: the contents of the male organ are usually differentiated into one or more male cells: the process is fertilization, the product is an oospore. (A) The sexual organs arc unicellular (or coenocytic as in certain Siphonaceous Green Algae and in the Oomycetous Fungi) ; the female organ is an oogonium. (a) The male organ is an antheridium giving rise to one or more free-swimming ciliated spermatozoids : (1) The oogonium contains a single oosphere which is fertilized in situ: higher Green Algae (Volvox, Vaucheria, Oedogonium, Coleochaete, Characeae) ; some Brown Algae (Tilopteris); among the Fungi, Monoblepharis, the only fungus known to have spermatozoids : (2) The oogonium produces a single oosphere which is extruded and is fertilized in the water : Dictyota and some Fucaceae (Brown Algae) : (3) The oogonium contains several oospheres which are fertilized in situ : Sphaeroplea (Siphonaceous Green Alga) : (4) The oogonium produces more than one oosphere (2-8) which are extruded and are fertilized in the water: certain Brown Algae (Pelvetia, Ascophyllum, Fucus): (0) The male organ is a pollinodium which applies itself closely to the oogonium: the amorphous male cell is not ciliated and is not set free: (1) The oogonium contains a single oosphere which is fertilized in situ : Peronosporaceae (Oomycetes) : (2) The oogonium contains several oospheres; Saprolegnia- ceae: but it is debated whether or not fertilization actually takes place. (B) The male and female organs are (as a rule) multicellular; the male organ is an antheridium, the female an archegonium: the archegonium always contains a single oosphere which is fertilized in situ. (a) The male cell is a free-swimming ciliated spermatozoid : the antheridium produces more than one (usually very many) spermatozoids, each of which is developed in a single cell: all Bryophyta (mosses, &c.) and Pterido- phyta (ferns, &c.): the only Phanerogams in which spermatozoids have been observed are the gymno- spermpus species Ginkgo biloba, Cycas revoluta, Zamia integrifolia. 03) The male cell is amorphous and passes directly from the pollen-tube into the oosphere (siphonogamy) : all Phanero- gams except the species just mentioned. It must be explained that in the angiospermous Phanerogams, the male and female organs are so reduced that each is represented by only a single cell: the male, by the generative cell, formed in the pollen-grain, which usually divides into two male cells: the female, by the oosphere. The gradual reduction can be traced through the Gymnosperms. Attention may here be drawn to the fact (see ANGIOSPERMS) that, in several cases, the second male cell has been seen to enter the embryo-sac from the pollen-tube, and its nucleus to fuse with the definitive nucleus (endosperm-nucleus) or with one of the polar nuclei. The significance of this remarkable observation is dis- cussed in the section on the Physiology of Reproduction. III. Carpogamy: the sexual organs are (as a rule) differentiated into male and female: the protoplasm of the unicellular or multi- cellular female organ (archicarp, procarp) is never differentiated into an oosphere: in many cases definite male cells, spermatia, are produced and are set free, but they are not ciliated, and fre- quently have a cell-wall : the process is fertilization : the product is a fructification derived essentially from the female organ con- taining several (sometimes very many) spores (carpospores): characteristic of the Red Algae and of the Ascomycetous Fungi. (A) There are definite male cells (spermatia) : (a) The female organ is a procarp, consisting of an elongated, closed, receptive filament, the trichogyne, and of a basal fertile portion, the carpogonium: on fertilization the latter grows and gives rise directly or indirectly to a cysto- carp: the spermatia are each formed in a unicellular antheridium and have no cell-wall at first : they fuse with the tip of the trichogyne : Red Algae (Rhodopnyceac or Florideae) : 03) The female organ (archicarp) resembles the preceding : in fertilization the fertile portion (ascogonium) develops into an ascocarp containing one or more asci (sporangia) each containing usually eight ascospores: the spermatia are formed by abstriction from the filaments (sterigmata) lining special receptacles, the spermogonia, which are the male organs: certain Ascomycetous Fungi (e.g. Laboul- beniaceae, some Lichen-Fungi, Polystigma). For the Uredineae, see Abnormalities of Reproduction, below). (B) There are no definite male cells: the more or less distinct male and female organs come into contact, and their undiffer- entiated contents fuse: the product is an ascocarp: (a) The male and female organs are obviously different : the female organ is an ascogonium, the male a pollinodium: e.g. Pyronema, Sphaerotheca (Ascomycetes) : 03) The male and female organs are quite similar : e.g. Eremas- cus, Dipodascus (Ascomycetes). It may be explained that carpogamy is the expression of sexual degeneration. In the cases last mentioned, when the sexual organs are quite similar, they have reverted to the condition of gametangia. Still further reduction is observable in other Ascomycetes in which one of the sexual organs, presumably the male, is either much reduced or is altogether wanting. Again in the 'rusts (Uredineae), there are spermatia, but they are functionless (see section on Abnormalities of Reproduction). In the highest Fungi, the Auto- basidiomycetes, no sexual organs have been discovered. Details of the Sexual Act. — It has been already stated that the sexual act consists in the fusion of two masses of protoplasm, commonly cells, derived from two organs of opposite sex:" but this is only the first stage in the process. The second stage is the fusion of the nuclei, which usually follows quickly upon the fusion of the cells; but nuclear fusion may be postponed so that the two sexual nuclei may be observed in the zygote, as " conjugate " nuclei, and even in the cells of the organism developed from the zygote (e.g. Uredineae). The result of nuclear fusion is that the nucleus of the zygote contains the double number of chromo- somes— that is, if the number of chromosomes in each of the fusing sexual nuclei be x, the number in the nucleus of the zygote will be 2X. Moreover, this double number persists in all the cells of the organism developed from the zygote, until it is reduced to one-half by meiosis preceding either the development of the spores, or, less commonly, the development of the sexual cells. But there is yet a third stage, which consists in the temporary fusion of the chromosomes belonging to the two sexual nuclei. This always takes place as a preliminary to meiosis; it may be in the germinating zygote, or after many generations of cells have been formed from it. At the onset of meiosis the (2*) chromosomes are seen to be double, one of each pair having been derived from the male and the female cell respectively: the chromosomes of each pair then fuse so that their chromomeres unite along their length, constituting the pseudo-chromosomes. The paired chromosomes separate and eventually go to form the two daughter-nuclei, one to each, which thus have half (x) the original number of chromosomes. The daughter-nuclei at once divide homotypically, retaining the reduced (x) number of chromosomes to form the four nuclei of a tetrad of spores (more rarely, e.g. Fucus, of sexual cells). III. Life-history. It will have been gathered from the foregoing sections that plants generally are capable of both sexual and asexual repro- duction; and, further, that in different stages of their life-history they possess the diploid (2*) number of chromosomes in their nuclei, or the haploid (x) number. It may be at once stated that, in all plants in which sexual reproduction and true meiotic spore-formation exist, these two modes of reproduction are restricted to distinct forms of the plant; the sexual form bears only the sexual organs and is haploid; the asexual form only 124 REPRODUCTION [PLANTS produces spores and is diploid. Hence all such plants are to this extent polymorphic — that is, the plant assumes these two forms in the course of its life-history. When, as in many Thallophyta, one or other of these forms can reproduce itself by means of gonidia, additional forms may be introduced into the life; history, which becomes the more complicated the more pro- nounced the polymorphism. The most straightforward life-histories are those presented by the Bryophyta and the Pteridophyta, where there are but the two forms, the sexual and the asexual. In the life-history of a moss, the plant itself bears only sexual organs: it is the sexual form, and is distinguished as the gametophyte. The zygote (oospore) formed in the sexual act develops into an organism, the sporogonium, which is entirely asexual, producing only spores: it is distinguished as the sporophyte. When these spores germ- inate, they give rise to moss-plants. Thus the two forms, the sexual and the asexual, regularly alternate with each other — that is, the life-history presents that simple form of poly- morphism which is known as alternation of generations. Simi- larly, in the life-history of a fern, there is a regular alternation of a sporophyte, which is the fern-plant itself, with a gametophyte, which is the fern-prothallium. It is pointed out in the preceding section that, as the result of the sexual act, the nucleus of the zygote contains twice as many chromosomes as those of the fusing sexual cells. This 2X number of chromosomes persists throughout all the cell- generations derived from the zygote, that is, in the cells constituting the sporophyte, up to the time that it begins to produce spores, when meiosis takes place. Again, the cell- generations derived from the spore, that is, the cells constituting the gametophyte, all have the reduced x number of chromosomes in their nuclei up to the sexual act. Hence the sporophyte may also be designated the diplophyte and the gametophyte the haplophyte (Strasburger) : in other words, the sporo- phyte is the pre-meiotic, the gametophyte the post-meiotic generation. Twice in its life-history the plant is represented by a single cell: by the spore and by the zygote. The turning- points in the life-history, the transitions from the one genera- tion to the other, are (i) meiosis, (2) the sexual act. The course of the life-history in Phanerogams and in those Thallophyta which have been adequately investigated is essenti- ally the same as that of the Bryophyta and of the Pteridophyta as described above, though it is less easy to trace on account of the peculiar relation of the two generations to each other in the Phanerogams and on account of various irregularities that present themselves in the Thallophyta. In the Phanerogams, as in the Pteridophyta, the pre- ponderating generation is the sporophyte, the plant itself. Inasmuch as they are heterosporous, the gametophyte is represented by a male and a female organism or prothallium, both rudimentary. The male prothallium consists of the few cells formed by the germinating pollen-grain (microspore) ; and though it is quite independent, since the microspores are shed, it grows parasitically in the tissues upon which the microspore has been deposited in pollination. The female prothallium may consist of many cells with well-developed archegonia, as in the Gymnosperms, or of only a few cells with the female organ reduced to the oosphere, as in the Angiosperms. In either case it is the product of the germination of a megaspore (embryo-sac) which is not shed from its sporangium (ovule): hence it never becomes an independent plant, and was long regarded as merely a part of the sporophyte until its true nature was ascertained, chiefly by the researches of Hofmeister, who first explained the alternation of generations in plants. This intimate and persistent connexion between the two generations affords the explanation of the characteristic features of the Phanerogams, the seed and the flower. The ovule containing the embryo-sac, which eventually contains the embryo, per- sists as the seed— a structure that is distinctive of Phanero- gams, which have, in fact, on this account been also termed Spermatophyta. With regard to the flower, it has been already mentioned that it is, like the cone of an Equisetum or a Lyco- podium, a shoot adapted to the production of spores. But it is something more than this: for whereas in Equisetum or Lycopodium the function of the cone comes to an end when the spores are shed, the flower of the Phanerogam has still various functions to perform after the maturation of the spores. It is the seat of the process of pollination — that is, the bringing of the pollen-grain by one of various agencies into such a posi- tion that a part (the pollen-tube) of the male prothallium developed from it may reach and fertilize the oosphere in the embryo-sac. Thus the flower of Phanerogams is a reproductive shoot adapted not only for spore-production, but also for pollination, for fertilization, and for the consequences of fertiliza- tion, the production of seed and fruit. However, in spite of these complications, it is possible to determine accurately the limits of the two generations by the observation of the nuclei. The meiosis preceding the formation of the spores marks the beginning of the (haploid) gametophyte, male and female; and the sexual act marks that of the (diploid) sporophyte. The difficult task of elucidating the life-histories of the Thallophyta has been successfully performed in certain cases by the application of the method of chromosome-counting, with the result that alternation of generations has been found to be of general occurrence. To begin with the Algae. In the Dictyotaceae (Brown Algae) there are two very similar forms in the life-history, the one bearing asexual reproductive organs (tetrasporangia), the other bearing sexual organs (oogonia and antheridia). It has been shown (Lloyd Williams) that the former is undoubtedly the sporophyte and the latter the gametophyte, since the nuclei of the former contain 32 chromo- somes, and those of the latter 16. Meiosis takes place in the mother-cell of the tetraspores, which, on germination, give rise to the sexual form. Quite a different life-history has been traced in Fucus, another Brown Alga. Here no spores are produced: there is but one form in the life-history, the Fucus- plant, which bears sexual organs and has, • on that account, been regarded as a gametophyte. The investigation of the nuclei has, however, shown (Farmer) that the Fwcws-plant is actually diploid, that it is, in fact, a sporophyte; but since there is no spore-formation, meiosis immediately precedes the development of the sexual cells, which alone represent the gametophyte (see below, Apospory). Similarly, two types of life-history have been discovered in the Red Algae. In Polysiphonia violacea, a species in which the tetraspores and the sexual organs are borne by similar but distinct individuals, it has been ascertained (Yamanouchi) that, as in Dictyota, meiosis takes place in the mother-cell of the tetraspores, so that the nuclei of these spores, as also those of the sexual plants to which they give rise, contain 20 chromo- somes: and further, that the nuclei of the carpospores (diplo- spores) produced in the cystocarp as the result of fertilization, contain 40 chromosomes, as do also those of the asexual plant to which the carpospores give rise. Hence the sporophyte is represented by the cystocarp and the resulting tetraspor- angiate plants: the gametophyte, by the sexual plants. Though it is the rule in the Red Algae that the tetrasporangia and the sexual organs are borne on distinct individuals, yet cases are known in which both kinds of reproductive organs are borne upon the same plant; and to those the above conclusions obviously cannot apply. They have yet to be investigated. The second type of life-history has been traced in Nemalion. Here there is no tetrasporangiate form, consequently meiosis takes place at a different stage in the life-history. It has been observed (Wolfe) that the nuclei of the sexual plant contain 8 chromosomes; those of the gonimoblast-filaments of the developing cystocarp contain 16, whilst those of the carpospores contain 8: hence meiosis takes place in the carpo- sporangia. Here the plant is the gametophyte; the sporophyte is only represented by the cystocarp. The carpospores here are true spores (haplospores). Among the Green Algae, Coleochaete is the only form that has been fully investigated (Allen). Here meiosis takes place in the germinating oospore: consequently the plant is the PLANTS] REPRODUCTION 125 gametophyte, and the sporophyte is represented only by the oospore, so that the life-history resembles that of Nemalion. It is probable that this conclusion is generally true of the whole group; at any rate of those forms (Desmids, Spirogyra, Oedogonium, Chara) which have been more or less investi- gated. Turning to the Fungi, somewhat similar results have been obtained in the few forms that have been studied from this point of view. In the sexual Ascomycetes it appears (Harper) that meiosis takes place in the ascocarp just before the develop- ment of the spores, so that the life-history essentially resembles that of Nemalion. Again, in certain Uredineae, having an aecidium-stage and a teleutospore-stage, which is apparently a sexual process has been observed (Blackman, Christman) which is described in the section on Abnormalities of Reproduction, and the life-history is as follows. The sexual act having taken place, a row of aecidiospores is developed in the aecidium, each of which contains two conjugate nuclei derived from the sexual nuclei. The mycelium developed from the aecidiospore, as well as the uredospores and the teleutospores that it bears, shows two conjugate nuclei. When, however, the teleuto- spore is about to germinate, the two nuclei fuse (thus completing the sexual act) and meiosis takes place. As a result the promy- celium developed from the teleutospore, and the sporidia that it produces, are uninucleate: so are also the mycelium developed from the sporidium, and the female organs (archicarps) borne upon it. Hence the limits of the sporophyte are the aecidio- spore and the teleutospore: those of the gametophyte, the teleutospore and the aecidiospore. Similar observations have been made upon other Uredineae with a more contracted life-history. Phragmidium Potentillae- canadensis is a rust that has no aecidium-stage: consequently the primary uredospores are borne by the mycelium produced on infection of the host by a sporidium. It has been observed (Christman) that the sporogenous hyphae fuse in pairs, suggest- ing a sexual act; then the primary uredospores are developed in rows from the fused pairs of hyphae which thus behave as sexual organs (archicarps), and each such uredospore contains two conjugate nuclei. Although the research has not been carried beyond this point, it may be inferred that in this case, as in the preceding, nuclear fusion and meiosis take place in the teleutospore. Here the sporophyte is represented by the uredo-form. Finally, in some of the fungi in which no sexual organs have yet been discovered, this method of investigation has made it probable that some kind of sexual act takes place nevertheless. Thus in the Uredine Puccinia malvacearum, which has only teleutospore- and sporidium-stages, it has been observed (Black- man) that the formation of the teleutospores is preceded by a binucleate condition of the hyphae. The same idea is suggested by the binucleate basidia of the Basidiomycetes, which corre- spond to the teleutospores of the Uredineae. The life-histories sketched in the preceding paragraphs show that one of the complexities met with in the Thallophyta is that meiosis does not always take place at the same point in the life-history. In the higher plants the incidence of meiosis is generally, though not absolutely, constant: it may be stated as a rule that in the Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Phanerogams it takes place in the spore-mother-cells. In the Thallophyta this rule does not hold. In some of them, it is true, meiosis immediately precedes, as in the higher plants, the formation of certain spores, the tetraspores (Dictyotaceae, Polysiphonia), the teleutospores (Uredineae): but in others it immediately precedes the development of the sexual organs (Fucaceae), or follows more or less directly upon the sexual act (Green Algae, Nemalion, Ascomycetes). The life-history of most Thallophyta is further complicated by the capacity of the gametophyte of the sporophyte to repro- duce themselves by cells termed gonidia, a capacity that is wholly lacking in the higher plants. The karyology of gonidia has not yet been sufficiently investigated: but when, as in the Green Algae and the Oomycetous Fungi, the gonidia are developed by and reproduce the gametophyte, it may be inferred that they, like the gametophyte, are haploid. One case, at any rate, of the reproduction of the sporophyte by gonidia is fully known, that of the Uredineae just described, in which the uredo- form, which is a phase of the sporophyte, is reproduced by the uredo-spores which are binucleate, that is diploid, and may be distinguished as dlplogonidia. In any case the result is that whereas in the higher plants each of the alternating generations occurs but once in the life-history, in these Thallophyta the life- history may include a succession of gametophytic or of sporo- phytic forms This is, in fact, a distinguishing feature of the group. The higher plants present a regular alternation of generations: whereas, in the Thallophyta, though they probably all present some kind of alternation of generations, yet it is irregular hi the various ways and for the various reasons mentioned above. Sufficient information has been given in the preceding pages to render possible the consideration of the origin of alternation of generations. To begin quite at the beginning, it may be assumed that the primitive form of reproduction was purely vegetative, merely division of the unicellular organism when it had attained the limits of its own growth. Following on this came reproduction by a gonidium: that is, the protoplasm of the cell, at the end of its vegetative life, became quiescent, surrounded itself with a proper wall, or was set free as a motile ciliated cell, having in some unexplained way become capable of originating a new course of life (rejuvenescence) on germination. Then, as can be well traced in the Brown and" Green Algae (see ALGAE), these primitive reproductive cells (gonidia) began to fuse in pairs: in other words, they gradually became sexual. This stage can still be observed in some of these Algae (e.g. Ulothrix, Ectocarpus) where the zoospores (gonidia) may either germinate independently, or fuse in pairs to form a zygote. Gradually the sexuality of these cells became more pronounced : losing the capacity for independent germination, they acquired the external characters of more or less differentiated sexual cells, and the gametangia producing them developed into male and female sexual organs. But this advancing sexual differenti- ation did not necessarily deprive the plant of the primitive mode of propagation: the sexual organism still retained the faculty of reproduction by gonidia. The loss- of this faculty only came with higher development: it is entirely wanting in some of the higher Thallophyta (e.g. Fucaceae, Characeae), and hi all plants above them in the evolutionary series. With the introduction of the sexual act, a new kind of repro- ductive cell made its appearance, the zygote. This cell, as already explained, differs from other kinds of spores and from the sexual cells, in that its necleus is diploid; and with it the sporophyte (diplophyte) was introduced into the life-history. It has been mentioned that in some plants (e.g. Green Algae) the zygote is all that there is to represent the sporophyte, giving rise, or germination and after meiosis, to one or more spores. Passing to the Bryophyta, in the simpler forms (e.g. Riccia), the zygote develops into a multicellular capsule (sporogonium) ; and in the higher forms into a more elaborate sporogonium, producing many spores. In the Pteridophyta and the Phanerogams, the zygote gives rise to the highly developed sporophytic plant. Thus the evolution of the sporophyte can be traced from the unicellular zygote, gradually increasing in bulk and in in- dependence until it becomes the equal of the gametophyte (e.g. in Dictyota and Polysiphonia), and eventually far surpasses it (Pteridophyta, Phanerogams) . Moreover, the increase in size was attended by the gradual limitation of spore-production to certain parts only, the rest of the tissues being vegetative, assuming the form of stems, leaves, &c. These facts have been formulated in the theory of " progressive sterilization " (Bower), which states that the sporophytic form of the higher plants has been evolved from the simple, entirely fertile, sporophyte of the lower, by the gradually increasing development of the sterile vegetative tissue at the expense of the sporogenous, accompanied by increase in total bulk and in morphological and histological differentiation. In connexion with the study of the evolution of the sporophyte. 126 REPRODUCTION IPLANTS the question arose as to its morphological significance; whether it is to be regarded as a modified form of the gametophyte, or as an altogether new form intercalated in the life-history: in other words, whether the alternation is " homologous "or" antithetic." In certain plants there is a succession of forms which are un- doubtedly homologous: for instance, in Coleochaete where a succession of individuals without sexual organs is produced by zoospores (gonidia). The main fact that has been established is that the sporophyte, from the simple zygote of the Thallophyta to the spore-bearing plant of the Phanerogams, is character- ized by its diploid nuclei; that it is a diplophyte, in contrast to the haplophytic gametophyte. Were these nuclear characters absolutely universal, there could be no question but that the sporophyte is an altogether new antithetic form, and not an homologous generation. But certain exceptions to the rule have been detected, which are described under Abnormalities of Repro- duction: at present it will suffice to say that such things as a diploid gametophyte and a haploid sporophyte have been ob- served in certain ferns. It can only be inferred that alternation of generations is not absolutely dependent upon the periodic halving in meiosis and the subsequent doubling by a sexual act, of the number of chromosomes in the nuclei, though the two sets of phenomena usually coincide. It must not, however, be overlooked that these exceptional cases occur in plants presenting an abnormal life-history: the fact remains that where there is both normal spore-formation with meiosis, and a sub- sequent sexual act, the haploid form is the gametophyte, the diploid the sporophyte. But the actual observation of a haploid sporophyte and of a diploid gametophyte makes it clear that however generally useful the nuclear characters may be in the distinction of sporophyte and gametophyte, they do not afford an absolute criterion, and therefore their value in determining homologies is debatable. IV. Abnormalities of Reproduction. In what may be regarded as the type of normal life-history, the transition from the one generation to the other is marked by definite processes: there is the meiotic development of spores by the sporophyte, and the sexual production of a zygote, or something analogous to it, by the gametophyte. But it has been mentioned in the preceding pages that the transition may, in certain cases, be effected in other ways, which may be regarded as abnormal, though they are constant enough in the plants in which they occur, in fact as manifestations of reproductive degeneration. In the first place, the sporophyte may be developed either after an abnormal sexual act, or without any preceding sexual act at all, a condition known as apogamy. In the second, the gametophyte may be developed otherwise than from a post- meiotic spore, a condition known as apospory. • APOGAMY. — The cases to be considered under this head may be arranged in two groups: — " i. Pseudapogamy: sexual act abnormal. — The following abnor- malities have been observed : — (a) Fusion of two female organs: observed (Christman) in cer- tain Uredineae (Caeoma nitens, Phragmidium speciosum, Uromyces Caladii) where adjacent archicarps fuse: male cells (spermatia) are present but functionless. (ft) Fusion between nuclei of the same female organ : observed in the ascogonium of certain Ascomycetes, Humaria granu- lata (Blackman), where there is no male organ; Lachnea stercorea (Fraser), where the male organ (pollinodium) is present but is apparently functionless. (c) Fusion of a female organ with an adjacent tissue-cell: ob- served (Blackman) in the archicarp of some Uredineae (Phragmidium violaceum, Uromyces Poae, Puccinia Poarum) : male cells (spermatia) present but functionless. (d) There is no female organ: fusion takes place between two adjacent tissue-cells of the gametophyte; the sporophyte is developed from diploid cells thus produced, but there is no proper zygote as there is in a, 5 and c : observed (Farmer) in the prothallium of certain ferns (Lastraea pseudo-mas, var. polydactyla): male organs (and sometimes female) present but functionless. Another such case is that_ of Humaria rutilans (Ascomycete), in which nuclear fusion has been observed (Fraser) in hyphae of the hypothecium : the asci are developed from these hyphae, and in them meiosis takes place ; there are no sexual organs. 2. Eu-apogamy: no kind of sexual act — (a) The gametophyte is haploid : (o) The sporophyte is developed from the unfertilized oosphere: no such case of true parthenogenesis has yet been observed. 03) The sporophyte is developed vegetatively from the gameto- phyte and is haploid : observed in the prothallia of certain ferns, Lastraea pseudo-mas, var. cristata-apospora(Farmer and Digby), and Nephrodium molle (Yamanouchi). (6) The gametophyte is diploid (see under Apospory): (a) The sporophyte is developed from the diploid oosphere : observed in some Pteridophyta, viz. certain ferns (Farmer), Athyrium Filix-foemina, var. clarissima, Scolopendrium vulgare, var. crispum-Drummondae, and Marsilia (Strasburger) ; also in some Phanerogams, viz. Compositae (Taraxacum, Murbeck; Antennaria alpina, Juel; sp. of Hieracium (Rosenberg): Rosaceae (Eu- Alchemilla sp., Murbeck, Strasburger): Ranunculaceae (Thalictrum purpurascens, Overton). 09) The sporophyte is developed vegetatively from the game- tophyte: observed (Farmer) in the fern Athyrium Filix- foemina, var. clarissima. In all the cases enumerated under Eu-apogamy, apogamy is associated with some form of apospory except Nephrodium molle, full details of which have not yet been published. Many other ferns are known to be apogamous, but they are not included here because the details of their nuclear structure have not been investigated. APOSPORY. — The known modes of apospory may be arranged as follows: — 1. Pseudapospory: a spore is formed but without meiosis, so thai it is diploid- — observed only in heterosporous plants, viz. certain species of Marsilia (e.g. Marsilia Drummondii) where the megaspore has a diploid nucleus (32 chromosomes) and the resulting prothallium and female organs are also diploid (Strasburger); and in various Phanerogams, some Compositae (Taraxacum and Antennaria alpina, Juel), some Rosaceae (Eu-Alchemilla, Strasburger), and occasionally in Thalictrum purpurascens (Overton), where the megaspore (embryo- sac) is diploid; in some species of Hieracium it has been found (Rosenberg) that adventitious diploid embryo-sacs are developed in the nucellus: these plants are also apogamous. 2. Eu-apospory: no spore is formed — of this there are two varieties : (a) With meiosis: this occurs in some Thallophyta which form no spores; the sporophyte of the Fucaceae bears no spores, consequently meiosis takes place in the developing sexual organs; the Conjugate Green Algae also have no spores, meiosis taking place in the germinating zygospore . which develops directly into the sexual plant. (6) Without meiosis: the gametophyte is developed upon the sporophyte by budding; that is, spore-reproduction is replaced by a vegetative process: for instance, in mosses it has been found possible to induce the development of protonema, the first stage of the gametophyte, from tissue- cells of the sporogonium: similarly, in certain ferns (varieties of Athyrium Filix-foemina, Scolopendrium vulgare, Lastraea pseudo-mas, Polystichum angulare, and in the species Pteris aquilina and Asplenium dimorphum), the gametophyte (prothallium) is developed by budding on the leaf of the sporophyte, and in some of these cases it has been ascertained that the gametophyte so developed has the same number (2x) of chromosomes in its nuclei as the sporophyte that bears it — that is, it is diploid. Apospory has been found to be frequently associated with apogamy; in fact, in the absence of meiosis, this association would appear to be inevitable. Combined Apospory and Apogamy. — Instances have been given of the occurrence of both apospory and apogamy in the same life-history; but in all of them there is a regular succession of sporophyte and gametophyte. The cases now to be con- sidered are those in which one or other of the generations gives rise directly to its like, sporophyte to sporophyte, gametophyte to gametophyte, the normally intervening generation being omitted. It is possible to conceive of this abbreviation of the life-history taking place in various ways. Thus, a sporophyte might be developed from a haploid spore instead of a gametophyte as is the normal case, but this has not been observed: again, a sporophyte might be developed from a diploid spore (as dis- tinguished from a zygote or a diploid oosphere), a possibility that is to some extent realized in the life-history of some Uredineae in which successive forms of the polymorphic sporo- phyte are developed from diplogonidia. Similarly a gameto- phyte might be developed from a fertilized or an unfertilized PLANTS] REPRODUCTION 127 female cell: the latter possibility is to some extent realized in those Algae (e.g. Ulothrix, Ectocarpus) in which the sexual cells (isogametes), if they fail to conjugate, germinate inde- pendently as gonidia, giving rise to gametophytes. The more familiar mode is that of vegetative budding, as already mentioned. When a " viviparous " fern or Phanerogam reproduces itself by a bud or a bulbil, both spore-formation and the sexual act are passed over: sporophyte springs from sporo- phyte. Remarkable cases of this have been observed in certain Phanerogams (Coelebogyne ilicifolia, Funkia ovata, Nothoscordum fragrans, Citrus, sp. of Euonymus, Opuntia vulgaris) in the ovule of which adventitious embryos are formed by budding from cells of the nucellus: with the exception of Coelebogyne, it appears that this only takes place after the oosphere has been fertilized. In other plants it is the gametophyte that reproduces itself by means of gemmae or bulbils, as commonly in the Bryophyta, the prothallia of ferns, &c. The abnormalities described are all traceable to reproductive degeneration; the final result of which is that true reproduction is replaced more or less completely by vegetative propagation. It may be inquired whether degeneration may have proceeded so far in any plant of sufficiently high organization to present spore-formation, or sexual reproduction, or both, as to cause the plant to reproduce itself entirely and exclusively by the vege- tative method. The only such case that suggests itself is that of Caulerpa and possibly some other Siphonaceous Green Algae. In this plant no special reproductive organs have yet been discovered, and it certainly reproduces itself by the breaking off of portions of the body which become complete plants: but it is quite possible that reproductive organs may yet be dis- covered. V. Physiology of Reproduction. The reproductive capacity of plants, as of animals, depends upon the fact that the whole or part of the protoplasm of the individual can develop into one or more new organisms in one or other of several possible ways. Thus, in the case of unicellular plants, the whole of the protoplasm of the parent gives rise, whether by simple division or otherwise, to one or more new plants. Reproduction necessarily closes the life of the individual : here, as August Weismann long ago pointed out, there is no natural death, for the whole of the protoplasm of the parent continues to live in the progeny. In multicellular plants, on the contrary,' the reproductive function is mainly discharged by certain parts of the body, the reproductive organs, the remainder of the body being essentially vegetative — that is, concerned with the maintenance of the individual. In these plants it is only a part of the protoplasm that continues to live in their progeny; the remainder, the vegetative part, eventually dies. It is therefore possible to distinguish in them, on the one hand, the essentially reproductive protoplasm, which may be designated by Weismann's term germ-plasm, though without necessarily adopting all that his use of it implies, and the essentially vegetative, mortal protoplasm, the somato -plasm, on the other. In the unicellular plant no such distinction can be drawn, for the whole of the protoplasm is concerned in repro- duction. But even in the most highly organized multicellular plant this distinction is not absolute: for, as already explained, plants can, in general, be propagated by the isolation of almost any part of the body, that is vegetatively, and this implies the presence of germ-plasm elsewhere than in the special repro- ductive organs. If the attempt be made to distinguish between the organs of vegetative propagation and those of true reproduction, the nearest approach would be the statement that the former contain both germ-plasm and somatoplasm, whereas the latter, or at least the reproductive cells, consist entirely of germ-plasm. The question now arises as to the exact seat of the germ-plasm, and the answer is to be looked for in the results of the numerous researches into the structure and development of the reproductive cells that form so large a part of the biological work of recent years. The various facts already mentioned suffice to prove that the nucleus plays the leading part in the reproductive processes of whatever kind: the general conclusion is justified that no reproductive cell can develop into a new organism if deprived of its nucleus. It may be inferred that the nucleus either actually contains the germ-plasm, or that it controls and directs the activities of the germ-plasm present in the cell. It is not improbable that both these inferences may be true. At any rate there is no sufficient ground for excluding the co- operation of the cytoplasm, especially of that part of it dis- tinguished as kinoplasm, in the reproductive processes. Pursuing the ascertained facts with regard to the nucleus, it is established that the part of it especially concerned is the linin-network which consists of the chromosomes. The be- haviour, as already described, of the chromosomes in the various reproductive processes has led to the conclusion that the hereditary characters of the parent or parents are transmitted in and by them to the progeny: that they constitute, in fact, the material basis of heredity (see HEREDITY). They can hardly, however, be regarded as the ultimate structural units, for the simple reason that their number is far too small in relation to the transmissible characters. It has been suggested (Farmer) that the chromomeres are the units, but the number of these would seem to be hardly sufficient. It seems necessary to fall back upon hypothetical ultimate particles, as suggested by Darwin, de Vries and Weismann, which may be generally termed pangens. The chromomeres may be regarded as aggregates of such particles, the " ids " of Weismann. The foregoing considerations make it possible to attempt an explanation of the various reproductive processes. Vegetative Propagation. — It is easily intelligible that the two individuals produced by the division of a unicellular plant should resemble the parent and each other; for, the division of the parent-nucleus being homotypic, the chromosomes which go to constitute the nucleus of each daughter-cell are alike both in number and in nature, and exactly repeat the constitution of the parent-nucleus. In the more complicated cases of propagation by bulbils, cuttings, &c., the development of the new individual, or of the missing parts of the individual (roots, &c.), may be ascribed to the presence in the bulbil or cutting of the necessary pangens. Reproduction by Gonidia. — In this case a single cell gives rise to a complete new organism resembling the parent. The inference is that the gonidium is a portion of the parental germ- plasm, in which all the necessary pangens have been accumulated. Reproduction by Spores. — In this case, also, an entire organism is developed from a single cell, but with this peculiarity that the resulting organism is unlike that which bore the spore, a peculiarity which has not yet been explained. It has been already stated that the development of true spores involves meiosis, and this process is no doubt related to the behaviour of the spore on germination; but the nature of this relation remains obscure. It might be assumed that, as the result of meiosis, the nucleus of the spore receives only gametophytic pangens. But the assumption is rendered impossible by the fact that the spore gives rise to a sexual organism, the repro- ductive cells of which, after the sexual act, produce a sporo- phyte. Clearly sporophytic pangens must be present as well in the spore as in the gametophyte and in its sexual cells. It can only be surmised that they exist there in a latent condition, dominated, as it were, by the gametophytic pangens. Sexual Reproduction. — Here, again, as yet unanswered questions present themselves. The essence of a sexual cell is that it cannot give rise by itself to a new organism, it is only truly reproductive after the sexual act: this peculiarity is just what constitutes its sexuality. Minute investigation has not yet detected any essential structural difference between a sexual cell and a spore; on the contrary, the results so far obtained have established that they essentially agree in being post-meiotic (haploid). Why then do they differ so fundamentally in their reproductive capacities? Again, sexual cells differ in sex; but there are as yet no facts to demonstrate any essential structural difference between male 128 REPRODUCTION [PLANTS and female cells. What is known about them tends to prove their structural similarity rather than their difference. But it is possible that their difference may be chemical, and so not to be detected by the microscope. The normal sexual act has been described as consisting in the fusion, first, of two cells, then of their nuclei, and finally, often after a long interval, of their chromosomes and of their chromomeres in meiosis. What causes determined these fusions is a question that is only partly answered. It is known in certain cases (e.g. ferns and mosses) that the male cell is attracted to the female by chemical substances secreted for the purpose by the female organ; that it is a case of chemio- taxis. Probably this is more common than experiment has yet shown it to be. It is quite conceivable that the consequent cell-fusion, as also the subsequent fusions of nuclei and of chromosomes, are likewise cases of chemiotaxis, depending upon chemical differences between the fusing structures. The sexual process can only take place between cells which are related to each other in a certain degree (see HYBRIDISM); that is, it depends upon sexual affinity. It is the general rule that it takes place between cells derived from different individuals of the same species; that is, cross-fertilization is the rule. This is necessarily the case when the male and female organs are developed upon different individuals, when the plant is said to be dioecious. When both kinds of organs are developed upon the same individual (monoecious), self-fertiliza- tion may and often does occur; but it is commonly hindered by various special arrangements, of which dichogamy is the most common; that is, that the male and female organs are not mature at the same time. But though these arrangements favour cross-fertilization, they do not absolutely prevent self- fertilization. In some cases, cleistogamic flowers, for instance, self-fertilization alone is possible (see ANGIOSPERMS). The general conclusion is that though cross-fertilization is the more advantageous form of sexual reproduction, still self-fertilization is more advantageous to the species than no fertilization at all. In considering this subject, it must be borne in mind that the terms used have different meanings when applied to certain heterosporous plants from those which they convey when applied to isosporus plants. In the latter cases their meaning is direct and simple: in the former it is indirect and somewhat complicated. In heterosporous plants generally the actual sexual organs are never borne upon the same individual, there is always necessarily a male and a female gametophyte; so that, strictly speaking, self-fertilization is impossible. But in the Phanerogams, where there is a process preliminary to fertiliza- tion, that of pollination, which is unknown in other plants, the terms and the conceptions expressed by them are applied, not to the real sexual organs, but to the spores. Thus a dioe- cious Phanerogam is one in which the microspores are developed by one individual, the megaspores by another; and again, self-fertilization is said to occur when the microspores (pollen) fall upon the stigma of the same flower (see ANGIOSPERMS); but this is really only self-pollination. To return to the sexual process itself. Whatever its nature, two sets of results follow upon the sexual act — (i) a zygote is formed, which is capable of developing into a new organism, from two cells, neither of which could so develop; (2) the hereditary sporophytic characters of the two parents are pos- sessed by the organism so developed. These two results will now be considered in some detail. (i) The Relation between the Sexual Act and Reproductive Capacity. — In the early days of the discovery of the sexual process, it was thought that the capacity for development imparted to the female cell was to be attributed to the doubling of its nuclear substance by the fusion with the male cell. Reproductive capacity does not, however, depend upon the bulk of the nuclear' substance, for a spore, like an unfertilized female cell, contains but the x number of chromosomes, and yet it can give rise to a new organism. Again, it has been observed (Winkler) that a non-nucleated fragment of an oosphere of Cystoseira (Fucaceae) can be " fertilized " by a spermatozoid and will then grow and divide to form a small embryo, though it necessarily contains only the x number of chromosomes. From this it would appear that some stimulating influence had been exerted by the male cell, and it is probably in this direction that the desired explanation is to be sought. Some important confirmatory facts have been recorded with regard to certain animals (sea-urchins). It has been observed (Loeb) that treatment with magnesium chloride will cause the ova to grow and segment; and similar results have been obtained (Winkler) by treating the ova with a watery extract of the male cells. Hence it may be inferred that the male cell carries with it, either in its cytoplasm (kinoplasm), or in its nucleus, extractable substances, perhaps of the nature of enzymes, that stimulate the female cell to growth. It may be mentioned that the stimulating effect of fertilization is not necessarily confined to the female cell; very frequently adjacent tissues are stimulated to growth and structural change. In a Phanerogam, for instance, the whole ovule grows and develops into the seed: the development of endosperm in the embryo-sac is initiated by another nuclear fusion, taking place between the second male nucleus and the endosperm-nucleus: the ovary, too, grows to form the fruit, which may be dry and hard or more or less succulent: the stimulating effect may extend to other parts of the flower; to the perianth, as in the mulberry; to the receptacle, as in the strawberry and the apple: or even beyond the flower to the axis of the inflorescence, as in the fig and the pine-apple. Analogous developments in other groups are the calyptra of the Bryophyta, the cystocarps of the Red Algae, the ascocarps of the Ascomycetes, the aecidia of the Uredineae, &c. (2) The Relation o] the Sexual Act to Heredity. — The product of the sexual act is essentially a diploid cell, the zygote, which actually is or gives rise to a sporophyte. The sexual heredity of plants consequently presents the peculiar feature that the organism resulting^ from the sexual act is quite unlike its imme- diate parents, which are both gametophytes. But it is clear that the sporophytic characters must have persisted, though in a latent condition, through the gametophyte, to manifest them- selves in the organism developed from the zygote. The real question at issue is as to the exact means by which these characters are transmitted and combined in the sexual act. There is a considerable amount of evidence that the hereditary characters are associated with the chromomeres, and that it is rather their linin-constituent than their chromatin which is functional (Strasburger) : that they constitute, in fact, the material basis of heredity. From this point of view it is probable that the last phase of the sexual act, the fusion of the chromomeres in meiosis, represents the combination of the two sets of parental characters. What exactly happens in the pseudo-chromosome stage is not known; at any rate this stage offers an opportunity for a complete redistribution of the substance of the chromomeres — in other words, of the parental pangens. It is a striking fact that, in the subsequent nuclear division, the distribution of the chromosomes derived from the male and female parents (when they can be distinguished) seems to be a matter of indifference: they are not equally distributed to the two daughter-nuclei. The explanation would appear to be this, that they are not any longer male and female as they were before meiotic fusion; and that it is because they now contain both male and female nuclear substance that their equal distribution to the daughter-nuclei is unimportant. The nature of this redistribution of the substance of the chromomeres is still under discussion. Some regard it as essentially a chemical process, resulting in the formation of new compounds: others consider it to be rather a physical process, a new material system being formed in the rearrangement of the pangens; here it must be left for the present. The various ways in which the parental characters manifest themselves in the progeny are fully dealt with in the articles HEREDITY, HYBRIDISM, MENDELISM. It will suffice to say that the progeny, though maintaining generally the characters of the species, do not necessarily exactly resemble either of the parents, nor do they necessarily present exactly intermediate characters: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM 129 they may vary more or less from the type. It is an interesting fact, the full significance of which has not yet been worked out, that, as a rule, plants that vary profusely are those in which the characteristic 2x number of chromosomes is high (60-100). Brief reference may be made to the cases of abnormal sexual or pseudo-sexual reproduction described above under Apogamy. Taking first the cases of true apogamy, there is clearly no need for any sexual process, for, since no meiotic division has taken place, the gametophyte is diploid; its cells, whether vegetative or contained in female organs, possess the capacity for both development and the transmission of the sporophytic characters. It is not remarkable that such a gametophyte should be able to give rise directly to a sporophyte; but it is remarkable, in the converse case of apospory, that a sporophyte should give rise to a diploid gametophyte rather than to another sporophyte. In the latter case the tendency to the regular development of the alternate form appears to override the influence of the diploid nucleus. Turning to the various forms of pseudo-apogamy, there are first those in which fusion takes place between two apparently female organs (some Uredineae; Christman), and those in which it takes place between nuclei within the same female organ (Humaria; Blackman). If these are to be regarded physiologically as sexual acts, it must be inferred that the fusing organs or nuclei have come to differ from each other to some extent; for it is unthinkable that equivalent female organs or cells should be able to fertilize, or to be fertilized by, one another. There are finally those cases in which apparently vegetative cells take part in the sexual act, as in Phragmidium (Blackman), where the female organ fuses with an adjacent vegetative cell, and in the fern-prothallium (Farmer), where the nuclei of two vegetative cells fuse. They would seem to indicate that vege- tative cells may, in certain circumstances, contain sufficient germ-plasm to act as sexual organs without being differentiated as such. An interesting question is that of the origin of apogamy. It is no doubt the outcome of sexual degeneration; but this general statement requires some explanation. In certain cases apogamy seems to be the result of the degeneration of the male organ; as in Humaria, where there is no male organ, and in Lachnea, where the male organ is rudimentary. In others, as in the Uredineae, it is apparently the female organ that has degenerated, losing its receptive part, the trichogyne; the male cells (spermatia) are developed normally, and there is no reason to believe that they might not fertilize the female organ were there the means of penetrating it. In yet other cases the degeneration occurs at a different stage in the life-history, in the development of the spores. In the apogamous ferns in- vestigated, meiosis is suppressed and apogamy results. In the heterosporous plants which have been investigated (e.g. Marsilia, Eu- Alchemilla) it has been observed that the microspores are so imperfectly developed as to be incapable of germinating, so that fertilization is impossible; and it is perhaps to this that the occurrence of apogamy is to be attributed. This abnormal development of the spores may be regarded as a variation; and in most cases it occurs in plants that are highly variable and often have a high 2x number of chromosomes. It will be observed that such physiological explanation as can be given of the phenomena of reproduction is based upon the results of the minute investigation of the changes in nuclear structure associated with them. The explanation is often rather suggested than proved, and some fundamental facts still remain altogether unexplained. But it may be anticipated that a method of research which has already so successfully justified itself will not fail in the future to elucidate what still remains obscure. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — This article should be read in connexion with the following: ALGAE, ANGIOSPERMS, BRYOPHYTA, CYTOLOGY, FUNGI, GYMNOSPERMS.HEREDITY, HYBRIDISM, MENDELISM, PLANTS, PTERIDOPHYTA. As the bibliographies to these articles include all the publications containing the facts and theories mentioned here, it will suffice to append only a few papers of general importance: Blackman and Fraser. " Further Studies on the Sexuality of the Uredineae," Ann. Dot. (1906) vol. xx. ; Farmer, " On the Structural Constituents of the Nucleus, and their Relation to the Organization of the In- dividual " (Croonian Lecture), Proc. Roy. Soc. (1907) vol. 79, series B ; Farmer and Digby, " Studies in Apospory and Apogamy in Ferns," Ann. Bot. (1907) vol. xxi. ; Strasburger, Die stpfflichen Grundlagen der Vererbung (1905); " Apogamie bei Manilla," Flora (1907), vol. 97; D. M. Mottier, Fecundation in Plants (1904), Carnegie Institution, Washington. (S. H. V.*) REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM, IN ANATOMY.— The repro- ductive system in some parts of its course shares structures in common with the urinary system (q.v.). In this article the following structures will be dealt with. In the male the testes, epididymis, vasa deferentia, vesiculae seminales, prostate, penis and urethra. In the female the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina and vulva. Male Reproductive Organs. The testes or testicles are the glands in which the male repro- ductive cells are formed. They lie, one on each side, in the scrotum surrounded by the tunica vaginalis (see COELOM and SEROUS MEMBRANES). Each is an oval gland about one and a half inches long with its long axis directed downward, backward and inward. There is a strong fibrous coat called the tunica albuginea, from which vertical and horizontal septa penetrate into the substance, thus dividing it into compartments or lobules in which the seminiferous tubes are coiled. It is estimated that the total length of these seminiferous tubes in the two glands is little short of a mile. (See fig. i.) At the posterior part of the testis the fibrous sheath is greatly thickened to form the mediastinum testis, and con- tains a plexus of tubules called the rele testis (see fig. i), into which the semini- ferous tubes open. In this way the secretion of the gland is carried to its upper and back part, whence from fifteen From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Textbook to twenty small tubes (vasa °f Ana">my- e/erenlia) pass to the epidi- FlG' ''T Diafra,m to '""strate the f . V r xi. • structure of the testis and epidi- dymis. Each of these is dymis. convoluted before opening, ct Coni vasculosi. and forms what is known as c- , G.!°!>us m?)or- g.m'. Globus minor, a C011US VaSCUWSUS. r.v. Rete testis Under the microscope the '• ^^ seminiferous tubules are seen to consist of a basement membrane surrounding several layers of epithelial cells, some of which are constantly being transformed into spermatozoa or male sexual cells. The epididymis (see fig. i) is a soft body lying behind the testis; it is enlarged above to form the globus major or head, while below is a lesser swelling, the globus minor or tail. The whole epididymis is made up of a convoluted tube about 20 ft. long, from which one long diverticulum (vas aberrans) comes off. Between the globus major arid the testis two small vesicles called the hydatids of Morgagni are often found. The vas deferens is the continuation of the tube of the epidi- dymis and starts at the globus minor; at first it is convoluted, but soon becomes straight, and runs up on the inner (mesial) side of the epididymis to the external abdominal ring in the abdominal wall. On its way up it is joined by several other structures, to form the spermatic cord; these are the artery (spermatic) and veins (pampiniform plexus) of the testis, the artery of the vas, the ilio-inguinal, genito-crural and sympathetic- nerves, and the testicular lymphatics. After entering the external abdominal ring, these structures pass obliquely through the abdominal wall, lying in the inguinal canal for an inch and a half, until the internal abdominal ring is reached. Here they separate and the vas passes down the side of the pelvis and turns XXIII. S s./. Seminiferous tubule. vd. Vas deferens. t.e. Vas efferens. t.r. Tubuli recti. 130 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM inward to meet its fellow at the back of the bladder, just above the prostate. The whole length of the vas is 12 to 18 in. and it is remarkable for the great thickness of its muscular walls, which gives it the feeling of a piece of whipcord when rolled between the finger and thumb. A little above the globus major a few scattered tubules are found in children in front of the cord; these form the rudi- mentary structure known as the organ of Giraldes or paradidymis. As the vas deferens approaches the prostate it enlarges and becomes slightly sacculated to act as a reservoir for the secretion of the testis; this part is the ampulla (see fig. 2). Posterior superior iliac spine Ureter Great sciatic notch Vas deferens Spine of ischium Vas deferens Seminal vesicle Bladder wall Levator ani Prostate Ischio-rectal fossa Tuberpsity of ischium Gluteus maximus and run, side by side, through the prostate to open into the floor of the prostatic urethra. The prostate is partly a muscular and partly a glandular struc- ture, situated just below the bladder and traversed by the urethra; it is of a somewhat conical form with the base upward in contact with the bladder. Both vertically and transversely it measures about an inch and a quarter, while antero-posteriorly it is only about three-quarters of an inch, though its size is liable to great variation. It is enclosed in a fibrous capsule from which it is separated by the prostatic plexus of veins anteriorly. It is often described as formed of three lobes two lateral and a median or posterior, but careful sections and recent research throw doubt on the existence of the last. Microscopically the prostate consists of masses of long, slen- der, slightly branching glands, embedded in unstriped muscle and fibrous tissue; these glands open by deli- cate ducts (about twenty in number) into the prostatic urethra, which will be described later. In the anterior part of the gland are seen bundles of striped muscle fibres, which are of interest when the comparative ana- tomy of the gland Cut end of great sacro- is studied: they are •ulatory duct better seen in young Levator ani Tuberosity of ischium Posterior superior iliac spine Cut end of rectum Apex of sacrum Great sciatic notch Ureter Peritoneum Spine of ischium Bladder wall Seminal vesicle Ampulla of vas defcrens Ischio-rectal fossa Cut end of rectum External sphincter ani Gluteus maximus than in old prostates. The male urethra begins at the bladder and runs through the prostate and perineum to the penis, which it traverses as far as the tip. It is divided into a prostatic, membran- ous and spongy part, and is altogether about 8 inches in length. The prostatic urethra The coccyx and the sacro-sciatic ligaments, together with the muscles attached to them, have been removed. runs downward "' through the prostate rather nearer the an- terior than the pos- inch and a quarter long, and it bends forward forming an From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Text-book of Anatomy. FIG. 2. — View of the Base of the Bladder, Prostate, Seminal Vesicles and Vasa Deferentia from behind, ro-sciatic ligamer The levatores ani have been separated along the median raphe, and drawn outwards. A considerable , portion of the rectum and the upper part of the right seminal vesicle have been taken away. The vesiculae seminales are sac-like diverticula, one on each side, from the lower part of the ampullae of the vasa deferentia. They are about 2 in. long and run outward behind the bladder and parallel to the upper margin of the prostate for some little distance, but usually turn upward near their blind extremity. When carefully dissected and unravelled each is found to consist of a thick tube, about 5 in. long, which is sharply bent upon itself two or three times, and also has several short, sac-like pouches or diverticula. The vesiculae seminales are muscular sacs with a mucous lining which is thrown into a series of delicate net-like folds. The convolutions are held together by the pelvic cellular tissue, and by involuntary muscle continuous with that of the bladder. It is probable that these vesicles are not reservoirs, as was at one time thought, but form some special secretion which mixes with that of the testes. Where the vesiculae join the ampullae of the vasa deferentia the ejaculatory ducts are formed; these are narrow and thin-walled, terior part. It is about an in the middle of the gland angle (see fig. 5); here it is from a third to half an inch wide, though at the base and apex of the prostate it is narrower. When it is slit open from in front a longitudinal ridge is seen in its posterior wall, which is called the verumon- tanum or crista urethra, and on each side of this is a longitudinal depression, the prostatic sinus, into which numerous ducts of the prostate open, though some of them open, on to the antero-lateral surface. Near the lower part of the verumontanum is a little pouch, the utriculus masculinus, about one-eighth of an inch deep, the opening of which is guarded by a delicate membranous circular fold, the male hymen. Close to the opening of the utriculus the ejaculatory ducts, already mentioned, open into the urethra by very small apertures. The part of the urethra above the openings of these ducts really belongs to the urinary system only, though it is convenient to describe it here. After leaving REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM the prostate the urethra runs more forward for about three- quarters of an inch, lying between the two layers of the triangular From C. S. Wallace's Pnslatic Enlargement.! FIG. 3. — Coronal Section through the Pelvis, showing the relations of the bladder above, prostate and bulb below. ligament, both of which it pierces. This is known as the membranous urethra, and is very narrow, being gripped by the compressor urethrae muscle. The spongy urethra is that part which is enclosed in the penis after piercing the anterior layer of the triangular ligament. At first it lies in the substance of the bulb and, later, of the corpus spongiosum, while finally it passes through the glans. In the greater part of its course it is a transverse slit, but in tra- versing the glans it enlarges considerably to form the fossa navicularis, and here, in transverse section, it looks like an inverted T (J.), then an inverted Y (A), and finally at its opening From C. S. Wallace's Pmtatic Enlargement. FIG. 4. — Transverse Section of a young Prostate, showing wavy striped muscle in front, urethra in the middle, and the two ejacu- latory ducts behind. (external meatus) a vertical slit. Into the whole length of the urethra mucous glands (glands of Littre) open, and in the roof of 1 Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 9 of this article are redrawn from Cuthbert S. Wallace's Prostatic Enlargement by permission of the managers of The Oxford Medical Publications. the fossa navicularis the mouth of one of these is sometimes so large that it may engage the point of a small catheter and is known as the lacuna magna. As a rule the meatus is the narrowest part of the whole canal. Opening into the spongy urethra where it passes through the bulb are the ducts of two small glands known as Cowper's glands, which lie on each side of the membranous urethra and are best seen in childhood. The penis is the intromittent organ of generation, and is made up of three cylinders of erectile tissue, covered by skin and subcutaneous tissue without fat. In a transverse section two of these cylinders (the corpora cavernosa) are placed above, side by side, while one, the corpus spongiosum, is below. Pos- teriorly, at what is known as the root of the penis, the two corpora cavernosa diverge, become more and more fibrous in structure, and are attached on each side to the rami of the ischium, while the corpus spongiosum becomes more vascular and enlarges to form the bulb. It has already been pointed out that the whole length of the corpus spongiosum is traversed by the urethra. The anterior part of the penis is formed by the glans, a bell-shaped structure, apparently continuous with the corpus spongiosum, and having the conical ends of the cor- pora cavernosa fitted into depressions on its posterior surface. On the dorsum of the penis the rim of the bell-shaped glans projects beyond the level of the corpora cavernosa, and is From C. S. Wallace's Pnslatic Enlargement. FIG. 5. — Sagittal Median Section of Bladder, Prostate and Rectum, showing one of the ejaculatory ducts. known as the corona glandis. The skin of the penis forms a fold which covers the glans and is known as the prepuce or foreskin; when this is drawn back a median fold, the frenulum praeputii, is seen running to just below the meatus. After forming the prepuce the skin is reflected over the glans and here looks like mucous membrane. The structure of the cor- pora cavernosa consists of a strong fibrous coat, the tunica albuginea, from the deep surface of which numerous fibrous trabeculae penetrate the interior and divide it into a number of spaces which are lined with endothelium and communicate with the veins. Between the two corpora cavernosa the sheath is not complete and, having a comb-like appearance, is known as the septum pectinatum. The structure of the corpus spongiosum and glans resembles that of the corpora cavernosa, but the trabeculae are finer and the network closer. Female Reproductive Organs. The ovary is an organ which in shape and size somewhat resembles a large almond, though its appearance varies con- siderably in different individuals, and at different times of life. It lies in the side wall of the pelvis with its long axis nearly vertical and having its blunt end (tubal pole) upward. Its more pointed lower end is attached to the uterus by the liga- ment of the ovary, while its anterior border has a short reflection of peritoneum, known as the mesovarium, running forward to the broad ligament of the uterus. It is through this anterior border that the vessels and nerves enter and leave the gland. Under the microscope the ovary is seen to be covered by a 132 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM layer of cubical cells, which are continuous near the anterior border with the cells of the peritoneum. Deep to these is the ovarian stroma, composed of fibrous tissue, and embedded in it are numerous nests of epithelial cells, the Graafian fol- licles, in various stages of development. During the child- bearing period of life some of these will be nearing the ripe condition, and if one such be looked at it will be seen to con- tain one large cell, the ovum, surrounded by a mass of small cells forming the discus proligerus. At one point this is con- tinuous with a layer of cells called the stratum granulosum which lines the outer wall of the follicle, but elsewhere the two layers are separated by fluid, the liquor folliculi. When the follicle bursts, as it does in time, the ovum escapes on to the surface of the ovary. The Fallopian tubes receive the ova and carry them to the uterus. That end of each which lies in front of the ovary is called the fimbriated extremity, and has a number of fringes (fimbriae) hanging from it; one of the largest of these is the ovarian fimbria and is attached to the upper or tubal pole of the ovary. The small opening among the fimbriae by which the tube communicates with the peritoneal cavity is known as the ostium abdominale, and from this the lumen of the tube runs from four to four and a half inches, until it opens into the cavity of the uterus by an extremely small opening. In the accompanying figure (fig. 6) the Fallopian tube and ovary Parovarium Fallopian tube I Ovary Ligament of ovary Uterus Hydatid Fiml Round ligament Broad ligament A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Text-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 6. — A. The Uterus and Broad Ligament seen from behind (the broad ligament has been spread out). a, b and c, the isthmus tubae, the ligament of the ovary, and the round ligament of the right side cut short. B. Diagrammatic Representation of the Uterine Cavity opened up from in front. are pulled out from the uterus; this, as has been explained, is not the position of the ovary in the living body, nor is it of the tube, the outer half of which lies folded on the front and inner surface of the ovary. The Fallopian tubes, like many other tubes in the body, are made chiefly of unstriped muscle, the outer layer of which is longitudinal and the inner circular; deep to this are the submucous and mucous coats, the latter being lined with ciliated epithelium (see EPITHELIAL TISSUES), and thrown into longitudinal pleats. Superficially the tube is covered by a serous coat of peritoneum. The calibre gradually contracts from the peritoneal to the uterine opening. The uterus or -womb is a pear-shaped, very thick-walled, muscular bag, lying in the pelvis between the bladder and rectum. In the non-pregnant condition it is about three inches long and two in its broadest part, which is above. The upper half or body of the uterus is somewhat triangular with its base upward, and has an anterior surface which is moderately flat, and a posterior convex. The lower half is the neck or cervix and is cylindrical; it projects into the anterior wall of the vagina, into the cavity of which it opens by the os uteri externum. This opening in a uterus which has never been pregnant is a narrow transverse slit, rarely a circular aperture, but in those uteri in which pregnancy has occurred the slit is much wider and its lips are thickened and gaping and often scarred. The interior of the body of the uterus shows a com- paratively small triangular cavity (see fig. 6, B), the anterior and posterior walls of which are in contact. The base of the triangle is upward, and at each lateral angle one of the Fallopian tubes opens. The apex leads into the canal of the cervix, but between the two there is a slight constriction known as the os uteri internum. The canal of the cervix is about an inch long, and is spindle-shaped when looked at from in front; its anterior and posterior walls are in contact, and its lining mucous membrane is raised into a pattern which, from its likeness to a cypress twig, is called the arbor vitae. This arrange- ment is obliterated after the first pregnancy. On making a mesial vertical section of the uterus the cavity is seen as a mere slit which is bent about its middle to form an angle the opening of which is forward. A normal uterus is therefore bent forward on itself, or anteflexed. In addition to this, its long axis forms a marked angle with that of the vagina, so that the whole uterus is bent forward or anteverted. As a rule, in adults the uterus is more or less on one side of the mesial plane of the body. From each side of the uterus the peritoneum is reflected outward, as a two-layered sheet, to the side wall of the pelvis; this is the broad ligament, and between its layers lie several structures of importance. Above, there is the Fal- lopian tube, already described; below and in front is the round ligament; behind, the ovary projects backward, and just above this, when the broad ligament is stretched out as in fig. 6, are the epoophoron and paroophoron with the duct of Gartner. The round ligament is a cord of un- striped muscle which runs from the lateral angle of its own side of the uterus forward to the internal abdominal ring, and so through the inguinal canal to the upper part of the labium majus. The epoophoron or parovarium is a collection of short tubes which radiate from the upper border of the ovary when the broad ligament is pulled out as in fig. 6. It is best seen in very young children and represents the vasa effer- entia hi the male. Near the ovary the tubes are closed, but nearer the Fal- lopian tube they open into another tube which is nearly at right angles to them, and which runs toward the uterus, though in the human subject Lateral angle of uterus Vaginal cavity B it is generally lost before reaching that organ. It is known as the duct of Gartner, and is the homologue of the male epididymis and vas deferens. Some of the outermost tubules of the epoophoron are sometimes distended to form hydatids. Nearer the uterus than the epoophoron a few scattered tubules are occasionally found which are looked upon as the homologue of the organ of Giraldes in the male, and are known as the paroophoron. The vagina is a dilatable muscular passage, lined with mucous membrane, which leads from the uterus to the external genera- tive organs; its direction is, from the uterus, downward and forward, and its anterior and posterior walls are in contact, so that in a horizontal section it appears as a transverse slit. As the orifice is neared the slit becomes H-shaped. Owing to the fact that the neck of the uterus enters the vagina from in front, the anterior wall of that tube is only about 25 in., while the posterior is 35. The mucous membrane is raised into a series of transverse folds^or rugae, and between it and the muscular wall are plexuses of veins forming erectile tissue. The relation of the vagina to the peritoneum is noticed under COELUM and SEROUS MEMBRANES. The vulva or pudendum comprises all the female external generative organs, and consists of the mons Veneris, labia majora and minora, clitoris, urethral orifice, hymen, bulbs of the vestibule, and glands of Bartholin. The mons Veneris :s the REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM elevation in front of the pubic bones caused by a mass of fibro- fatty tissue; the skin over it is covered by hair in the adult. The labia majora are two folds of skin, also containing fibro-fatty tissue and covered on their outer surfaces by hair, running down from the mons Veneris to within an inch, of the anus and touching one another by their internal surfaces. They are the homologues of the scrotum in the male. The labia minora are two folds of skin containing no fat, which are usually hidden by the labia majora and above enclose the clitoris, they are of a pinkish colour and look like mucous membrane. The clitoris is the representative of the penis, and consists of two corpora cavernosa which posteriorly diverge to form the crura clitoridis, and are attached to the ischium; the organ is about an inch and a half long, and ends anteriorly in a rudi- mentary glans which is covered by the junction of the labia minora; this junction forms the prepuce of the clitoris. The orifice of the urethra is about an inch below the glans clitoridis and is slightly puckered. The hymen is a fold of mucous membrane which surrounds the orifice of the vagina and is usually only seen in the virgin. As has been pointed out above, it is represented in the male by the fold at the opening of the uterus masculinus. Occasionally the hymen is imperforate and then gives rise to trouble in menstruation. The bulbs of the vestibule are two masses of erectile tissue situated one on each side of the vaginal orifice: above they are continued up to the clitoris; they represent the bulb and the corpus spongiosum of the male, split into two, and the fact that they are so divided accounts for the urethra failing to be enclosed in the clitoris as it is in the penis. The glands of Bartholin are two oval bodies about half an inch long, lying on each side of the vagina close to its opening; they represent Cowper's glands in the male, and their ducts open by minute orifices between the hymen and the labia minora. From the above description it will be seen that all the parts of the male external genital organs are represented in the female, though usually in a less developed condition, and that, owing to the orifice of the vagina, they retain their original bi-lateral form. For further details see Quain's Anatomy (London: Longmans, Green & Co.) ; Gray's Anatomy (London : Longmans, Green & Co.) ; Cunningham's Text-Bo6k of Anatomy (Edinburgh: Young J. Pent- land), or Macafister's Anatomy (London: Griffin & Co.). Embryology. The development of the reproductive organs is so closely interwoven with that of the urinary that some reference from this article to that on the URINARY SYSTEM is necessary. It will here be convenient to take up the development at the stage depicted in the accompanying figure (fig. 7), in which the genital ridge (a) is seen on each side of the attachment of the mesentery ; external to this, and forming another slight ridge of its own, is the Wolffian duct, while a little later the Mullerian duct is .formed and lies ventral to the Wolffian. The early history of these ducts is indicated in the article on the URINARY SYSTEM. Until the fifth or sixth week the development of the genital ridge is very much the same in the two sexes, and consists of cords of cells growing from the epithelium-covered surface into the mesenchyme, which forms the interior of the ridge. In these cords are some large germ cells which are distinguishable at a very early stage of development. It must, of course, be understood that the germinal epithelium covering the ridge, and the mesenchyme inside it, are both derived from the mesoderm or middle layer of the embryo. About the fifth week of human embryonic life the tunica albuginea appears in the male, from which septa grow to divide the testis into lobules, while the epithelial cords form the seminiferous tubes, though these do not gain a lumen until just before puberty. From the adjacent mesonephros cords of cells grow into the attached part of the genital ridge, or testis, as it now is, and from these the rete testis is developed. Recent research, however, points to these cords of the rete testis et ovarii as being derived from the coelomic epithelium instead of from the mesonephros. In the female the same growth of epithelial cords into the mesenchyme of the genital ridge takes place, but each one is Neural tube— gunjlioo Anna-- Mesentery— Blood-vessel • — — «•• From A. F. Dixon, Cunningham's Ttxt-Book of Anatomy. FIG. 7. — Transverse Section through a Rat Embryo. a. shows position of germinal epithelium. distinguished by a bulging toward its middle, in which alone the large germ cells are found. Eventually this bulging part is broken up into a series of small portions, each of which contains one germ cell or ovum, and gives rise to a Graafian follicle. Mesonephric cords appear as in the male; they do not enter the ovary, however, but form a transitory network (rete ovarii) in the mesovarium. As each genital gland enlarges it remains attached to the rest of the intermediate cell mass by a constricted fold of the coelomic membrane, known as the mesorchium in the male, and the mesovarium in the female. Lying dorsal to the genital ridge in the intermediate cell mass is the mesonephros, consisting Ep.O. M.N. Mt.N FIG. 8. — Diagram of the Formation of the Genito-Urinary Apparatus. The first figure is the generalized type, the second the male and the third the female specialized arrangements. Suppressed parts are dotted. Pro. N. Pronephros. N. Nephrostome. M.N. Mt.N. Mesonephros. Metanephros. M.C. T. Malpighum corpuscle. Testis. B. Bladder. E. Epididymis. Clo. Cloaca. O.G. Organ of Giraldes. R. Rectum. V.D. Vas def erens. M.D. Mullerian duct. U.M. Uterus masculinus. W.D. Wolffian duct. O. Ovary. Ur. Ureter. Ep.O. Epoophoron. S.H.; Sessile hydatid. Par.O. Paroophoron. P.H. Pedunculated hydatid. F.T. Fallopian tube. S.G. Sexual gland. U. Uterus. of numerous tubules which open into the Wolffian duct. This at first is an important excretory organ, but during development becomes used for other purposes. In the male, as has been shown, it may form the rete testis, and certainly forms the vasa efferentia and globus major of the epididymis: in addition to these, some of its separate tubes probably account for the vas aberrans and the organ of Giraldes (see fig. 8, E. and O.G.). In the female the tubules of the epoophoron represent the main part. 134 REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM while the paroophoron, like the organ of Giraldes in the male, is probably formed from some separate tubes (see fig. 8, Ep. O. and Par. O.). The Wolffian duct, which, in the early embryo, carries the excretion of the mesonephros to the cloaca, forms eventually the body and tail of the epididymis, the vas deferens, and ejaculatory duct in the male, the vesicula seminalis being developed as a pouch in its course. In the female this duct is largely done away with, but remains as the collecting tube of the epoophoron, and in some mammals as the duct of Gartner, which runs down the side of the vagina to open into the vestibule. The Miillerian duct, as it approaches the cloaca, joins its fellow of the opposite side, so that there is only one opening into the ventral cloacal wall. In the male the lower part only of it remains as the uterus masculinus (fig. 8, U.M.), but in the female the Fallopian tubes, uterus, and probably the vagina, are all formed from it (fig. 8, F.T. and U.) . In both sexes a small hydatid or vesicle is liable to be formed at the beginning of both the Wolffian and Miillerian duct (fig. 8, P.H. and S.H.) ; in the male these are close together in front of the globus major of the epididymis, and are known as the sessile and pedunculated hydatids of Morgagni. In the female there is a hydatid among the fimbriae of the Fallopian tube which of course is Mullerian and corresponds to the sessile hydatid in the male, while another is often found at the beginning of the collecting tube of the epoophoron and is probably formed by a blocked mesonephric tubule. This is the pedunculated hydatid of the male. The development of the vagina, as Berry Hart (Journ. Anal, and Phys. xxxv. 330) has pointed out, is peculiar. Instead of the two Mullerian ducts joining to form the lumen of its lower third, as they do in the case of the uterus and its upper two-thirds, they become obliterated, and their place is taken by two solid cords of cells, which Hart thinks are derived from the Wolffian ducts and are therefore probably of ectodermal origin, though this is open to doubt. These cords later become canalized and the septum between them is obliterated. The common chamber, or cloaca, into which the alimentary, urinary and reproductive tubes open in the foetus, has the urinary bladder (the remains of -the allantois) opening from its ventral wall (see PLACENTA and URINARY SYSTEM). During development the alimentary or anal part of the cloaca is separated from the urogenital, and in the article ALIMENTARY SYSTEM the hitherto accepted method of this separation' is described. The question has, however, lately been reinvesti- gated by F. Wood Jones, who says that the anal part is com- plete.ly shut off from the urogenital and ends in a blind pouch which grows toward the surface and meets a new ectodermal depression, the main point being that the permanent anus is not, according to him, any part of the original cloacal aperture, but a new perforation. This description is certainly more in harmony with the malformations occurring in this region than the old one, and only awaits confirmatory evidence to be gener- ally accepted. The external generative organs have at first the same appear- ance in the two sexes, and consist of a swelling, the genital eminence, in the ventral wall of the cloaca. This in the male becomes the penis and in the female the clitoris. Throughout the generative system the male organs depart most from the undifferentiated type, and in the case of the genital eminence two folds grow together and enclose the urogenital passage, thus making the urethra perforate the penis, while in the female these two folds remain separate as the labia minora or nymphae. Sometimes in the male the folds fail to unite completely, and then there is an opening into the urethra on the under surface of the penis — a condition known as hypospadias. In the undifferentiated condition the integument surrounding the genital opening is raised into a horseshoeh'ke swelling with its convexity over the pubic symphysis and its concavity to- ward the anus; the lateral parts of this remain separate in the female and form the labia majora, but in the male they unite to form the scrotum. The median part forms the mons Veneris or mons Jovis. The Descent of the Testis. — It has been shown that the testis is formed in the loin region of the embryo close to the kidney, and it is only in the later months of foetal life that it changes this position for that of the scrotum. In the lower part of the genital ridge a fibro-muscular cord is formed which stretches from the lower part of the testis to the bottom of the scrotum; it is known as the gubernaculum testis, and by its means the testis is directed into the scrotum. Before the testis descends, a pouch of peritoneum called the processus vaginalis passes down in front of the gubernaculum through the opening in the abdominal wall, which afterwards becomes the inguinal canal, into the scrotum, and behind this the testis descends, carrying with it the mesonephros and mesonephric duct. These, as has already been pointed out, form the epididymis and vas def- erens. At the sixth month the testis lies opposite the abdom- inal ring, and at the eighth reaches the bottom of the scrotum and invaginates the processus vaginalis from behind. Soon after birth the communication between that part of the pro- cessus vaginalis which now surrounds the testis and the general cavity of the peritoneum disappears, and the part which remains forms the tunica vaginalis. Sometimes the testis fails to pass beyond the inguinal canal, and the term " cryptorchism " is used for such cases. In the female the ovary undergoes a descent like that of the testis, but it is less marked owing to the fact that the guber- naculum becomes attached to the Mullerian duct where that duct joins its fellow to form the uterus; hence the ovary does not descend lower than the level of the top of the uterus, and the part of the gubernaculum running between it and the uterus remains as the ligament of the ovary, while the part running from the uterus to the labium is the round ligament. In rare cases the ovary may be drawn into the labium just as the testis is drawn into the scrotum. Comparative Anatomy. — In the Urochorda, the class to which Salpa, Pyrosoma and the sea squirts (Ascidians) belong, male and female generative glands (gonads) are present in the same individual; they are therefore hermaphrodite. In the Acrania (Amphioxus) there are some twenty-six pairs of gonads arranged segmentally along the side of the pharynx and intestine and bulging into the atrium. Between them and the atrial wall, however, is a. rudimentary remnant of the coelom, through which the spermatozoa or ova (for the sexes are distinct) burst into the atrial cavity. There are no genital ducts. In the Cyclostomata (lampreys and hags) only one median gonad is found, and its contents (spermatozoa or ova) burst into the coelom and then pass through the genital pores into the urogenital sinus and so to the exterior. It is probable that the single gonad is accounted for by the fact that its fellow has been suppressed? In the Elasmobranchs or cartilaginous fishes there are usually two testes or two ovaries, though in the dogfish one of the latter is suppressed. From each testis, which in fish is popularly known as the soft roe, vasa efferentia lead into the mesonephros, and the semen is conducted down the vas deferens or mesone- phric duct into the urogenital sinus, into which also the ureters open. Sometimes one or more thin-walled diverticula — the sperm sacs — open close to the aperture of the vas deferens. In the female the ova are large, on account of the quantity of yolk, and they burst into the coelum, from which they pass into the large Mullerian ducts or oviducts. In the oviparous forms, such as the common dogfish (Scyllium), there is an oviducal gland which secretes a horny case for the egg after it is fertilized, and these cases have various shapes in 'different species. Some ,pf the Elasmobranchs, e.g., the spiny dogfish (Acanthias), are viviparous, and in these the lower part of the oviduct is enlarged and acts as a uterus. In male elasmo- branchs the anterior part of the Mullerian duct persists. Paired intromittent organs (claspers) are developed on the pelvic fins of the males; these conduct the semen into the cloaca of the female. In the teleostean and ganoid fishes (Teleostomi) the nephridial REPSOLD ducts are not always used as genital ducts, but special coelomic ducts are formed (see COELOM and SEROUS MEM- BRANES). In the Dipnoi or mudfish long coiled Mullerian ducts are present, but the testes either pour their secretion directly into the coelom or, as in Protopterus, have ducts which are probably coelomic in origin. In both the Teleostomi and Dipnoi the testes and ovaries are paired. True hermaphroditism is known among fishes, the hag (Myxine) and the sea perch (Serranus) being examples. In many others it occurs as an abnormality. In the Amphibia both ovaries and testes are symmetrical. In the snakelike forms which are found in the order Gymno- phiona the testes are a series of separate lobules extending for a long distance, one behind the other, and joined by a connecting duct from which vasa efferentia pass into the Mal- pighian capsules of the kidneys, and so the sperm is conducted to the mesonephric duct, which acts both as vas deferens and ureter. The Mullerian ducts or oviducts are long and often coiled in Amphibia, and usually open separately into the cloaca. There is no penis, but in certain forms, especially the Gymno- phiona, the cloaca is protrusible in the male and acts as an intromittent organ. Corpora adiposa or fat bodies are present in all Amphibians, and probably nourish the sexual cells during the hibernating period. In Reptilia two testes and ovaries are developed, though they are often asymmetrical in position. In Lizards the vas deferens and ureter open into the cloaca by a common orifice; as they do in the human embryo. In these animals there are two penes, which can be protruded and retracted through the vent; but in the higher reptiles (Chelonia and Crocodilia) there is a single median penis rising from the ventral wall of the cloaca, composed of erectile tissue and deeply grooved on its dorsal surface for the passage of the sperm. In birds the right ovary and oviduct degenerates, and the left alone is functional. In the male the ureter and vas deferens open separately into the cloaca, and in the Ratitae (ostriches) and Anseres (ducks and geese) a well-developed penis is present in the male. In the ostrich this is fibrous, and bifurcated at its base, suggesting the crura penis of higher forms. Among the Mammalia the Monotremata (Ornithorhynchus and Echidna) have bird-like affinities. The left ovary is larger than the right, and the oviducts open separately into the cloaca and do not fuse to form a uterus. The testes retain their abdominal position; and the vasa deferentia open into the base of the penis, which lies in a separate sheath in the ventral wall of the cloaca, and shows an advance on that of the reptiles and birds in that the groove is now converted into a complete tunnel. In the female there is a well-developed clitoris, having the same relations as the penis. In the marsupials the cloaca is very short, and the vagina and rectum open separately into it. The two uteri open separately and three vaginae are formed, two lateral and one median. The two lateral join together below to form a single median lower vagina, and it is by means of these that the spermatozoa pass up into' the oviducts. The upper median vagina at first does not open into the lower one, but during parturition a com- munication is established which in some animals remains permanent (see J. P. Hill, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S. Wales, 1899 and 1900). This tripartite arrangement of the upper part of the marsupial vagina is of especial interest in connexion with the views of the. embryology of the canal detailed by Berry Hart and already referred to. When, as in marsuf ials, the two uteri open separately into the vagina by two ora, the arrangement is spoken of as uterus duplex. When the two uteri join below and open by one os externum, it is known as uterus bipartitus. When the uterus bifurcates above and has two horns for the reception of the Fallopian tubes (oviducts) , but is otherwise single, the term uterus bicornis is given to it, while the single uterus of man and other Primates is called uterus simplex. From the marsupials upward the ovarian end of the Fallopian tube has the characteristic fimbriated appearance noticed in human anatomy. In some mammals, such as the sow and the cow, the Wolffian duct is persistent in the female and runs along the side of the vagina as the duct of Gartner. It is possible that the lateral vaginae of the marsupials are of Wolffian origin. In marsupials the testes descend into the scrotum, which lies in these animals in front of instead of behind the penis. In some mammals, such as the elephant, they never reach the scrotum at all; while in others, e.g. many rodents, they can be drawn up into the abdomen or lowered into the scrotum. The subject of the descent of the testicles has been very fully treated by H. Klaatsche, " Ueber den Descensus testiculorum," Morph. Jahrb., Ed. xvi. The prostate is met with in its most simple forms in marsupials, in which it is a mere thickening of the mucous membrane of the urethra; in the sheep it forms a bilateral elongated mass of gland tissue lying behind the urethra and surrounded by a well- developed layer of striped muscle. In the sloth it is said to be altogether absent, while in many of the insectivores and rodents it consists of many lobes which usually show a bilateral arrange- ment. The vesiculae seminales are. usually present in the Eutheria or higher mammals, and sometimes, as in the hedge- hog, are very large, though they are absent in the Carnivora. Cowper's glands are usually present and functional throughout From C. S. Wallace's Prostatic Enlargement. FIG. 9. — Transverse Section of Sheep's Prostate. life. The uterus masculinus is also usually present, but there is grave doubt whether the large organ called by this name in the rabbit should not rather be regarded as homologous with part of the vesiculae seminales. The penis shows many diversities of arrangement; above the marsupials its two crura obtain an attachment to the ischium. In many mammals it is quite hidden by the skin in the flaccid condition, and its external orifice may range from the perineum in the marsupials to the middle of the ventral wall of the abdomen in the ruminants. In the Marsupialia, Rodentia, Chiroptera, Carnivora and some Primates an os penis is developed in connexion with the corpora cavernosa. The clitoris is present in all mammals; sometimes, as in the female hyena, it is very large, and at others, as in the lemur, it is perforated by the urethra. For further details and literature, see Oppel's Lehrbuch der ver- gleich. mikroskop. Anatomie der Wirbelthiere, Bd. iv. (Jena, 1904); also Gegenbaur's Vergleich. Anal, der Wirbelthiere, and Wiedersheim's Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (London, 1907). (F. G. P.) REPSOLD, JOHANN GEORQ (i77i-i»3o), German instru- ment maker, was born at Wremen in Hanover on the 23rd of September 1771, and became an engineer and afterwards chief of the fire brigade in Hamburg, where he started business as an instrument maker early in the igth century. He was killed by the fall of a wall during a fire at Hamburg on the I4th of January 1830. The business was continued by his sons Georg (1804-1884) 136 REPTILES [HISTORY and Adolf (1806-1871), and his grandsons Johann Adolf and Oskar Philipp. J. G. Repsold introduced essential improvements in the meridian circles by substituting microscopes (on Jesse Ramsden's plan) for the verniers to read the circles, and by making the various parts perfectly symmetrical. For a number of years the firm furnished meridian circles to the observatories at Hamburg, Konigs- bcrg, Pulkova, &c.; later on its activity declined, while Pistor and Martins of Berlin rose to eminence. But after the discon- tinuance of this firm that of Repsold again came to the front, not only in the construction of transit circles, but also of equatorial mountings and more especially of heliometers (see MICRO- METER) . REPTILES (Lat. Reptilia, creeping things, from reptilis; re/ere, to creep; Gr. epTreiv, whence the term " herpetology," for the science dealing with them). In the days before Linnaeus, writers comprised the animals which popularly are known as tortoises and turtles, crocodiles, lizards and snakes, frogs and toads, newts and salamanders, under the name of oviparous quadrupeds or four-limbed animals which lay eggs. Linnaeus, desirous of giving expression to the extraordinary fact that many of these animals pass part of their life in the water and part on land,1 substituted the name of Amphibia for the ancient term. Subsequent French naturalists (Lyonnet2 and Brisson3) con- sidered that the creeping mode of. locomotion was a more general characteristic of the class than their amphibious habits, and consequently proposed the scarcely more appropriate name of Reptiles. As naturalists gradually comprehended the wide gap existing between frogs, toads, &c., on the one hand, and the other oviparous quadrupeds on the other, they either adopted the name of Batrachia for the former and that of Amphibia for the latter, or they restricted the term Amphibia to Batrachians, calling the remainder of these creatures reptiles. Thus the term Amphibia, as used by various authors, may apply (i) to all the various animals mentioned, or (2) to Batrachians only (see BATRACHIA). The term Reptiles (Reptilia) is used (i) by some for all the animals mentioned above, and (2) by others, as in the present article, for the same assemblage of animals after the exclusion of Batrachians. Equally varying are the limits of the term Saurians, which occurs so frequently in every scientific treatise on this subject. At first it comprised living crocodiles and lizards only, with which a number of fossil forms were gradually associated. As the characters and affinities of the latter became better known, some of them were withdrawn from the Saurians, and at present it is best to abandon the term altogether. I. HISTORY OF HERPETOLOGY Certain kinds of reptiles are mentioned in the earliest written records or have found a place among the fragments of the oldest relics of human art. Such evidences, however, form no part of a succinct review of the literature of the subject such as it is proposed to give here. We distinguish in it six periods: (i) the Aristotelian; (2) the Linnaean (formation of a class Amphibia, in which reptiles and Batrachians are mixed); (3) the period of the elimination of Batrachians as one of the reptilian orders (Brongniart) ; (4) that of the separation of reptiles and Bat- rachians as distinct subclasses; (5) that of the recognition of a class Reptilia as part of the Sauropsida (Huxley) ; (6) that of the discovery of fossil skeletons sufficiently well preserved to reveal, in its general outlines, the past history of the class. i. The Aristotelian Period. — Aristotle was the first to deal with the reptiles known to him as members of a distinct portion Aristotle °^ t^le al"mal kingdom, and to point out the character- istics by which they resemble each other and differ from other vertebrate and invertebrate animals. The plan of his 1 " Polymorpha in his amphibiis natura duplicem vitara plerisque concessit." 2 Theologie des insectes de Lesser (Paris, 1745), i. 91, note 5. 3 Regne animal divise en neuf classes (Paris, 1756). work, however, was rather that of a comparative treatise of the anatomical and physiological characters of animals than their systematic arrangement and definition, and his ideas about the various groups of reptiles are not distinctly expressed, but must be gleaned from the terms which he employs. Moreover, he paid less attention to the study of reptiles than to that of other classes. This is probably due to the limited number of kinds he could be acquainted with, to which only very few extra- European forms, like the crocodile, were added from other sources. But while we find in some respects a most remarkable accuracy of knowledge, there is sufficient evidence that he neglected everyday opportunities of information. Thus, he has not a single word about the metamorphoses of Batrachians, which he treats of in connexion with reptiles. Aristotle makes a clear distinction between the scute or scale of a reptile, which he describes as <£oXis, and that of a fish, which he designates as X«ris. He mentions reptiles (i) as oviparous quadrupeds with scutes, viz. Saurians and Chelonians; (2) as oviparous apodals, viz. Snakes; (3) as oviparous quadrupeds without scutes, viz. Batrachians. He considered the first and second of these three groups as much more nearly related to each other than to the third. Accurate statements and descriptions are sadly mixed with errors and stories of, to our eyes, the most absurd and fabulous kind. The most complete accounts are those of the crocodile (chiefly borrowed from Herodotus) and of the chameleon, which Aristotle evidently knew from personal observation, and had dissected himself. The other lizards men- tioned by him are the common lizards (aavpa), the common seps (XO.XKIS or f lyvls) and the gecko (do-KaXajSom/s or /copSuXos). Of snakes (of which he generally speaks as 3(£is) he knew the vipers (ex« or extova), the common snake (vdpos), and the blindworm (Tv\ivris o<£«), which he regards as a snake; he further mentions the Egyptian cobra and dragons (dpaiaav) — North-African serpents of fabulous size. Of Chelonians he describes in a perfectly recognizable manner land tortoises (xeXcbir;), freshwater turtles (ejws) and marine turtles (xsXoicr; 17 0a.Xa.TTia). Passing over eighteen centuries, we find the knowledge of reptiles to have remained as stationary as other branches of natural history, perhaps even more so. The reptile fauna of Europe was not extensive enough to attract the energy of a Belon' or Rondelet; popular prejudice and the difficulty of preserving these animals deterred from their study; nor was man sufficiently educated not to give implicit credence to the fabulous tales of reptiles in the isth and i6th centuries. The art of healing, however, was developing into a science based upon rational principles, and consequently not only those reptiles which formed part of the materia medica but also the venomous snakes became objects of study to the physician, though the majority of the writers were ignorant of the structure of the venom-apparatus, and of the distinction between non-venomous and venomous snakes. Nothing can show more clearly the small advance made by herpetology in this long post -Aristotelian period than a glance at the celebrated work, De Differentiis Animalium wotiom Libri decem (Paris, 1552), by Edward Wotton (1492- USSS)- Wotton treats of the reptiles which he designates as Quadrupedes oviparae et Serpentes in the sixth book of his work. They form the second division of the Quadrupedes qitae sanguinem habent, and are subdivided in the following " genera ": — Crocodilus et scincus (cap. cv.); Testudinum genera (cvi.); Ran- arum genera (cvii.); Lacertde (cviii.); Salamandra et seps quad- rupes (cix.); Stellio (ex.); Chamaeleo (cxi.); Serpentes (cxii.), a general account, the following being different kinds of serpents: Hydrus et alii quidam serpentes aquatiles (cxiii.) ; Serpentes terrestres et prints aspidum genera (cxiv.) ; Vipera, dipsas, cerastes, et hammodytes (cxv.); Haemorrhus, sepedon, seps, cenchris, et cenchrites (cxvi.); Basiliscus et alii quidam serpentes quorum venenum remedio caret (cxvii.) ; Draco, amphisbaena, et alii quidam serpentes quorum morsus minus affert periculi (cxviii.). Wotton's work might with propriety be termed " Aristoteles redivivus." The plan is the same, and the observations of the Greek naturalist are faithfully, sometimes literally, reproduced. HISTORY] REPTILES 137 It is surprising that even the reptiles "f his native country were most imperfectly known to the author. With the enlargement of geographical knowledge that of reptiles was also advanced, as is sufficiently apparent from the Johnston larSe encyclopaedic works of Gesner, Aldrovandi and Johnston. The last-named author especially, who published the various portions of his Natural History in the middle of the lyth century, was able to embody in his compilations notices of numerous reptiles observed by Francisco Hernandez in Mexico and by Marcgrave and Piso in Brazil. As the author had no definite idea of the Ray-Linnaean term " species," it is not possible to give the exact number of reptiles mentioned in his work. But it may be estimated at about fifty, not including some marine fishes and fabulous creatures. He figures (or rather reproduces the figures of) about forty — some species being represented by several figures. 2. Linnaean Period: Formation of a Class Amphibia. — Within the century which succeeded these compilatory works Precur- (1650-1750) fall the labours which prepared the way sorsof for and exerted the greatest influence on Ray and Lmaaeus. Lmnaeus. Although original researches in the field of herpetology were limited in extent and in number, the authors had freed themselves from the purely literary or scholastic tendency. Men were no longer satisfied with reproducing and commenting on the writings of their predecessors; the pen was superseded by the eye, the microscope and the knife, and statements were tested by experiment. This spirit of the age manifested itself, so far as the reptiles are concerned, in Chara's and Redi's admirable observations on the viper, in Major's and Vallisnieri's detailed accounts of the anatomy of the chameleon, in the researches of Jacobaeus into the metamorphoses of the Batrachians and the structure of lizards, in Dufay's history of the development of the salamander (for Batrachians are invariably associated with reptiles proper); in Tyson's description of the anatomy of the rattle- snake, &c. The natural history collections formed by insti- tutions and wealthy individuals now contained not merely skins of crocodiles or serpents stuffed and transformed into a shape to correspond with the fabulous descriptions of the ancient dragons, but, with the discovery of alcohol as a means of preserving animals, reptiles entire or dissected were exhibited for study; and no opportunity was lost of obtaining them from travellers or residents in foreign countries. Fossils also were now acknowledged to be remains of animals which had lived before the Flood, and some of them were recognized as those of reptiles. The contributions to a positive knowledge of the animal kingdom became so numerous as to render the need of a method- ical arrangement of the abundance of new facts more and more pressing. Of the two principal systematic attempts made in this period the first ranks as one of the most remarkable steps of the progress of natural history, whilst the second can only be designated as a signal failure, which ought to have been a warning to all those who in after years classified animals in what is called an, " artificial system." As the latter attempt, originating with Klein (1685-1759), did not exercise any further influence on herpetology, it will be sufficient to have merely o mentioned it. John Ray (1628-1705) had recognized the necessity of introducing exact definitions for the several categories into which the animals had to be divided, and he maintained that these categories ought to be characterized by the structure of animals, and that all zoological knowledge had to start from the " species " as its basis. His definition of reptiles as " animalia sanguinea pulmone respirantia cor unico tantum ventriculo instructum habentia ovipara " fixed the class in a manner which was adopted by the naturalists of the succeeding hundred and fifty years. Nevertheless, Ray was not a herpetologist ; his knowledge of reptiles is chiefly derived from the researches of others, from whose accounts, however, everything not based upon reliable demonstration is critically excluded. He begins with a chapter treating of frogs (Rana, with two species), toads (Bufo, with one species) and tortoises1 (Tesludo, with fourteen species). The second group comprises the Lacertae, twenty-five in number, and includes the salamander and newts; and the third the Serpentes, nine species, among which the limbless lizards are enumerated. Except in so far as he made known and briefly characterized a number of reptiles, our knowledge of this class was not advanced by Linnaeus. That he associated in the 1 2th edition cartilaginous and other fishes with the reptiles under the name of Amphibia Nantes was the result of some misunderstanding of an observation by Garden, and is not to be taken as a premonitory token of the recent discoveries of the relation between Batrachians and fishes. Linnaeus places reptiles, which he calls Amphibia, as the third class of the animal kingdom; he divides the genera thus: — ORDER i. REPTILES. — Testudo (15 species); Rana (17 sp.); Draco (2 sp.); Lacerla (48 sp., including 6 Batrachians). ORDER 2. SERPENTES. — Crotalus (5 species); Boa (10 sp.); Coluber (96 sp.); Anguis (15 sp.); Amphisbaena (2 sp.); Caecilia (2 sp.). None of the naturalists who under the direction or influence of Linnaeus visited foreign countries possessed any special knowledge of or predilection for the study of reptiles; all, however, contributed to our acquaintance with tropical forms, or transmitted well-preserved specimens to the collections at home, so that Gmelin, in the i3th edition of the Sy sterna Naturae, was able to enumerate three hundred and seventy-one species. The man who, with the advantage of the Linpaean method, first treated of reptiles monographically, was Laurenti. In a small book2 he proposed a new division of these animals, of which some ideas and terms have survived into our times, characterizing the orders, genera and species in a much more precise manner than Linnaeus, giving, for his time, excellent descriptions and figures of the species of his native country. Laurenti might have become for herpetology what Artedi was for ichthyology, but his resources were extremely limited. The circumstance that Chelonians are entirely omitted from his Synopsis seems due rather to the main object with which he engaged in the study of herpetology, viz. that of examining and distinguishing reptiles reputed to be poisonous, and to want of material, than to his conviction that tortoises should be relegated to another class. He divides the class into three orders: — 1. SALIENTIA, with the genera Pipa, Bufo, Rana, Hyla, and one species of " Proteus," viz. the larva of Pseudis paradoxa. 2. GRADIENTIA, the three first genera of which are Tailed Batrach- ians, viz. two species of Proteus (one being the P. anguinus), Triton and Salamandra; followed by true Saurians — Caudiverbera, Gecko, Chamaeleo, Iguana, Basiliscus, Draco, Cordylus, Crocodilus, Scincus, Stellio, Seps. 3. SERPENTIA, among which he continues to keep Amphisbaena, Caecilia and Anguis, but the large Linnaean genus Coluber is divided into twelve, chiefly from the scutellation of the head and form of the body. The work concludes with an account of the experiments made by Laurenti to prove the poisonous or innocuous nature of those reptiles of which he could obtain living specimens. The next general work on reptiles is by LacSpede. It appeared in the years 1788 and 1790 under the title Histaire naturelle des quadrupedes ovipares et des serpens (Paris, 2 vols. 4to). Although as regards treatment of details and amount of information this work far surpasses the modest attempt of Laurenti, it shows no advance towards a more natural division and arrangement of the genera. The author depends entirely on conspicuous external characters, and classifies the reptiles into (i) oviparous quadrupeds with a tail, (2) oviparous quadrupeds without a tail, (3) oviparous 1 In associating tortoises with toads, Ray could not disengage himself from the general popular view as to the nature of these animals, which found expression in the German Schildkrote (" Shield- toad "). 1 Specimen medicum exhibens Synopsin Reptilium emendatam cum experimentis circa venena et antidota Reptilium Austriacorum (Vienna, 1768, 8vo, pp. 214, with 5 plates). XXIH. 5 a 138 REPTILES [HISTORY Oaudin. bipeds (Chirotes and Pseudopus), (4) serpents, — an arrangement in which the old confusion of Batrachians and reptiles and the imperfect definition of lizards and snakes are continued, and which it is worthy of remark we find also adopted in Cuvier's Tableau elementaire de I'histoire naturelle des animaux (1798), and nearly so by Latreille in his Histoire naturelle des reptiles (Paris, 1801, 4 vols. 12 mo). Lacepede's monograph, however, remained for many years deservedly the standard work on reptiles. The numerous plates with which the work is illus- trated, are, for the time, well drawn, and the majority readily recognizable. 3. The Period of Elimination of Batrachians as one of the Reptilian Orders. — A new period for herpetology commences Bronx- with Alex. Brongniart,1 who in 1799 first recognized atari. the characters by which Batrachians differ from the other reptiles, and by which they form a natural passage to the class of fishes. Caecilia (as also Langaha and Acro- chordus) is left by Brongniart with hesitation in the order of snakes-, but newts and salamanders henceforth are no more classed with lizards. He leaves the Batrachians, however, in the class of reptiles, as the fourth order. The first order com- prises the Chelonians, the second the Saurians (including crocodiles and lizards), the third the Ophidians — terms which have been adopted by all succeeding naturalists. Here, however, Brongniart 's merit on the classification of reptiles ends, the definition and disposition of the genera remaining much the same as in the works of his predecessors. The activity in France in the field of natural science was at this period, in spite of the political disturbances, so great that only a few years after Lacepede's work another, almost identical in scope and of the same extent, appeared, viz. the Histoire naturelle genSrale et particuliere des reptiles of F. M. Daudin (Paris, 1802-3, 8 vols. 8vo). Written and illustrated with less care than that by Lacepede, it is of greater importance to the herpetologists of the present day, as it contains a considerable number of generic and specific forms described for the first time. Indeed, at the end of the work, the author states that he has examined more than eleven hundred specimens, belonging to five hundred and seventeen species, all of which he has described from nature. The system adopted is that of Brongniart, the genera are well defined, but ill arranged; it is, however, noteworthy that Caecilia takes now its place at the end of the Ophidians, and nearest to the succeeding order of Batrachians. The next step in the development of the herpetological system was the natural arrangement of the genera. This involved a stupendous amount of labour. Although many isolated con- tributions were made by various workers, this task could be successfully undertaken and completed in the Paris Museum only, in which, besides Seba's and Lacepede's collections, many other herpetological treasures from other museums had been deposited by the victorious generals of the empire, and to which, through Cuvier's reputation, objects from every part of the world were attracted in a voluntary manner. The men who devoted themselves to this task were A. M. C. Dumeril, Oppel and Cuvier himself. Oppel was a German who, during his visit to Paris (1807-1808), attended the Cuvier. lectures of Dumeril and Cuvier, and at the same time studied the materials to which access was given to him by the latter in the most liberal manner. Dumeril 2 maintains that Oppel's ideas and information were entirely derived from his lectures, and that Oppel himself avows this to be the case. The passage,3 however, to which he refers is somewhat ambiguous, 1 Bull. Acad. Sci. (1800), Nos. 35, 36. 2 Erpet. gener., i. p. 259. 8 " Ware es nicht die Ermunterung . . . dieser Freunde gewesen, so wiirde ich uberzeugt von den Mangeln, denen eine solche Arbeit bei aller moglichen Vorsicht doch unterworfen ist, es nie gewagt haben, meine Eintheilung bekannt zu machen, obwohl selbe Herr Dum^ril in seinen Lectionen vom Jahre 1809 schon vorgetragen, und die Thiere im Cabinet darnach bezeichnet hat " (preface, p. viii). A few lines further on he emphatically declares that the classification is based upon his own researches. and it is certain that there is the greatest possible difference between the arrangement published by Dumeril in 1806 (Zoologie Andlytique, Paris, 8vo) and that proposed by Oppel in his Ordnungen, Familien,undGattungen der Reptilien (Munich, 1811, 4to). There is no doubt that Oppel profited largely by the teaching of Dumeril; but, on the other hand, there is sufficient internal evidence in the works of both authors, not only that Oppel worked independently, but also that Dumeril and Cuvier owed much to their younger fellow-labourer, as Cuvier himself indeed acknowledges more than once. Oppel's classification may be shortly indicated thus: — ORDER I. TESTUDINATA OR CHELONIENS. Fam. i. CHELONII (gen. Mydas, Goriacea). Fam. 2. AMYDAE (gen. Trionyx, Chelys, Testudo, Emys). ORDER 2. SQUAMATA. Sect. A. SAURII. Fam. I. CROCODILINI (gen. Grocodilus, Gavialis, Alligator). Fam. 2. GECKOIDES (gen. Gecko, Stellio, Agama). Fam. 3. IGUANOIDES (gen. Camaeleo, Draco, Iguana, Basiliscus, Lophyrus, Anolis). Fam. 4. LACERTINI (gen. Tupinambis, Dracaena, Lacerta, Tachy- drontus). Fam. 5. SCINCOIDES (gen. Scincus, Seps, Scheltopusik, Anguis). Fam. 6. CHALCIDICI (gen. Chalcides, Bimanus, Bipes, Ophisaurus). Sect. B. OPHIDII. Fam. i. ANGUIFORMES (gen. Tortrix, Amphisbaena, Typhlops). Fam. 2. CONSTRICTORES (gen. Boa, Eryx). Fam. 3. HYDRI (gen. Platurus, Hydrophis). Fam. 4. PSEUDO-VIPERAE (gen. Acrochordus, Erpeton). Fam. 5. CROTALINI (gen. Crotalus, Trigonocephalus). Fam. 6. VIPERINI (gen. Vipera, Pseudoboa). Fam. 7. COLUBRINI (gen. Coluber, Bungarus). ORDER 3. NUDA OR BATRACII. In this classification we notice three points, which indicate a decided progress towards a natural system, (i) The four orders proposed by Brongniart are no more considered co- subordinate in the class, but the Saurians and Ophidians are associated as sections of the same order, a view held by Aristotle but abandoned by all following naturalists. The distinction between lizards and snakes is carried out in so precise a manner that one genus only, Amphisbaena, is wrongly placed. (2) The true reptiles have now been entirely divested of all hetero- geneous elements by relegating positively Caecilia to the Batrachians, a view for which Oppel had been fully prepared by Dumeril, who pointed out in 1807 that " les cecities se rapprochent considerablement des batraciens auxquels elles semblent lier 1'ordre entier des serpens."4 (3) An attempt is made at arranging the genera into families, some of which are still retained at the present day. In thus giving a well-merited prominence to Oppel's labours we are far from wishing to detract from the influence exercised by the master spirit of this period, Cuvier. Without his guid- ance Oppel probably never would have found a place among the promoters of herpetological science. But Cuvier's principal researches on reptiles were incidental or formed part of some more general plan; Oppel concentrated his on this class only. Cuvier adopts the four orders of reptiles proposed by Brong- niart as equivalent elements of the class, and restores the blind- worms and allied lizards and, what is worse, also the Caecilias, to the Ophidians. The chameleons and geckos are placed in separate groups, and the mode of dividing the latter has been retained to the present day. Also a natural division of the snakes, although the foreign elements mentioned are admitted into the order, is sufficiently indicated by his arrangement of the " vrais serpens proprement dits " as (i) non-venomous snakes, (2) venomous snakes with several maxillary teeth, and (3) venomous snakes with isolated poison-fangs. He distinguishes the species of reptiles with a precision not attained in any previous work. ^ Cuvier's researches into the osteology of reptiles had also the object of discovering the means of understanding the fossil remains which now claimed the attention of French, English and German naturalists. Extinct Chelonian and Crocodilian 4 Memoires de zoologie et d'anatomie comparee (Paris, 1807, 8vo), P- 45- HISTORY] REPTILES 139 v!fwe"" Menem. remains, Pterodactylus, Mosasaurus, Iguanodon, Ichthyosaurus, Teleosaurus, became the subjects of Cuvier's classical treatises, which form the contents of the 5th volume (part 2) of his Recherches sur les ossemens fossiles, oil. Von rttablit les caracteres des plusieurs animaux dont les revolutions du globe ont detruit les especes (new ed., Paris, 1824, 4to). All the succeeding herpetologists adopted either Oppel's or Cuvier's view as to the number of orders of reptiles, or as to the position Batrachians ought to take in their relation *° vePliles proper, with the single exception of D. DE BLAINVILLE. He divided the " oviparous subtype " of Vertebrates into four classes, Birds, Reptiles, Amphibians and Fishes,1 a modification of the system which is all the more significant as he designates the reptiles " Squammiferes Ornithoides, ecailleux," and the amphibians " Nudipelliferes, Ichthyoldes nus." In these terms we perceive clear indications of the relations which exist to the class of birds on the one hand, and to that of fishes on the other; but, unfortunately, Blainville himself did not follow up the ideas thus expressed, and abandoned even the terms in a later edition of his systematic tables. The direct or indirect influence of the work of French anato- mists manifested itself in the systems of the other herpetologists of this period. The Crocodiles, especially, which hitherto (strange to say, even in Cuvier's classification) had been placed as one of the families of Saurians, now commence to be separated from them. MERREM (Versuch eines Systems der Amphibien, Marburg, 1820, 8vo) distinguishes two classes of " Amphibians," Pholidota and Batrachia. The Pholidota (or Reptiles) are divided into three orders, distin- guished chiefly by osteological and splanchnological characters: — 1. TESTUDINATA. 2. LORICATA ( = Crocodiles). 3. SQUAMATA (=Oppel's Squamata, excluding Crocodiles). Merrem's subdivision of the Squamata into (i) Gradientia ( = limbed Lacertilia), (2) Repentia ( = limbless Lacertilia), (3) Serpentia (= Snakes and Amphisbaena), (4) Incedentia ( = Chirotes), and (5) Predentia ( = Chamaeleons) was based chiefly on the modi- fications of the limbs, and not adopted by his successors. The greater part of his work is occupied with a synopsis of all the species of Reptiles known, each being shortly characterized by a diagnosis; but, as only a small proportion (about one hundred and seventy) were known to him from autopsy, this synopsis has all the faults of a compilation. LATREILLE, who commenced the study of reptiles as early as 1801, had kept pace with the progress of science when he published, in 1825, his Families naturelles du regne animal (Paris, 1825, 8vo). He separated the Batra- chians as a class from the Reptiles, and the latter he divides into two sections only, Cataphracta and Squamosa — in the former Crocodiles being associated with the Chelonians. He bases this view on the development of a carapace in both, on the structure of the feet, on the fixed quadrate bone, on the single organ of copulation. None of the succeeding herpetologists adopted a combination founded on such important characters except J. E. GRAY, who, however, destroyed Latreille's idea of Cataphracta by adding the Amphisbaenians2 as a third order. A mass of new materials now began to accumulate from all parts of the world in European museums. Among others, Spix had brought from Brazil a rich spoil to the Munich Museum, and the Bavarian Academy charged JOH. WAGLER to prepare a general system of reptiles and batra- chians. His work,3 the result of ten years' labour, is a simple but lasting monument to a young naturalist,4 who, endowed with an ardent imagination, only too frequently misinterpreted the evidence of facts, or forced it into the service of preconceived ideas. Cuvier had drawn attention to certain resemblances in 1Bull. Sci. Soc. Philomat., July 1816. 2 Catalogue of the Tortoises, Crocodiles and Amphisbaenians in the Collection of the British Museum (London, 1844, i6mo), p. 2. 8 Naturliches System der Amphibien mil vorangehender Classifica- tion der Saugethiere und Vogel — ein Beilrag zur vergleichenden Zoologie (Munich, 1830, 8vo). 4 Wagler was accidentally killed three years after the publication of his System. Latrellle. Oray. some parts of the osseous structure of Ichthyosaurus and Ptero- dactylus to dolphins, birds, crocodiles, &c. Wagler, seizing upon such analogical resemblances, separated those extinct Saurians from the class of Reptiles, and formed of them and the Monotremes a distinct class of Vertebrates, intermediate between mammals and birds, which he called Gryphi. We must admit that he made free use of his imagination by defining his class of Gryphi as " vertebrates with lungs lying free in the pectoral cavity; oviparous development of the embryo (within or) without the parent; the young fed (or suckled?) by the parents." By the last character this Waglerian class is distinguished from the reptiles. Reptiles (in which Wagler includes Batrachians) are divided into eight orders: Testudines, Crocodili, Lacertae, Serpentes, Angues, Caeciliae, Ranae and Ichthyodi. He has great merit in having employed, for the subdivision of the families of lizards, the structure of the tongue and the mode of insertion of the teeth in the jaws. On the other hand, Wagler entirely failed in arrang- ing snakes in natural families, venomous and non-venomous types being mixed in the majority of his groups. L. FITZINGER was Wagler's contemporary; his first work* preceded Wagler's system by four years. As he says in the preface, his object was to arrange the reptiles in Ptt*~ " a natural system." Unfortunately, in order to later. attain this object, Fitzinger paid regard to the most superficial points of resemblance; and in the tabula affinitatum generum which he constructed to demonstrate " the progress of nature " he has been much more successful in placing closely allied generic forms in contiguity than in tracing the relationships of the higher groups. That table is prepared in the form of a genealogical tree, but Fitzinger wished to express thereby merely the amount of morphological resemblance, and there is no evidence whatever in the text that he had a clear idea of genetic affinity. The Batrachians are placed at the bottom of the scheme, leading through Hyla to the Geckos (clearly on account of the digital dilatations) and through Caecilia to Amphisbaena. At the top Draco leads through Pterodactylus to the Bats (Pteropus), Ichthyosaurus to the Cetaceans (Del- phinus), Emys to the Monotremes, Testudo to Manis, and the Marine Turtles to the Divers and Penguins. In Fitzinger's system the higher groups are, in fact, identical with those proposed by Merrem, while greater originality is shown in the subdivision of the orders. He differed also widely from Wagler in his views as to the relations of the extinct forms. The order of Loricata consists of two families, the Ichthyosaurpidea and Croco- diloidea, the former comprising Iguanodon, Plesiosaurus, Sauro- cephalus and Ichthyosaurus. In the order Squamata Lacertilians and Ophidians are combined and divided into twenty-two families, almost all based on the most conspicuous external characters: the first two, viz. the Geckos and Chameleons, are natural enough, but in the three following Iguanoids and Agamoids are sadly mixed, Pterodactyles and Draco forming one family; Megalo- saurus, Mosasaurus, Varanus, Tejus, &c., are associated in another named Ameivoidea; the Amphisbaenidae are correctly defined; the Cplubroidea are a heterogeneous assemblage of thirty genera; but with his family of Bungaroidea Fitzinger makes an attempt to separate at least a part of the venomous Colubrine Snakes from the Viperines, which again are differentiated from the last family, that of Crotaloidea. • If this little work had been his only performance in the field of herpetology his name would have been honourably mentioned among his fellow-workers. But the promise of his early labours was not justified by his' later work, and if we take notice of the latter here it is only because his name has become attached to many a reptile through the pedantic rules of zoological nomenclature. The labours of Wiegmann, Mttller, Dumeril and Bibron exercised no influence on him, and when he commenced to publish a new system of reptiles in 1843,' °f which fortunately one fasciculus only appeared, he exhibited a classification in which morphological facts are entirely superseded by fanciful ideas of the vaguest kind of physiosophy, each class of vertebrates being divided s Neue Classification der Reptilien nach ihren naturlichen Ver- wandtschaften (Vienna, 1826, 4to). • Systema Reptilium (Vienna, 1843, 8vo). 140 REPTILES [HISTORY fl va- into five " sense " series, and each series into three orders one comprising forms of superior, the second of medium anc the third of inferior development. In the generic arrangemenl of the species, to which Fitzinger devoted himself especially in this work, he equally failed to advance science. We have now arrived at a period distinguished by the appear- ance of a work which superseded all its predecessors, which formed the basis for the labours of many succeeding years and which will always -remain one of the classical monuments of descriptive zoology — the Erpetologie generate ou histoire naturelle complete des reptiles of A. M. C. DUMERIL and G. BIBRON (Paris, 8vo). The first volume appeared in 1834, and the ninth and last in 1854. No naturalist of that time could have been better qualified for the tremendous undertaking than C. Dumeril, who almost from the first year of half a century's connexion with the then largest collection of Reptilia had chiefly devoted himself to their study. The task would have been too great for the energy of a single man; it was, therefore, fortunate for Dumeril that he found a most devoted fellow-labourer in one of his assistants, G. Bibron, whose abilities equalled those of the master, but who, to the great loss of science, died (in 1848) before the completion of the work. Dumeril had the full benefit of Bibron's knowledge for the volumes containing the Snakes, but the last volume, which treats of the Tailed Batrachians, had to be prepared by Dumeril alone. The work is the first which gives a comprehensive scientific account of reptiles generally, their structure, physiology and literature, and again each of the four orders admitted by the authors is introduced by a similar general account. In the body of the work 121 Chelonians, 468 Saurians, 586 Ophidians and 218 Batrachians are described in detail and with the greatest precision. Singularly enough, the authors revert to Brong- niart's arrangement, in which the Batrachians are co-ordinate with the other three orders of reptiles. This must appear all the more strange as Von Baer1 in 1828, and J. Miiller2in 1831, had urged, besides other essential differences, the important fact that no Batrachian embryo possesses either an amnion or an allantois, like a reptile. 4. Period of the Separation of Reptiles and Batrachians as Distinct Classes or Subclasses. — In the chronological order which we have adopted for these historical notes, we had to refer in their proper places to two herpetologists, Blainville and Latreille, who advocated a deeper than merely ordinal separation of Reptiles from Batrachians, and who were followed by J. /nailer F. S. Leuckart. But this view only now began to find and more general acceptance. J. MULLER and STANNIUS ID/OS. were guided in their classification entirely by ana- tomical characters, and consequently recognized the wide gap which separates the Batrachians from the Reptiles; yet they considered them merely as subclasses of the class Amphibia. The former directed his attention particularly to those forms which seemed to occupy an intermediate position between Lacertilians and Ophidians, and definitely relegated Anguis, Pseudopus, Acontias to the former, and Typhlops, Rhinophis, Tortrix, but also the Amphisbaenoids to the latter. Stannius interpreted the characteristics of the Amphisbaenoids differ- ently, as will be seen from the following abstract of his. classi- fication:3 — SUBCLASSIS: AMPHIBIA MONO PNOA (Leuckart). SECT. i. STREPTOSTYLICA (Stann.). Quadrate bone arti- culated to the skull; copulatory organs paired, placed out- side the cloacal cavity. ORDOI. OPHIDIA. Subordo I. EURYSTOMATA or MACROSTOMATA (Mull.). The facial bones are '.loosely connected to admit of great extension of the wide mouth. Subordo 2. ANGIOSTOMATA or MICROSTOMATA (Mull.). Mouth narrow, not extensile; quadrate bone attached to the skull and not to a mastoid. 1 Enlwicklungsgeschichte der Thiere, p. 262. 2 Tiedemann s Zeitschrift fur Physiologie, vol. iv. p. 200. 3 Siebold and Stannius, Handbuch der Zootomie — Zootomie der Amphibien (2nd ed., Berlin, 1856, 8vo). ORD02. SAURIA. Subordo i. AMPHISBAENOIDEA. Subordo 2. KIONOCRANIA (Stann. )= Lizards. Subordo 3. CHAMAELEONIDEA. SECT. 2. MONIMOSTYLICA (Stann.). Quadrate bone sutur- ally united with the skull; copulatory organ simple, placed within the cloaca. ORDO i. CHELONIA. ORDO 2. CROCODILIA. This classification received the addition of a fifth Reptilian order which with many Lacertilian characters combined im- portant Crocodilian affinities, and in certain other respects differed from both, viz. the New Zealand Hatteria, which by its first describers had been placed to the Agamoid Lizards. A. GttNTHER,4 who pointed out the characteristics of this reptile, considered it to be co-ordinate with the other four orders of reptiles, and characterizes it thus: — Rhynchocephalia. — Quadrate bone suturally and immovably united with the skull and pterygoid; columella present. Kami of the mandible united as in Lacertilians. Temporal region with two horizontal bars. Vertebrae amphicoelian. Copulatory organs, none. 5. Period of the Recognition of a Class of Reptilia as Part of the Sauropsida. — Although so far the discovery of every new morphological and developmental fact had prepared naturalists for a class separation of Reptiles and Batrachians, it was left to T. H. Huxley to demonstrate, not merely that the weight of facts demanded such a class separation, but that the reptiles hold the same relation to birds as the fishes to Batrachians. In his Hunterian Lectures (1863) he divided the vertebrates into Mammals, Sauroids and Ichthyoids, subsequently substituting for the last two the terms Sauropsida and Ichthyopsida.6 The Sauropsida contain the two classes of birds and reptiles, the Ichthyopsida those of Batrachians and fishes. 6. Period of the Consideration of Skeletons of Extinct Reptiles. — SIR R. OWEN, while fully appreciating the value of the osteological characters on which Huxley based his division, yet Q admitted into his consideration those taken from the organs of circulation and respiration, and reverted to Latreille's division of warm- and cold-blooded (haematothermal and haematocryal) vertebrates, thus approximating the Batrachians to reptiles, and separating them from birds.6 The reptiles (or Monopnoa, Leuck.) thus form the highest of the five subclasses into which, after several previous c'assifications, Owen 7 finally divided the Haematocrya. His division of this subclass, however, nto nine orders, makes a considerable step in the progress of lerpetology, since it takes into consideration for the first time the many extinct groups whose skeletons are found fossil. He shows that the number of living reptilian types bears but a small aroportion to that of extinct forms, and therefore that a sys- tematic arrangement of the entire class must be based chiefly upon osteological characters. His nine orders are the follow- ng: a. ICHTHYOPTERYGIA (extinct)— Ichthyosaurus. b. SAUROPTERYGIA (extinct) — Plesiosaurus, Pliosaurus, Notho- saurus, Placodus. :. ANOMODONTIA (extinct) — Dicynodon, Rhynchosaurus, Ouden- odon. d. CHELONIA. e. LACERTILIA (with the extinct Mosasaurus). f. OPHIDIA. [.CROCODILIA (with the extinct Teleosaurus and Streptospon- dylus). h. DINOSAURIA (extinct) — Iguanodon, Scelidosaurus and Megalo- saurus. '. PTEROSAURIA (extinct)— Dimorphodon, Rhamphorhynchus and Pterodactylus. Owen was followed by Huxley and E. D. Cope, who, however, restricted still mttre the selection of classificatory characters by •elying for the purposes of arrangement on a few parts of the 4 " Contribution to the Anatomy of Hatteria (Rhynchocephalus Owen)," in Phil. Trans. (1867), part ii. 6 An Introduction to the Classification of Animals (London, 1869, °vo), pp. 104 seq. 6 Anatomy of Vertebrates (London, 1866, 8vo), vol. i. p. 6. ' Op. cit. p. 16. GENERAL CHARACTERS] REPTILES 141 Huxley. skeleton only. They attempted a further grouping of the orders which in Owen's system were merely serially enumerated as cosubordinate groups. HUXLEY used for this purpose almost exclusively the position and character of the rib-articulations to the vertebral centra, the orders themselves being the same as in Owen's system: — A. PLEUROSPONDYLIA. Dorsal vertebrae devoid of trans- verse processes and not movable upon one another, nor are the ribs movable upon the vertebrae. A plastron. Order I, CHELONIA. B. The dorsal vertebrae (which have either complete or rudi- mentary transverse processes) are movable upon one another, and the ribs upon them. No plastron. a. The dorsal vertebrae have transverse processes which are either entire or very imperfectly divided into terminal facets (ERPETOSPONDYLIA). a. Transverse processes long; limbs well developed, pad- dles; sternum and sternal ribs absent or rudiment- ary. Order 2, PLESIOSAURIA (= Sauropterygia, Ow.). jS. Transverse processes short. aa. A pectoral arch and urinary bladder. Order 3, LACERTILIA. 66. No pectoral arch and no urinary bladder. Order 4, OPHIDIA. b. The dorsal vertebrae have double tubercles in place of trans- verse processes (PEROSPONDYLIA). Limbs paddle-shaped. Order 5, ICHTHYOSAURIA ( = Ichthyopterygia, Ow.). c. The anterior dorsal vertebrae have elongated and divided transverse processes, the tubercular being longer than the capitular division (SucnOSPONDYLlA). o. Only two vertebrae in the sacrum. Order 6, CROCO- DILIA. (8. More than two vertebrae in the sacrum. 00. Manus without a prolonged ulnar digit. aa. Hind limb Saurian. Order 7, DICYNODON- TIA (= Anomodontia, Ow.). /S/3. Hind limb Ornithic. Order 8, ORNITHO- SCELIDA ( = Dinosauria, Ow.). 66. Manus with an extremely long ulnar digit. Order 9, PTEROSAURIA. COPE,1 by combining the modifications of the quadrate and supporting bones with the characters used by Huxley, further developed Owen's classification, separating the Pythonomorpha and Rhynchocephalia as distinct orders from the Lacertilia. He eventually2 elaborated the following classification, based entirely on osteological characters: — I. The quadrate bone immovably fixed to the adjacent elements by suture. A. Scapular arch external to ribs; temporal region with a complex bony roof ; no longitudinal postorbital bars. A tabular and supramastoid bones and a presternum; limbs ambulatory; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order I, COTYLOSAURIA. AA. Scapular arch internal to ribs ; temporal region with com- plex roof and no longitudinal bars. A presternum; limbs ambulatory. Order 2, CHELYDO- SAURIA. AAA. Scapular arch internal to ribs; sternum extending below coracoids and pelvis; one postorbital bar. No supramastoid ; a paroccipital ; clavicle not articulating with scapula. Order 3, TESTUDINATA. AAAA. Scapular arch external to ribs; one longitudinal post- orbital bar (Synaptosauria). A supramastoid and paroccipital bones ; ribs two-headed on centrum; carpals and tarsals not distinct in form from metapodials; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order 4, ICHTHYOPTERYGIA. A supramastoid; paroccipital not distinct; a postorbito- squamosal arch ; ribs two-headed ; a clavicle; obturator foramen small or none ; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order 5, THEROMORA. No supramastoid ; paroccipital not distinct ; a quadrato- jugal arch; scapula triradiate; no clavicle; ribs one- headed. Order 6, PLESIOSAURIA. AAAAA. Scapular arch external to ribs; two longitudinal post- orbital bars (paroccipital arch distinct) (Archosauna). a. A supramastoid bone. Ribs two-headed; a clavicle and interclavicle ; aceta- bulum closed; no obturator foramen; ambulatory; vertebrae amphicoelous. Order 7, PELYCOSAURIA. aa. No supramastoid. 1 Proc. Amer. Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, loth meeting (Cambridge, 1871, 8vo), pp. 230 sq.; Amer. Naturalist (1889), vol. xxiii. p. 863. 'Syllabus of Lectures on the Vertebrata (Philadelphia, 1898, 8vo), P- 54- O.sAorn. Ribs two-headed; interclavicle not distinct; external digits greatly elongated to support a patagium for flight. Order 8, ORNITHOSAURIA. Ribs two-headed; no interclavicle; acetabulum open; ambulatory. Order 9, DINOSAURIA. Ribs two-headed; an interclavicle; acetabulum closed; ambulatory. Order 10, LORICATA. Ribs one-headed; an interclavicle; acetabulum closed, a large obturator foramen; ambulatory. Order n, RHYNCHOCEPHALIA. II. The quadrate bone loosely articulated to the cranium and at the proximal end only (Streptostylica). No distinct supramastoid, nor opisthotic; one or no post- orbital bar; scapular arch, when present, external to ribs; ribs one-headed. Order 12, SQUAMATA. While this classification was being considered and prepared, both Cope and G. Baur made a special study of the bones which surround the quadrate and arch over the biting muscles in the various groups of reptiles. This led to a series of discussions which ended in the idea, that the class could be most naturally divided into two great subclasses, the one culminating in tortoises and mammals, the other in crocodiles, lizards, snakes and birds. Professor H. F. OSBORN in 1903 * therefore proposed the following classification : — Subclass SYNAPSIDA. Primarily with single or undivided temporal arches. Giving rise to the mammals through some unknown member of the Anomodontia. Orders Cotylosauria, Anomodontia, Testudinata and Sauropterygia. Subclass DIAPSIDA. Primarily with double or divided temporal arches. Giving rise to the birds through some unknown type transitional between Protorosauria and Dinosauria. Orders Diaptosauria (= Protorosauria, Pelycosauria and Rhyn- chocephalia), Phytosauria (=Belodon, &c.), Ichthyosauria, Crocoduia, Dinosauria, Squamata and Pterosauria. The most exhaustive and modern general work on reptiles is by Dr C. K. HOFFMANN in Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs (1879-90). A most useful and less technical treatise is the volume on Amphibia and Reptiles contri- buted by Dr H. Gadow to the Cambridge Natural History (London, 1902). (A. C. G.; A. S. Wo.) II. GENERAL CHARACTERS OF THE CLASS REPTILIA Reptiles, as known in the existing world, are the modified, and in many respects degenerate, representatives of a group of lung-breathing vertebrate animals which attained its maximum development in the Mesozoic period. So far as can be judged from the skeleton, some of the members of this group then living might have become mammals by very slight change, while others might as readily have evolved into birds. It is therefore probable that the class Reptilia, as now understood, comprises the direct ancestors both of the Mammalia and Aves. Assuming that its extinct members, which are known only by skeletons, were organized essentially like its existing representatives, the class ranks higher than that of the lowest five-toed vertebrates (class Batrachia) in the investment of the foetus by two membranous envelopes (the amnion and allantois), and in the total absence of gills even in the earliest embryos. It ranks below both the Mammalia and Aves in the partial mixture of the arterial blood with the venous blood as it leaves the heart, thus causing the organism to be cold-blooded; it also differs both from Mammalia and Aves in retaining a pair of aortic arches, of which only the left remains in the former, while the right one is retained in the latter. No feature in the endoskeleton is absolutely distinctive, except possibly the degeneration of the parasphenoid bone, which separates the Reptilia from the Amphibia. In the exoskeleton, however, the epidermis forms horny scales, such as never occur in Amphibia, while there are no traces of any structures resembling either hairs or feathers, which respectively characterize Mammalia and Aves. There is little doubt that true reptiles date back to the latter part of the Palaeozoic period, but at that epoch the Amphibia approached them so closely in the characters of the skeleton that it is difficult to distinguish the members of the two classes among the fossils. Some of the Palaeozoic Amphibia — a few of the so-called Labyrinthodonts — are proved to have had well- developed gill-arches in their immature state, while there are conspicuous marks of slime-canals on their skulls. Others are 1 Mem. American Mus. Nat. Hist. (November 1903), vol. i. art. viii. 142 REPTILES [GENERAL CHARACTERS merely regarded as Amphibia because they closely resemble the genera which are proved to have been gill-breathers when immature. All these genera, however, so far as known, agree with the existing Amphibia in the production of their large parasphenoid bone as far forwards as the vomers to form a rigid and complete basicranial axis (fig. i, A). Those genera of the upper, bar, some members of this series eventually pass into the order Squamata (Lacertilia+Ophidia), in which the quadrate bone is completely exposed and loosely attached to the skull (fig. 2, E); other reptiles exhibiting a similar modi- fication may readily have acquired the typical Avian skull (fig. 2, F) by the loss of the upper and the retention of the lower temporal bar in question. In view of these and other palaeontological con- siderations, the Reptilia may be classified into orders as follows: — ORDERS OF CLASS REPTILIA 1. Anompdontia. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull forming a complete roof over the temporal and masseter muscles, or contracted into a single broad zygo- matic arch, leaving a superior-temporal vacuity. Pineal foramen present. Ribs completely or imperfectly double- headed. No abdominal ribs. A large separately ossified epicoracoid. Limbs for support as well as progression; third and fourth digits with not more than three phalanges. Dermal armour feeble or absent. Range. — Permian and Triassic. 2. Chelonia. — -Postero-lateral region of skull as in Anomo- dontia, except bones of ear-capsule more modified. No pineal foramen. Ribs single-headed. No sternum. Pectoral and pelvic arches unique in being situated completely inside the ribs. No epicoracoid. Abdominal ribs replaced by three or four pairs of large plates, which, with the clavicles and interclayicle, form a plastron. Limbs only for pro- gression; third and fourth digits with not more than three phalanges. A regular dorsal carapace of bony plates in- After Credner. After C. W. Andrews. timately connected with the neural spines, and ribs of FlG-T,I-^A' Palat£of Palaeozoic Amphibian (Archegosaurus dechem). ^^ to nine dorsai vertebrae. Range.— Upper Triassic to B, ralate ot Mesozoic Reptile (Plesiosaurus macrocepnalus). Recent b.occ, basioccipital; 6s, basisphenoid ; eept, ectopterygoid ; i.pt, inter- 3. Sauropterygia.— Bones of postero-lateral region of pterygoid vacuity; j, jugal; mx. maxilla; pas, parasphenoid ; pi, palatine ; skull contracted into a single broad zygomatic arch, leaving pmx, premaxilla; ft, pterygoid; pt. nar, posterior nares; qu, quadrate; a superior-temporal vacuity. Pineal foramen present. No s.o, suborbital vacuity; v, vomer. • • • »" ' ' -L which less resemble the typical Labyrinthodonts are charac- terized by the reduction of the parasphenoid bone so that it no longer reaches the vomers; in these animals the weakened skull exhibits a secondary basicranial axis formed by the approxima- tion of the pterygoids to the median line (fig. i, B). The latter condition is universal in existing reptiles, and may there- fore perhaps be regarded as a diagnostic feature. If so, the oldest known undoubted reptile is Palaeohatteria, from the Lower Permian of Saxony. In the structure of the skull Palaeohatteria is much like the existing Sphenodon, the cheek-plates which cover the temporal and masseter muscles on each side being pierced by two great vacuities, one superior-temporal, the other lateral-temporal. The majority of the earliest reptiles, however, either resemble the Labyrinthodonts in having the biting muscles completely covered with a roof of bony plates, or exhibit a slight shrinkage of this investment so that a superior-temporal vacuity appears. As the various groups or orders become differentiated, this shrinkage or reduction continues, while the shape of the ossify- ing ear-capsule changes, and the squamosal bone, which covers the organ of hearing in the fishes, and presumably also in the Palaeozoic Batrachia, is gradually thrust outwards from all connexion with this capsule except at its hinder angle. The resultant modifications are diagrammatically represented in fig 2. In one series of orders, comprising the Anomodontia, Chelonia, Sauropterygia and Ichthyopterygia (fig. 2, B, C), the superior- temporal vacuity (s) first appears, and the cheek- plates in the broad temporal arch thus formed may be variously fused together, sometimes even irregularly perforated — showing at first, indeed, the usual inconstancy of a new and not com- pletely established feature. From the earliest members of this series of reptiles, palaeontology seems to demonstrate that the Mammalia (with one robust temporal arcade or zygomatic arch) ajose. In a second series, comprising the orders Rhyncho- cephalia, Dinosauria, Crocodilia and Ornithosauria (fig. 2, D); the broad arch of cheek-plates is regularly pierced by a lateral- temporal vacuity, which leaves a narrow bar above, another narrow bar below, and uncovers the middle part of the quadrate bone. By the constant loss of the lower, and the frequent loss fused ^crai vertebrae. All dorsal ribs single-headed, articulating with transverse processes of the neural arches. Abdominal ribs forming dense plastron. Apparently no sternum. Cpracoid, pubis and ischium in form of much-expanded plates. Limbs modified as paddles, with not more than five digits, of which the third and fourth always have more than three phalanges; all digits usually consisting of numerous phalanges. No dermal armour. Range. — Upper Triassic to Cretaceous. 4. Ichthyppterygia. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull contracted into a single broad zygomatic arch, leaving a superior- temporal vacuity. Pineal foramen present. Vertebral centra short and deeply biconcave, with feeble neural arches which are almost or completely destitute of zygapophyses. No fused sacral vertebrae. Cervical and dorsal ribs double-headed, articulating with tubercles on the vertebral centra. Abdominal ribs forming dense plastron. Apparently no sternum. Coracoid an expanded plate, probably with cartilaginous epicoracoid. Pelvis very small, not connected with vertebrae. Limbs modified as paddles, with digits of very numerous short phalanges, which are closely pressed together, sometimes with supplementary rows of similar ossicles. No dermal armour. A vertical triangular caudal fin, not supported by skeletal rays. Range. — Triassic to Cretaceous. 5. Rhynchocephalia. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull contracted into two slender zygomatic bars, leaving a superior- temporal and a lateral-temporal vacuity, and partly exposing the quadrate bone from the side. Pineal foramen present or absent. Ribs single-headed. Abdominal ribs present. Sternum present. Epicoracoid cartilaginous. Limbs only for progression; third and fourth digits with four or five phalanges. Dermal armour feeble or absent. Range. — Lower Permian to Recent. 6. Dinosauria. — Postero-lateral region of skull as in Rhyncho- cephalia. No pineal foramen. Cervical and dorsal ribs double- headed. Rarely abdominal ribs. Sternum present, but apparently no clavicular arch. Limbs for support as well as progression ; third and fourth digits with four and five phalanges respectively. Dermal armour variable. Range. — Triassic to Cretaceous. 7. Crocodilia. — Postero-lateral region of skull as in Rhyncho- cephalia. No pineal foramen. Cervical and dorsal ribs double- headed. Abdominal ribs present. Sternum present; also inter- clavicle, but no clavicles. Limbs only for progression on land or swimming; third and fourth digits with four or five phalanges. Dermal armour variable. Range. — Lower Jurassic to Recent. 8. Ornithosauria. — All bones extremely dense, light and hollow, the organism being adapted for flight. Postero-lateral region of skull as in Rhynchocephalia. No pineal foramen. Cervical and dorsal ribs double-headed. Abdominal ribs present. Sternum present, and keeled for attachment of pectoral muscles; no clavi- cular arch. Fifth digit of hand much elongated to support a wing- ...c * f it TT! _ J !!_£. f I_1_ XT« membrane, but with" only four phalanges. Hind limb feeble, dermal armour. Range. — Lower Jurassic to Cretaceous. No GENERAL CHARACTERS] REPTILES 9. Squamata. — Bones of postero-lateral region of skull much reduced and partly absent, never forming more than a slender superior-temporal bar, thus completely exposing the quadrate, which is only loosely attached to the cranium at its upper end. Pineal foramen present. Ribs single-headed. No abdominal ribs. Sternum present when there are limbs. Limbs, when present, only for progression; third and fourth digits at least with more than three phalanges. Dermal armour feeble or absent. Range. — Cretaceous to Recent. Order i. ANOMODONTIA. — The Anomodonts are so named in allusion to the peculiar and unique dentition of the first-dis- covered genera. They are precisely intermediate between the and India, but they are best represented in the Karoo formation (Permian and Triassic) of South Africa. The Pariasauria most closely resemble the Labyrinthodont Amphibia, but have a single occipital condyle. Pariasauria itself is a massive herbivorous reptile, with a short tail, and the limbs adapted for excavating in the ground. It is known by several nearly complete skeletons, about 3 metres in length, from South Africa and northern Russia. Elginia, found in the Elgin sandstones of Morayshire, Scotland, is provided with horn-like bony bosses on the skull. Another apparently allied genus (Otocoelus) has a carapace suggesting that it may be an ancestral Chelonian. The Therio- n. 'gu,. sq. From A. S. Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology. FIG. 2. — Diagram of the Cranial Roof in a Labyrinthodont Amphibian, various types of Reptiles, and a Bird. A, Labyrin- thodont Amphibian (Mastodonsaurus giganteus). B, Generalized Anomodont or Sauropterygian, passing with slight modification into the Chelonian (sutures dotted to denote inconstancy in fusion of elements). C, Ichthyosaurus. D, Generalized Rhynchocephalian, Dinosaurian, Crocodilian, or Ornithosaurian. E, Generalized Lacertilian, often losing even the arcade here indicated. F, Generalized Bird. fr, frontal; j, jugal; /, lateral temporal vacuity; la, lachrymal; mx, maxilla; n, narial opening; na, nasal; o, orbit; pa, parietal; pmx, premaxilla; prf, prefrontal; plf, postfrontal; pto, postorbital; q.j, quadrato-jugal; qu, quadrate; s, supratemporal vacuity; s.t, supratemporals and prosquamosal ; sq, squamosal. Vacuities shaded with vertical lines, cartilage bones dotted. Labyrinthodont Batrachia and the lowest or Monotreme Mammalia. They flourished at the period when the former are known to have reached their culmination, and when the latter almost certainly began to appear. Many of them would, indeed, be regarded as primitive Mammalia, if they did not retain a pineal foramen, a free quadrate bone, and a complex mandible. The term Theromorpha or Theromora is thus sometimes applied to the order they represent. So far as known, they are all land-reptiles, with limbs adapted for habitual support of the body, and their feet are essentially identical with those of primitive mammals. Most of them are small, and none attain a gigantic size. They first appear in the Permian of Europe and North America, and also occur in the Triassic both of Europe dontia exhibit the marginal teeth differentiated (in shape) into incisors, canines and molars (fig. 3). They have two occipital condyles, as in mammals. They seem to have been all carni- vorous, or at least insecu . orous, but the malariform teeth vary much in shape in the different genera. Cynognathus (fig. 3) and Lycosaurus have cutting teeth, while Trilylodon and Gompho- gnathus possess powerful grinders. The Dicynodontia have one pair of upper tusks or are toothless: their occipital condyle is trefoil-shaped, as in Chelonia. Dicynodon itself occurs in the Karoo formation of S. Africa, while other genera are represented in India, N. Russia and Scotland. Order i. CHELONIA. — This order occurs first in the Upper Triassic of Wiirttemberg, where a complete " shell" has been 144 REPTILES [GENERAL CHARACTERS found (Proganochelys) . Its members are proved to have been toothless since the Jurassic period, and have only changed very From A. S. Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology. FIG. 3. — Skull of an Anomodont (Theriodont) Reptile (Cynognathus crateronotus), one- fifth natural size. — Karoo formation (Permian or Triassic), South Africa. d, dentary; j, jugal; l.t.f, incipient lateral temporal vacuity; la, lachrymal; mx, maxilla; na, nasal; orb, orbit; pa, parietal; pmx, premaxilla; prf, prefrontal; pto., postorbital; ptf, post- frontal; s.t, supratemporal (prosquamosal) ; sq, squamosal. slightly since their first appearance. The marine turtles seem to have first acquired elongated paddles and vacuities in the shell during the Cretaceous period, and the Trionychia, destitute of epidermal shields, apparently arose at the same time. Order 3. SAUROPTERYGIA. — These are amphibious or aquatic reptiles (fig. 4). The head is comparatively small in most Flo. 4. — Plesiosaurus rostratus: restoration of skeleton by W. G. Ridewood. — Lower Lias, Dorsetshire. genera, and the neck is usually elongated though not flexible. The tail is insignificant, generally short, and both pairs of paddles seem to have been concerned in progression. The order appears to have arisen from a group of land-reptiles, for its earliest members, from the Triassic of Europe (Lariosaurus) and from the Permo-Carboniferous of S. Africa (Mesosaurus) and Brazil (Slereoslernum) , are all amphibious animals. They are comparatively small, and their limbs are only just becoming paddle-like. The skull suggests affinities with the terrestrial effective paddles with elongated digits, and as the genera are traced upwards in the geological formations it is possible to observe how .the arches supporting the limbs become more rigid until the maximum of strength is reached. A few genera, such as Pliosaurus from the Jurassic and Polyptychodon from the Cretaceous of Europe, are distinguished by their relatively large head and stout neck. Some of the largest Upper Jurassic and Cretaceous species must have been 10 metres in length. They were cosmopolitan in their distribution, but became extinct before the dawn of the Tertiary period. Order 4. ICHTHYOPTERYGIA. — The Ichthyosaurians are all fish-shaped, with a relatively large head and very short neck. Both pairs of paddles are retained, but the hinder pair is usually very small, and locomotion seems to have been chiefly effected by a large caudal fin. This fin, as shown in impression by certain fossils from Wiirttemberg and Bavaria, is a vertical, triangular, dermal expansion, without any skeletal support except the hindermost part of the attenuated vertebral column, which extends along the border of its lower lobe (fig. 5). Another triangular fin, without skeletal support, is known to occur on the back, at least in one species (fig. 5). Some of the genera are proved to have been viviparous.' Like the Sauropterygia, the Ichthyopterygia appear to have originated from terrestrial ancestors, for their earliest Triassic representatives (Mixosaurus) have the teeth less uniform and the limbs slightly less paddle- shaped than the latter genera. In this connexion it is noteworthy that their hollow conical teeth exhibit curious infoldings of the wall, like those observed in many Labyrinthodonts, while their short, biconcave vertebrae almost exactly resemble those of the Labyrinthodont Mastodonsaurus and its allies. As the Ichthyosaurs are traced up- wards in geological time, some genera become almost, or quite, toothless, while the paddles grow wider, and are rendered more flexible by the persistence of cartilage round their constituent bones (Ophthalmosaurus). They were cosmopolitan in distribution, but dis- appeared from all seas at the close of the Cretaceous period. The largest forms, with a skull 2 metres in length, occur in the Lower Lias. Order 5. RHYNCHOCEPHALIA. — These are small lizard-shaped reptiles, which have scarcely changed since the Triassic period. Though now represented only by Sphenodon or Hatteria, which survives in certain islands off New Zealand, in the Mesozoic epoch they ranged at least over Europe, Asia and North America. They comprise the earliest known reptile, Palaeohatteria, from the Lower Permian of Saxony, which differs from the Triassic and later genera in having an imperfectly ossified pubis and ischium, more numerous abdominal ribs, and the fifth metatarsal FIG. 5. — Ichthyosaurus quadriscissus : outline of specimen showing dorsal and caudal fins, about one-sixth natural size. — Upper Lias, Wurttemberg. (After E. Fraas.) The irregularities behind the triangular dorsal fin are torn pieces of skin. Anomodontia, and the shape of the scapula seems to show some connexion with the Chelonia. The truly aquatic Sauropter- ygians of the Jurassic (fig. 4) and Cretaceous periods possess most bone normal. They are also represented in the Permian, chiefly of North America, by the so-called Pelycosauria, which have sharp teeth in sockets, and are remarkable for the extreme GENERAL CHARACTERS] REPTILES elongation of the spines of their cervical and dorsal vertebrae (Dimetrodon, fig. 6). They seem to include various Triassic From Prof. E. C- Case's Revision of the Pelycosauria of North America, by permission of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. FIG. 6. — Dimetrodon incisivus\ restoration of skeleton by E. C. Case, about one-eighteenth natural size. genera (e.g. Aelosaurus, Belodon), which may perhaps belong to the ancestral stock of the Dinosauria and Crocodilia. Other Triassic genera (Hyperodapedon, Rhynchosaurus) scarcely differ from Sphenodon, except in the denti- tion and in the absence of the pineal foramen in the skull. In the late Cretaceous and early Eocene periods one genus (Champsosaurus) was truly aquatic, with gavial-shaped head. Order 6. DINOSAURIA. — The dinosaurs are land reptiles which flourished on all the continents during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, in the interval between the decline of the Anomodontia and the dominance of the Mammalia. They first appeared as carnivorous reptiles in the Triassic period in Europe, India, S. Africa, and N. America, but after- wards comprised numerous massive herbivores in nearly all parts of the world except the Australian and New Zealand regions. The skeleton in the carnivorous dinosaurs, or Theropoda, is of very light construction, the vertebrae and limb bones being hollow, with thin, dense walls and often perfectly fitting joints. The fore limbs are small, and the hind limbs are adapted for running, jumping or hopping on the toes. The sabre-shaped cutting teeth are fixed in sockets, and all the claws are sharp. Anchisaurus and Hallopus, from the Trias of N. America, and Scleromochlus from the Elgin sandstones of Scotland, are comparatively small animals. Ceratosaurus and Megalosaurus, from the Jurassic of North America and western Europe re- spectively, must have attained a length of from 5 to 6 metres. Tyrannosaurus, from the Cretaceous of Montana, U.S.A., has a skull more than a metre in length. The herbivorous Dinosaurs of the suborder Ornithopoda resemble the Theropoda in general shape, but are heavier in build, with a pelvis con- structed more nearly on the plan of that of a run- ning bird. It has, indeed, been suggested that certain arboreal Dinosaurs of bipedal gait may have been the ancestors of the class Aves. The best- known Ornithopod is Iguanodon (fig. 7), from the Wealden of W. Europe, with species from 5 to 10 metres in length. Claosaurus, from the Cretaceous of N. America, is nearly similar, and is represented by at least one complete skele- ton in the Yale University Museum. There are also members of the same group with a heavy armour of bony plates and spines, sometimes termed Stegosauria. Stegosaurus itself occurs in the Upper Jurassic of Colorado, and Omosaurus, from the Kimmeridge and Oxford clays of England, is a nearly similar reptile. Polacanthus, from the Wealden of the Isle of Wight, has the hip-region armoured with a continuous bony shield. Triceratops (fig. 8) and its allies, from the Upper Cretaceous (Laramie) of western N. America, are the latest members of the group, with a bony frill over the neck, a pair of bony horn- cores above the eyes, and a median bony horn-core on the nose. The skull with the bony frill sometimes measures nearly two metres in length. Another suborder of herbivorous Dino- saurs, that of Sauropoda, comprises the largest known land animals of any age, some measuring from 17 to 25 metres in total length. They have a small head, long neck, and long tail, and must have been quadrupedal in gait. Their teeth are adapted for feeding on succulent water weeds, perhaps with an admixture of small animals living among these; and their vertebrae are of very light construction, while the ribs are raised high on the neural arches to increase the size of the body cavity, perhaps for unusually large lungs or air sacs. Their massive limbs have five toes, of which the three inner alone bear outwardly curved claws. Diplodocus and Brontosaurus, from the Jurassic of Wyoming and Colorado, U.S.A., are the best-known genera. Atlanlosaurus, from the same formation, is usually noteworthy for si2e. Cetiosaurus, from the Jurassic of England, is also known by large parts of the skeleton in the British Museum and the Oxford Museum, indicating species nearly 20 metres in length. FIG. 7. — Iguanodon bernissartensis: restoration of skeleton by O. C. Marsh, one-eightieth natural size. — Wealden, Bernissart, Belgium. FIG. 8. — Triceratops prorsus: restoration of skeleton by O. C. Marsh, one-eightieth natural size. — Cretaceous, Wyoming. Order 7. CROCODILIA. — Typical crocodiles can be traced downwards to the Lower Lias at the base of the Jurassic 146 REPTILES [GENERAL CHARACTERS formations, but all the Jurassic and some of the Cretaceous genera have the secondary bony plate less extended backwards than that in the Tertiary and existing genera, while their vertebrae have flattened or concave ends, instead of exhibiting a ball- and-socket articulation. Some of the Upper Jurassic crocodiles (Metriorhynchus) were more truly aquatic than any now living, with the fore limbs degenerate, the hind limbs much enlarged for swimming, and the dermal armour lacking. The end of the vertebral column is bent downwards, as in Ichthyosaurus, so they doubtless possessed a similar triangular tail-fin. Typical crocodiles and alligators date back to the close of the Cretaceous period, and they did not become extinct in Europe until the beginning of the Miocene period. Remains of an extinct alligator (Diplocynodon) are common in the Upper Eocene sands of the Hordwell cliffs, Hampshire. Order 8. ORNITHOSAURIA. — The flying reptiles or Ptero- dactyls (fig. 9) are completely evolved at their earliest known FIG. 9. — Pterodactylus spectabilis, natural size, from the Litho- graphic Stone, h, humerus; ru, radius and ulna; me, metacarpals ; pt, pteroid bone; 2, 3, 4, digits with claws; 5, elongated digit for support of wing-membrane; st, sternum, crest not shown; is, ischium; pp, prepubis. The teeth are not shown. (After H. von Meyer.) appearance in the Lower Lias (Dimorphodon), and exhibit little essential change as they are traced upwards through the Mesozoic formations. The latest Cretaceous genera, however, comprise the largest species, which have been found in Europe, N. America and Brazil. Some of these (Pteranodon) are tooth- less, and their wings are so large that for adequate support the pectoral arch is fixed to the vertebrae like a pelvis. The wings occasionally have a span of from 5 to 6 metres. The wing- membranes are only known in the European Jurassic genus, Rhamphorhynchus (fig. 10), found well preserved in the fine- grained lithographic stone of Bavaria. In this genus there is also a rhomboidal flap of membrane at the end of the tail. Order 9. SQUAMATA. — The ancestors of the lizards and snakes can only be traced back definitely to the latter part of the Cretaceous period. They were then represented by two' suborders of aquatic reptiles, the Dolichosauria and Pythono- morpha(or Mosasauria), which are in many respects intermediate between the existing Lacertilia and Ophidia. The Dolichosauria, from the Upper Cretaceous of Europe, are small and snake-like in shape, but with completely formed limbs. The Pythono- morpha are known from Europe, N. and S. America and New Zealand, and sometimes attained a very large size, the typical Mosasaurus camperi from Maastricht being about 15 metres in length. Their limbs are powerful paddles. Their trunk and FIG. 10. — Rhamphorhynchus phyllurus, from the Solenhofen Lithographic Stone, one-fourth natural size, with the greater part of the wing-membranes preserved, x, caudal membrane; st, sternum; h, humerus; sc, scapula and coracoid; wm, wing- membrane. (After O. C. Marsh.) tail are often much elongated, so that their shape is snake-like, as shown by Clidastes (fig. n), from the Chalk of Kansas, U.S.A. The Lacertilia and Ophidia, so far as known, are exclusively Tertiary and Recent reptiles. Marine snakes (Palaeophis) occur in the Eocene of the London and Hampshire basins. AUTHORITIES. — General Works on Extinct Reptiles. — K. A. v. Zittel, Handbuch der Palaeontologie, vol. iii. (Munich, 1887-1889). — H. A. Nicholson and R. Lydekker, Manual of Palaeontology, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1889). — R. Lydekker, Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in the British Museum, vols. i.-iv. (London, 1888-90). — A. S. Woodward, Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology (Cambridge, 1898). — K. A. v. Zittel, Text-book of Palaeontology, ed. C. R. Eastman, vol. ii. (London, 1902). Anomodontia: R. Owen. Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia of South Africa in the Collection of the British Museum (London, 1876). — E. D. Cope, " The Reptilian Order Cotylosauria," Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. vol. xxxiv. (1896), p. 436, and vol. xxxv. (1896), p. 122. — E. T. Newton, " Some New Reptiles from the Elgin Sandstones," Phil. Trans., vol. 1848 (1893), p. 431. — Various papers by R. Owen in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 1876- 1884, by H. G. Seeley in Phil. Trans. (1889-1895), and by R. Broom in Proc. Zool. Soc., Ann. S. African Museum and Trans. S. African Phil. Soc. (from 1900 onwards). Chelonia: G. Baur, " Bemerkungen iiber die Phylogenie der Schildkroten," Anal. Anzeiger, vol. xii. (1896), p. 561.— Technical papers by F. A. Quenstedt in Wurtt. Jahresh. vol. xlv. (1889), p. 120 (Proganochelys). — G. R. Wieland in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 4, vol. ii. (1896), p. 399 (gigantic Cretaceous leathery turtle), and E. C. Case, Journ. Morphol. vol. xiv. (1897), ANATOMY] REPTILES p. 21 (ditto). Sauropterygia: G. A. Boulenger, "On a Notho- saurian Reptile from me Trias of Lombardy, apparently referable to Lariosaurus," Trans. Zool. Soc. vol. xiv. (1896), p. i. — H. G. Seeley, " The Nature of the Shoulder Girdle and Clavicular Arch in Sauropterygia," Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. li. (1892), p. 119, FIG. n. — Skeleton of Clidastes. (After Cope.) and vol. liv. (1893), p. 160. Ichthyopterygia: 'E. Fraas, Die Ichthyosaurier der suddeutschen Trias- und Jura-Ablagerungen (Tubingen, 1891). — J. C. Merriam, " Triassic Ichthyosauria," Mem. Univ. California, vol. i. No. I (1908). — Also technical papers by E. Fraas on fins in Wiirtt. Jahresh. (1894), p. 493, and Foldtani Kozlony, vol. xxviii. (Budapest, 1898), p. 169. Rhynchocephalia: G. A. Boulenger, " On British Remains of Homoeosaurus, with Remarks on the Classification of the Rhynchocephalia," Proc. Zool. Soc. (1891), p. 167. — J. H. McGregor, r' The Phytosauria," Mem. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. ix. pt. ii. (1906) — E. C. Case, Revision of the Pelycosauria of North America (Carnegie Institution, Washing- ton, 1907). — Technical papers by H. Credner in Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. vol. xl. (1888), p. 488 (Palaeohatteria) , T. H. Huxley in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xliii. (1887), p. 675 (Hyperodapedon) , and L. Dollo in Bull. Soc. Belg. Geol. vol. v. (1891), Mem. p. 151 (Champsosaurus). Dinosauria: O. C. Marsh, " The Dinosaurs of North America," Sixteenth Ann. Rep. U.S. Geol. Survey (1896). — Technical papers by L. Dollo in Bull. mus. roy. d'hist. nat. Belg. vols. i.-iii. (1882-84) (Iguanodon), O. C. Marsh in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 3, vol. 1. (1895), pi. viii. (restorations), J. B. Hatcher in Mem. Carnegie Museum, vol. i. No. I (1901), and W. J. Holland in Mem. Carnegie Museum, vol. ii. No. 6 (1906). Crocodilia: T. H. Huxley, " On Stagonolepis robertsoni, and on the Evolution of the Croco- dilia," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxi. (1875), P- 423- — E. Koken, " Thoracosaurus macrorhynchus, Bl., aus der Tuffkreide von Maas- tricht," Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. (1888), p. 754. — E. Fraas, " Thattosuchia," Palaeontogr. vol. xlix. (1902), p. I. — L. Dollo, " Premiere note sur les crocodiliens de Bernissart," Bull. mus. roy. d'hist. nat. Belg. vol. ii. (1883), p. 309. — G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of the Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians and Crocodiles in the British Museum (London, 1889). Ornithosauria: K. A. von Zittel, " Ueber Flugsaurier aus dem lithographischen Schiefer," Palaeontogr. vol. xxix. (1882), p. 49. — E. T. Newton, " On the Skull, Brain and Auditory Organ of a New Species of Pterosaurian," Phil. Trans, vol. 1793 (1888), p. 503 — H. G. Seeley, Dragons of the Air (London, 1901). — Technical papers by O. C. Marsh in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 3, vol. xxiii. (1882), p. 251 (wing-membranes), S. W. Williston in Kansas Univ. Quarterly, vol. vi. (1897), p. 35 (restora- tion of Pteranodon), and G. F. Eaton in Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 4, vols. xvi., xvii. (1903-4). Squamata: R. Owen, " On the Rank and Affinities of the Reptilian Class of the Mosasauridae, Gervais," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiii. (1877), p. 682, and vol. xxxiv. (1878), p. 748. — G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of the Lizards in the British Museum, vols. i.-iii. (London, 1885-87); Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum, vols. i., ii. (London, 1893-94). — Technical papers by A. Kornhuber in Abh. k. k. geol. Reichsanst. Wien. vol. v. (1873), No. 4, and vol. xvii. (1893), No. 3 (Dolicho- sauria), F. Noppsa in Beitr. Palaont. Oesterr.-Ungarns,\o\. xxi.(igo8), and S. W. Williston in Kansas Univ. Quarterly, vols. i., ii., vi. (1892-1897) (Mosasauria). (A. S. Wo.) III. ANATOMY OF REPTILES The Skull. Sphenodon has the most primitive and still most complex skull, the salient features of which it is easy to derive from Stegocephalian and early, generalized reptilian conditions; whilst in other directions, mostly by reduction, the skull of this " living fossil " affords the key to that of all the other groups of at least recent reptiles. The main features are the following. There are, in the temporal region, three complete bony arches, the supra-, infra-, and post-temporal, which subdivide the whole temporal fossa into four foramina. The supratemporal bridge is formed by the squamosal and post-orbital, the latter (/in fig. 12) being continued forwards and fused with the post-frontal. These three bones, with the parietal, . enclose the supra- temporal foramen. The postorbital joins an ascending branch of the jugal, both together form- ing the hinder border of the orbit, and this is bordered below chiefly by the maxillary. The pos- teriortemporal bridge is formed by the parietal and squamosal, extends laterally over the quadrate and encloses a wide space between itself and the buttress-like transverse expansion of the lateral occipital After Giinther. FIG. 12.— Skull of Sphenodon. i, Ventral aspect; 2, lateral aspect; 3, lateral aspect of mandible, or. articular; bo, basioccipital ; bs, basisphenoid; c, coronoid; CO., columella auris; d, dentary; /, postorbital; m, maxilla; n, nasal; pa, parietal; pi, palatine; pm, premaxilla; pr, prefrontal; ps, postf rental; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate in the upper figure, quadrato-jugal in the middle figure; qj, jugal; s, squamosal; sp, splenial ; v, vomer. bone (these " parotic processes " are made up of the lat. occipital, parotic and opisthotic bones); this is the post- temporal foramen. The space enclosed between this occipital buttress, the quadrate and the pterygoidal support of the latter represents the wide and large cavity of the middle ear, 23 148 REPTILES [ANATOMY and as such is crossed by the auditory columellar chain. The infra-temporal bridge or jugal arch is formed by the jugal (qj in fig. 12), which joins the descending process of the squamosal, and the quadrato-jugal, which is very small and partly fused with the lateral side of the quadrate. Now, between the quadrate on the one side and the squamoso+quadrato-jugal+jugal on the other, is enclosed a gap, met with only in Sphenodon of recent reptiles. This fourth, or quadrato-squamosal foramen, with its squamoso-quadrato-jugal bridge, is, as a rule, not mentioned, being too small to be obvious. The quadrate is very firmly fixed. On the ventral side of the cranium we notice the broad and long bony palate, the large vomers, and the pterygoids meeting in the middle line; aside of the vomers are the long posterior nares; posteriorly the pterygoids diverge to rest upon short basi-sphenoid processes, and they articulate by short flanges with the quadrates. 'The occipital condyle is kidney-shaped, triple, composed of the basi and the lateral occipitals. The dorsal median roof of the cranium is formed by the paired parietals, near their anterior symphysis with the large pineal foramen, the paired frontals, nasals and premaxillaries. The outer nares are surrounded by the premaxillaries, maxillaries and nasals. Prefrontals and postfrontals exist. There is a complete cartilaginous, inter- orbital septum, and a cranial columella, a pair of upright buttresses arising in the alisphenoidal walls, connecting the parietals with the pterygoids. The hyoid apparatus consists of a narrow base, with three pairs of arches; of these the first or hyoid arch is variously connected with the cranium near the paroccipital process, or with the extracolumella (see Middle Ear, below) ; the others are a long and stout pair of first and a smaller pair of second branchial arches. Crocodiles. — The temporal region is still bridged over by three arches, dividing the whole fossa into three, very much as in Sphenodon. The supratemporal foramen is bordered by the parietal, postfrontal (postorbital absent) and squamosal. The posttemporal foramen is very much reduced, sometimes to a narrow passage between the parietal, occipitals and squamosal, because the latter bone forms an extensive suture with the paroccipital process. The infratemporal or lateral fossa is wide and rather shallow, bordered above by the postfrontal and squamosal, in front by the postfrontal and jugal, below by the jugal and quadrato-jugal, behind by the latter, the quadrate, tip of the paroccipital and the squamosal. The quadrato-jugal being long and in an almost horizontal position, being wedged in between the jugal and nearly the whole length of the lateral edge of the quadrate, and there being no squamoso-quadrato- jugal bridge, the fourth foramen of Sphenodon is absent. The middle-ear cavity is reduced to a complicated system of narrow passages; one for the passage of the extra-columellar-mandi- bular string of the auditory chain (see Ear, below), between the quadrate, paroccipital and lateral occipital bones; another passage (Eustachian) opens in the roof of the mouth, between basioccipital and basisphenoid ; a .third joins that of the other side and forms with it a median opening between the same bones, just behind the posterior pterygoid border of the choanae. These nares, being in the recent crocodiles shifted as far back as possible, communicate with the outer nostrils by very long passages, formed by the whole length of the pterygoids, palatines, maxillaries, vomers and pre-maxillaries, all of which form a long median suture. But this long bony palatal roof is interrupted by a pair of large palatal foramina, bordered usually by palatine, pterygoid, ectopterygoid, or transverse bone and maxillary. On the dorsal side of the cranium we notice the parietals fused into an unpaired bone, without a pineal hole and the likewise unpaired frontal. There are a pair of postfrontals, prefrontals and lacrymals perforated by the naso-lacrymal duct. The nasals vary much in length, mostly in conformity with that of the maxillaries; as a rule they reach the short premaxillaries; but not always the nasal groove. (For taxonomic detail see under CROCODILE.) The occipital condyle is formed mainly by the basioccipital, which always borders part of the foramen magnum, but the lateral occipitals each send a flange to it, which in immature specimens still partakes of the articulation with the atlas. The opisthotic and epiotic bones fuse early with the lateral and with supraoccipital bones; only the prootic remains longer as a separate element, anteriorly with a large hole for the exit of the third branch of the trigeminal nerve. The basisphenoid is scarcely visible, being overlaid by the pterygoids. The pre- sphenoid is larger, continued forwards and upwards into the inter-orbital septum, which remains mostly cartilaginous. Near the anterior and upper margin of the pre-sphenoid is a large notch on either side for the passage of the optic nerve, the three eye- muscle nerves and the first branch of the trigeminal. The place of the orbitosphenoids is taken by membrane or cartilaginous continuations of the interorbital septum, but the alisphenoids are large and abut upwards against the frontals and with a lateral flange against the postfrontals. These send down a conspicuous process which forms sutures with an upward process of the jugal and another of the ectopterygoid; it is this compound pillar which partly divides the orbit from the infratemporal or lateral fossa. The size of these and the upper temporal fossae stand in an inverse ratio to each other. The upper fossae are still comparatively large in the long-snouted Gavialis and Tomis- toma, whilst these holes almost completely disappear in the alligators, namely, in the broad- and short-snouted members of the order, which chew their prey. In extinct Crocodilians the upper fossae were the larger. The temporo-mandibular muscle which lifts or shuts the lower jaw arises from the walls of the upper fossa, passes beneath the jugal-arch and is inserted upon the supra-angular portion of the lower jaw. In the more recent crocodiles this muscle is more and more superseded by the pterygo-mandibular muscle, which, arising chiefly from the dorsal surface of the much-broadened pterygoid, fills the widened space between the latter and the quadrate, and is inserted into the outer surface of the angular bone. The arrangement of this muscle secures a more advantageous leverage of the jaw, and is capable of more powerful development than the other, which is con- sequently on the wane — a nice illustration of onward, ortho- genetic evolution. The dentary bones of the under jaw form a suture, later a symphysis; this is very long in the long-snouted genera, in which the splenials likewise form a long symphysis; in the others the mandibular symphysis is much shorter and the splenials remain widely separated. The articular bone is short, forms a transverse cup for the quadrate, or a saddle-shaped cup, and is perforated by the Siphonium (see below under Ear). The angle is upturned, formed by the articular, angular and, laterally, by the supra-angular bone; the opercular or counter- part of the splenial lies on the outer side, forming part of the anterior border of the oval foramen in the jaw. The Chelonian skull agrees in many important features with that of Sphenodon and of the crocodiles, but it is composed of fewer bones, the ectopterygoids, lacrymals and postorbitals being absent, often also the nasals, unless they are fused with the prefrontals. The vomer is unpaired and forms a septum between the nasal passages, which, except in Sphargis, are ventrally roofed over to a variable extent by wings sent out by the palatines, joining the sides of the vomer. Most of the con- figurations of the other cranial bones are well represented in the accompanying figures. The palatines form a continuous broad floor with the pterygoids, which are extensively and firmly joined to the quadrates and to the basisphenoid. There are no Eustachian tubes. The occipital condyle is distinctly triple and the basioccipital is frequently excluded from the foramen magnum. The lateral occipitals early send out a pair of stout wings, the ventral of which joins a stout ventrilateral process of the basioccipital, both forming a thick knob especially in Chelone, and a dor,solateral wing, which broadly joins the large opisthotic bone. This connects the lateral occipital and the supraoccipital with the upper portion of the quadrate. On the top of the quadrate and upon the lateral dorsal portion of this compound transverse process (which of course corresponds to the paroccipital process of crocodiles, &c.) lies the squamosal, about which more presently. The two wings of the lateral ANATOMY] REPTILES 149 occipital, part of the opisthotic, the quadrate, and part of the I the parietals. They represent of course the columellae cranii or pterygoids, form the bony borders of the middle ear- cavity, | pterygoidal columellae; if they are of alisphenoidal origin the term epipterygoids is a misnomer; the same applies to these structures in other reptiles. Through the space enclosed by the pterygoid, basioccipital, opisthotic and quadrate, enters the cranial carotid artery, sometimes piercing the posterior rim of the pterygoid; then the canal runs along the dorsal side of this bone and opens near the cranial columella. The arcades over the temporal region are most vari- able. Potentially Chelonians possess all the three arcades of the crocodiles, but it so happens that never more than one fenestra is present. The false roof over the temporal region is most complete in Sphargis and in the Chelonidae. Excepting Sphargis the supraoccipital extends far beyond the back of the cranium in shape of a long unpaired crest, which never diverges, or sends out lateral processes, but it is joined, and partly overlaid for a great part of its length, by the parietals in Chelonidae and Sphargis. In these genera the much-enlarged parietal, the equally large postfrontal, with the squamosal behind, the jugal below, and a large quadrato-jugal, form one continuous bony roof over the whole temporal fossa, which is widely open behind, the space being bordered by supraoccipital, opisthotic, squamosal and parietal. All other FIG. 13. — Dorsal aspect of skull of Testudo tabidala (from nature), an, anterior nares; /, frontal, on either side of which are the orbits, bounded behind by ps, the postfrontal; bo, basioccipital; ep, epiotic; so, supra- occipital ; 9, quadrate ; s, squamosal ; pa, parietal; po, periotic bones. FIG. 14. — Ventral surface of skull of Tes- tudo tabulate, (from nature), bo, basi- occipital ; bs, basisphenoid ; ep, epiotic ; Chelonians show a great reduction of this roof. m, maxilla; pi, palatine; pm, pre- maxilla; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; g_/',quadrato-jugal; so, supraoccipital. which is open behind; through it extends horizontally the columellar rod, received with its outer portion by a notch on the posterior side of the quadrate. This is of very complicated shape. Its outer margins form most of the tympanic frame; the posterior margins being curved backwards leave a wide notch behind in the Cryptodira and in Sphargis, but in the Pleurodira this part of the quadrate is transformed into a trumpet, the rim of which, forming a complete ring, carries the tympanic mem- brane. The tympanic cavity thus formed often leads into a deep recess which extends into the hollowed-out squamosal (e.g. in Testudo) towards the opisthotic and bears some resem- blance to the intricate tympanic recesses which pervade that region of the crocodile's skull. With its upper anterior and aji FIG. 15. — Side view of skull of Testuao tabulata (from nature). an, angular; ar, articular; d, dentary; f, frontal; j, jugal; m, mandible; n, naso-prefrontal ; pa, parietal; pi, palatine; ps, postfrontal; q, quadrate; qj, quadrato-jugal. inner portion the quadrate joins the large prootic bone which is usually completely fused with the rest of the opisthotic, but in Sphargis it remains separate, and in this turtle the sutures between the otic bones and the supraoccipital also persist. In front of the prootics the bony lateral walls of the brain-case end in Sphargis, but • in most of the other Chelonians bony ali- sphenoids are represented by a pair of epipterygoids which rest upon short upward processes of the pterygoids and are joined by much longer, rather thin, but broad descending lamellae from The parietal does not send out dorsolateral expan- sions; and the postfrontal likewise forms no ex- pansions. It joins the rather short malar, forming the posteriororbital bridge, which posteriorly is connected by the quadrato-jugal with the upper portion of the quadrate and with the squamosal. The latter rests upon the quadrate and is in no connexion with the parietal. Consequently the whole temporal fossa is quite open. The hori- zontal bridge or arcade is to a certain extent homologous with the infra-temporal arcade. All the bones which border the temporal fossa vary much in extent. The greatest reduction has taken place in Cistudo and in Geoemyda, the latter an Indian genus of Testudinidae, in which the quadrato-jugal is lost, leaving a wide gap in the horizontal arcade.— The Chelonians form an instruc- tive parallel to mammalian conditions by the broad contact of the squamosal with the malar, e.g. in Chelone, whilst the quad- pm FIG. 1 6. — Dorsal Aspect of Skull of Chelys matamata. bo, basi- occipital; eo, exoccipital; /, frontal; j, jugal; m, maxilla; pm, premaxilla; pa, parietal; pr, prefrontal; ps, postfrontal; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; s, squamosal; so, supraoccipital. rato-jugal, having in all Chelonians lost its original ventral connexion with the jugal, may actually get lost as in all the REPTILES [ANATOMY Lacertilia. The zygomatic arch of the Mammalia is formed (cf. also Agamidae) out of the supratemporal arch of Sphenodon, null FIG. 17. — Ventral Aspect of Skull of Chelys matamata. bo, basi- occipital; bs, basisphenoid ; mdl, mandible; oh, opisthotic; pi, palatine; pm, premaxilla; po, prootic; pb, pterygoid; g, quadrate; s, squamosal; v, vomer. FIG. 18. — Lateral Aspect of Skull of Chelys matamata. an, an- gular; ar, articular; bo, basioccipital ; d, dentary; op, opisthotic; m, maxilla; pa, parietal; pm, premaxilla; pr, pref rental; ps, postfrontal; pt, pterygoid; q, quadrate; s, squamosal; sg, supra-angular. after the loss of the postorbital element and of the quadrato- jugal, the squamosal gaining connexion with the upper, not posterior and ventral, branch of the jugal or malar bone. The mandibular halves form a complete osseous symphysis, the only instance in reptiles; all the other elements retain their sutures. The articular portion of the articular bone forms several shallow cups and a slight anterior knob, best developed in Chelone. The angular bone does not help to form the posterior upper angle. The coronoid, or complementary element, is often small; the supra-angular and the splenial or opercular are always present, mostly also a pre-splenial wanting in Testudinidae (cf. G. Baur). The hyoid apparatus is well developed, and sometimes assumes large dimensions, especially in Chelys. The two pairs of " horns " are the first and second branchial arches, whilst the hyoid arches are reduced to a pair of small, frequently only cartilaginous nodules, attached near the anterior corners of the basis linguae, which generally fuses with the os entoglossum in the tip of the tongue. In Chelydidae the long median basal or copular piece forms a semi-canal for the reception of the trachea. In the skull of the Lacertilia the arcades over the temporal region vary much in composition and numbers. There are at most two arcades and two windows. First the posttemporal arcade, enclosing the posttemporal fenestra, which is framed mainly by the large paroccipital process below and the long parietal process above, both meeting distally, and the quadrate is carried by the paroccipital process. In the corner, in front, where the three bones meet, lies the squamosal, connecting parietal and quadrate. This squamosal, when not too much reduced, has an upper parietal and an anterior horizontal arm ; the latter is essential for the formation of the second horizontal arcade, which makes the lower border of the supra-temporal window. The infra-temporal arcade, namely a quadrato- jugal +jugal arch, is absent in all Lacertilians owing to the complete absence of the quadrato-jugal element. In Heloderma and Geckos the posttemporal is the only arcade. In the Amphisbaenids and in Aniella, practically also in Anelytropsis, all the arcades are lost. All the other families FIG. 19. — Skull of Chlamydosaurus kingii (old male), showing much differentiated teeth. I, ventral aspect; 2, posterior; 3, profile, showing the enormous process at the hinder end of the lower jaw. of lizards and the chameleons have two arcades. We begin the description of the horizontal arcade with those families in which it is most complete, and most like that of Sphenodon. In Varanus it is formed by four bones. The postfrontal is short; to it is attached the postorbital, which sends a long horizontal process to join the squamosal J splint, and this connects with the 1 There is a much-debated question of the homologies of the one or two elements, both apparently membrane bones, which connect the upper end of the quadrate with the parietal and with the supra- temporal arch. The question becomes acute in the snakes, whether the single element connecting skull and quadrate has to be called squamosal or supratemporal. Space forbids here to expound the matter, which has been very ably reviewed by S. W. Williston (" Temporal Arches in the Reptilia," Biolog. Bulletin, vii. No. 4, 1904, pp. 175-192 ;\i. also F. W. Thyng, Tufts College Studies, II. 2, 1906). About ten different names have been applied to these two elements, and two, namely, squamosal and supratemporal, are being used quite promiscuously. When only one element is present, the present writer uses the term squamosal, and there are reasons making it probable that this element is the squamosum of mammals. When both elements are present, the more ventral or lateral of the two is termed squamosal, that which always helps to form the ANATOMY] REPTILES upper anterior end of the quadrate; between the quadrate, the squamosal and the long parietal process lies the likewise splint-like supratemporal, attached by most of its length to the parietal process. The jugal has only one arm, and this connects the maxilla with the postorbital, completing the posterior orbital border. There is a wide gap between jugal and quadrate. In Tejidae the arcade is the same, but the squamosal reaches the jugal, both meeting the postorbital. In Lacerta the arcade is essentially the same, but the window is completely filled up by the postfrontal, which extends so far back as to reach the supra- temporal. In the Agamidae the arcade is strong and simplified. Postfrontal and postorbital are represented by one forked piece. This squamosal and the post- frontal mass are connected by the upper, much up-curved end of- the jugal, which is thrust between them. This arrangement is further emphasized in Iguana, the upper end of the jugal being much enlarged so as to form the greater portion of the arcade, and keeping the postfrontal mass and the simple squamosal widely asunder. In Heloderma post- and prefrontals are in contact with each other, FIG. 20. — Dorsal aspect of separating the frontal bone from skMotHelodermahorridum. the orbit; the jugal joins only /,frontal;j,jupl;/,lachry- th prefrontal, and there is no mal ; m, maxilla ; n, nasal; ^ , j t_ . pa, parietal, pm, premax- further arcade whatever. A ilia ; pr.prefrontal ; ps, post- vestige of a supratemporal (?) frontal; pt, pterygoid; g, lies on the outside of the base quadrate;*, squamosal; so, of the squamosai between 5 and supraoccipital. . ,. q in fig. 20. The chameleons are peculiar. The posttemporal arcade, spanning a wide space, is formed by a long process of the supra- temporal - squamosal, which is directed up- and backwards to join the parietal, which ex- tends back by a long unpaired process. The horizontal arch is broad and short, squamosal and postfrontal, form- ing a broad suture; below they are joined by the jugal; above the suture lies, in cham- eleon, a tiny piece, perhaps a vestige of the dislodged post- orbital. The jugal bones, to continue the descrip- tion of the appendi- 7>r FIG. 21. — Skull of Chamaeleon vulgaris. ag, angular; ar, articular; bs, basisphe- noid; d, dentary ; j, jugal; m, maxilla; me, median ethmoid ; pl and f?, parie- tals; pi, palatine; pr, prefrontal; pt, pterygoid ; q, quadrate ; sg, supra-angu- lar; so, supraoccipital; sq, squamosal. cular parts of the skull, are firmly joined to lateral processes of the pterygoids by the ectopterygoids; further forwards they are extensively connected with the maxillaries. These rest against strong transverse palatine processes. The pal- atines form a medium symphysis; posteriorly they diverge together with the pterygoids, which articulate with the quad- supratemporal bridge, generally with the postorbital, sometimes also with the jugal. The more dorsal element is mentioned as supratemporal; it is always smaller, and mostly restricted to the corner between the squamosal and the parietal process against which it rests. Either of these two elements articulate with the quadrate. Both elements are present in Labyrinthodonts and in most of the extinct groups of reptiles; among recent forms in Lacertidae, Varanidae, Tejidae; one three-armed piece in Sphenodon, chameleons and crocodiles, without, in Sphenodon at least, any trace of a compound nature; one piece, forked, in Agamidae; one simple piece in most of the other Lacertilia, and in snakes. rates and with the basisphenoid by a pair of strong basiptery- goid processes. A slender vertical rod of bone, the columella cranii, arises from the dorsal surface of each pterygoid and, passing at a distance from the cranial capsule, is sutured to a short lateroventral process of the parietals Such a pair of columellje exists in nearly all Lacertilia (distinguished by many systematists as Kionocrania) with the exception of the chame- leons and the Amphisbaenidae. In many lizards, however, this columella, or epipterygoid, does not quite reach the parietal, leaning instead against the prob'tic; possibly it has been evolved out of the alisphenoid, and Chelonians seem to support this view. The premaxillary bone is single, except in the Skinks and in some Geckos; ventrally it touches the vomers which vary much in size; they are always paired although suturally connected; posteriorly they pass into, and fuse with, the palatines before these send off their maxillary processes. Be- tween the vomer and its maxillary is a longitudinal hole. Often, e.g. in Lacerta, the vomers enclose a median hole near their anterior end, for Jacobson's organ. Dorsally the premaxilla sends a median process backwards to the nasals. These are paired, and fuse together only in Uroplates and in Varanus. The external nasal fossae are sometimes very large, and their anterior half appears blocked by the ossified turbinals, e.g. in Varanus and Tejus. Prefrontals are always present, often fused with the lacrymals; in Heloderma, in Aniella and in chameleons the prefrontals extend so far back as to meet the postfrontals, excluding thereby the frontals from the orbital rim. The frontals are either paired, as in Varanus, Lacertidae, Heloderma, Anguidae, Scincidae.Anelytropsidae, Aniella, Amphis- baenidae, and in some Geckoninae; or they are fused into one bone, as in the Eublepharinae, chameleons, Tejidae, Iguanidae, Agamidae, Xenosaurus. The parietals are double in the Geckos, in Uroplates and Xantusia; in all the others they form one coossified mass, generally with a pineal foramen, except in Eublepharinae, Amphisbaenidae, Tejidae, in Aniella and other degraded forms. In the majority the pineal fora- men lies in the middle of the parietal, but in the Iguanidae it is near the frontal, and actually in the frontal in chameleons. As regards the brain-case, there is a cartilaginous inter- orbital septum, connected posteriorly with the slender, bony presphenoid; ventraUy on to this is fused a vestige of the parasphenoid, a narrow and thin splint which sometimes can be dislodged. The whole of the anterior wall of the brain-case is membranous, excepting a pair of separate ossifications, which do but rarely touch any of the cranial bones, as frontal, parietal or prootics. The ossifications are irregular in shape, each sending out a downward process which curves inwards almost to meet its fellow; between these issue the olfactory lobes. W. K. Parker recognized them as the alisphenoids; E. D. Cope named them postoptics, and remarked that in Sphenodon they coexist with an orbitosphenoid bone. The prootic has a notch in its anterior lateral margin for the passage of the trigeminal nerve. The opisthotic portion of the petrosal mass is intimately fused with the lateral occipital bones and their paroccipital process, and sometimes, e.g. Tejus, encloses with them many intricate recesses of the middle ear-chamber, which extend also into hollow and swollen thick downward processes of the basioccipital. These cavities of both sides communicate with each other through the cancellous substance of the basioccipital and basisphenoid. There are no Eustachian tubes opening into the mouth through the base of the skull. The occipital condyle is tripartite, the lateral occipitals partaking of the articulation; very rarely, e.g. in Amphis- baenidae (see fig. 22), the basioccipital portion is so much reduced that the skull articulates by two very broad condyles. The halves of the under jaw are but loosely united, either by ligament only or by an at least very movable suture. The jaw is compound and the numerous constituent bones mostly retain their sutures. Besides the dentary and articular, angular and supra-angular on the lateral side, and the opercular or splenial on the inner side, there lies on the dorsal side the coronoid, six pairs in all. The posterior angle of the jaw 152 REPTILES [ANATOMY is always formed by the articular bone, not by the angular which lies on the ventral side, about the middle of the jaw; it is fused with the articular in Geckos, some Tejidae, Amphis- baenidae, and some other bur- rowing kinds. The splenial is absent in chameleons; near the vanish- ing point in some of the Agamidae. The coronoid is always present, for the insertion o f masseter muscles. In the pleurodont lizards the outer wall of the dentary forms a ledge, against the inner side of which are fixed the teeth with cementum. The snakes' skull shows many peculiarities, and most of the bones of the cranial capsule fuse together without sutures. The occipital condyle is triple, the lateral occipitals and the basi- occipital taking equal share in its composition; the basioccipital is excluded from the foramen magnum; frequently one common epiphysial pad covers this tripartite condyle. The supra- occipital is likewise excluded from the margin of the foramen magnum by the lateral occipitals. The basisphenoid is prolonged forwards into a long presphenoidal rostrum, on the upper sur- face of which the trabeculae cranii, which persist as cartilages, extend forwards to blend with the median ethmoidal cartilage. There are no ali- and no orbitosphenoids, their places being taken by downward extensions of the frontal bones, which descend to this sphenoidal rostrum and then turn inwards to meet together on the floor of the cranial cavity. There is consequently no interorbital septum. The parietals also de- scend laterally, but unite with the basisphenoid by suture. On e.a. 3 FIG. 22.— Skull of Monopeltis sphenorhynchus. I , dorsal aspect ; 2, ventral aspect ; 3, lateral aspect ; 4, posterior aspect, ar articular ; bs, basisphenoid ; d, dentary ;/, frontal ; m, max- illa; n, nasal; oc, oc, occipital condyles; of, occipital foramen ; pal, palatine ; pa, parietal ; pm, premaxilla; ptg, pterygoid; q, quadrate; so, supraoccipital ; sq, squamosal ; v, vomer. FIG. 23. — Skull of Python sebae. ar, articular; ca, columella auris ; d, dentary ; /, frontal ; m, maxilla ; p, parietal ; pm, pre- maxilla; po, prootic; pr, prefrontal; ps, postfrontal; pt, ptery- goid; q, quadrate; s, squamosal; t, transversum; tb, turbinal. the base of the skull we note various processes for the insertion of ventral cervicooccipital muscles, much used during the act of vigorous striking. Boidae have a long sphenoidal ridge and thick basipterygoid processes; others have one or more median knobs or crests, and the Viperidae have a very pro- minent and large ridge. The parietals fuse together into an unpaired mass whence arises mostly a strong median crest which projects a little beyond the occiput; there is no parietal or pineal foramen. There are paired frontals, postfrontals, f. / pr FIG. 24. — Skull of Vipera nasicornis. ar, articular; ca, columella auris; d, dent- ary ; /, frontal ; m, maxilla ; pf, poison fang ; pm, premaxilla; pr, prefrontal; ps, post- frontal ; pt, pterygoid ; q, quadrate ; s, squa- mosal ; /, transversum or ectopterygoid. prefrontals and nasals; the latter are said to coossify in Charina only. The position of the prefrontals is vari- able. In the boas, for instance, they meet, separating the nasals from the frontals; they are in contact with the nasals in the boas, burrowing snakes and- in Xenopeltis, but more or less widely separated from them, and often from each other, in the Colubridae and Viperidae. The premaxillary is single-, and only in Glauconiidae connected with the maxillaries; in the others it is but loosely connected with the ethmoidal end of the skull, for instance, with the turbinals, which are osseous and well developed in pythons. The whole appendicular apparatus is most loosely attached to the skull, at least in the typical snakes, and since they do not chew their prey but only hook it in, so to speak, during the act of swallowing, the whole apparatus is as movable as possible. The whole palatal apparatus shows many modifications, but the maxillaries, palatines and pterygoids always remain widely asunder, and from the mid-line. Some of the modifications, so far as they are used for taxonomic purposes, are mentioned in the article SNAKES: Classification. In the majority of snakes the maxillaries form the borders of the mouth, and they are but loosely attached to the other bones, to their palatine processes, to the palatines, and with their posterior ends, by the ectoptery- goids to the pterygoids. In the Viperidae the maxillaries are much shortened and articulate extensively with the prefrontals; they can be erected, or rather pushed forwards, by the ectoptery- goids (see SNAKES); they are not connected with the palatines. The pterygoids diverge posteriorly and articulate loosely with the quadrates; in the original condition the articulation is near the distal end of the quadrate, e.g. in Boidae, and the pterygoids may form an additional attachment with the mandibles; in the Viperidae the pterygoids are somewhat shortened and are attached to about the middle of the quadrate shafts; in the Amblycepha- lidae they are still shorter and do not reach these bones. The ectopterygoids are lost by the burrowing Typhlopidae and Glau- coniidae. The quadrate is always extremely movable; besides being in a most curious way connected with the outer end of the columellar rod (see below, Ear), it is suspended from the skull by the squamosal. The squamoso-quadrate connexion is very loose; that of the squamosal with the skull varies much. In the majority of snakes it slides quite freely upon the parietal; it is much longer than the quadrate in the boas, much shorter than the elongated and slender quadrate in most of the poisonous snakes. Lastly, in most of the ancient burrowing snakes, e.g. Typhlops, Glaucoma, Ilysia and Uropeltis, the squamosal has worked its way into the cranial wall so that the quadrate, itself also much shortened, rests directly upon the cranium. The Vertebral Column. The vertebrae of all reptiles are gastrocentrous, that is to say. the centra or bodies of the vertebrae are formed by the originally paired, interventral cartilages, while the basiventrals are reduced, persisting either as so-called intercentra or wedge-bones, or as intervertebral pads, or disappearing altogether; the basidorsal elements form the neural arch. At the earlier stages of develop- ment the gastrocentrous vertebrae behave in the same way as in the Urodela, except that the interdorsal pair of elements is suppressed from the beginning (the very elements which in ANATOMY) REPTILES Stegocephali and most Anura form the centre), therefore the typical batrachian vertebrae are notocentrous. If the re- maining three pairs of constituent elements of each vertebra (the neural arch, the centrum and the intercentra) remain separate, the vertebrae are called temnospondylous (rifjivu, I cut, zygapophyses; c, cup ™"™08 °f the u Thoracic. !i ao: X M Ii E Lumbar ribless. Serial Numbers of the Sacral Vertebrae. Caudal. Sphenodon punctatum Crocodilus vulgaris . Alligator mississippien. 7 9 9 3.4 5 5 15 o 3 3 ri4in 2 2 all. 5 5 26, 27 25,26 25.26 ±30 33 40 Gavialis gangeticus . 9 7 2 3 3 25,26 33 Chelone viridis . 8 9 0 0 o I9,2O,2I l6+py- gostyle Macrolernys temmincki 8 9 O o i 19, 2O 27 Chelys matamata 8 8 0 0 o 17, 18 !7 Varanus niloticus 8 4 4 II 2 30,31 75 + ii giganteus 9 2 i 16 I 3°. 31 99 Iguana tuberculata . 8 4 2-3 10-9 I 26, 27 46 Uromastix spinipes . 8 4 I ii O 25,26 24 Trachysaurus rugosus 6 4 I 25 O 37.38 7+py- *ostyleof about 6 Cyclodus gigas . 7 4 2 21 o 35.36 o Lacerta viridis . 7 3 2 15 0 28,29 40 + Ophisaurus apus o o O 0 o 55, 56 o Chamaeleo vulgaris . 5 2 I 12 2 23, 24, ±50 Rhampholeon spectrum 5 I 3 8 2 2O, 21 i? The ribs, having arisen as lateral, separated off processes from the basiventral elements, show many modifications in their proximal attachments. These can be best studied on the skeleton of a young crocodile (fig. 25, 7 and 8). The first pair of ribs is very long and broad, attached to the unpaired ventral piece of the atlas-ring; the tubercular portion is indicated by a very small rugosity. The second pair of ribs is still larger; the capitulum attached to the second intercentral piece which fuses with the odontoid process; the tubercular process is weak or represented only by a ligamentous connexion with a small knob of the odontoid process; consequently the tuberculum has shifted its attachment away from the second vertebra. The other cervical, and the anterior thoracic, ribs have complete ANATOMY] REPTILES 155 capitular and tubercular processes, which, articulating with the bodies and with dorsolateral processes of the neural arches of their vertebrae, enclose typical transverse canals. In the posterior thoracic region ^he ribs are attached entirely to transverse processes of 't cf the neural arches, both ep capitular and tubercular portions having left the bodies or centra; the same arrangement pre- vails in the tail, but the ribs are very short and soon fuse with the pro- cesses. The two sacral ribs are very thick, FIG. 30.— Lateral aspect of Three Thor- articulating with the acic Vertebrae of Crocodilus vulgaris centra and the bases of (after Mi vart). c, cup on the anterior their neural arch, and cula'of ribs; u, uncinate processes; the intervertebral Joint ! IT, dorsal or vertebral portions of In Sphenodon the first the ribs; re, ventral or sternal card- three ribs are repre- laginous portions of ribs. sented by bands of CQn nective tissue only, with similar attachments as in crocodiles. The other cervical ribs are osseous; their short capitula retain their partly intercentral attachment, while the tubercula are carried by low processes of the centra. In the thorax both capitulum and tuberculum merge into one facet, which is gradually shifting farther tailwards and upwards until the attachment reaches them, and then lies upon the neuro-central suture. The first caudal vertebrae also possess ribs, very short and soon fusing with the diapophyses of the neural arches. In the cervical region of the Chelonia the ribs seem to be absent. In the thorax they retain their primitive intercentral position throughout life, assuming (except the first pair, which remains short and least modified) an absolutely intervertebral position. From the lumbar or presacral region backwards the capitula are gradually shifting upon short processes of the centra, until in the tail the vestigial ribs are carried by the diapophyses of the neural arches. In Sphargis (fig. 31) all the ribs are free; in the other Chelonians the ribs, generally in the recent species, flatten and become sur- rounded by the grow- ing membrane bone of the dorsal plates, and the cartilage of the ribs (except the capit- ular and neck portion FIG. 31. -Three Vertebrae of Sphargi* of the rib which cannot coriacea. c, vertebral centra ; «, neural be got at by the dermal arches; r, ribs. bones) undergoes a pro- cess of calcification. Ultimately this is resorbed and its place is taken by the dermal bone, which forms, so to speak, a cast of the rib. Several of the short presacral ribs, and of course the postsacrals, are not drawn into these enormous changes, although the carapace covers, and indirectly affects, them. Certain changes initiated in Sphenodon are more marked in the ribs of the Lacertilia; cervical ribs are often long in the lower neck. In the trunk the capitular portions are often much reduced, and in these cases the ribs are suspended mainly by their tubercular portions, usually from the diapophyses of the neural arches near the anterior end. In the snakes all the vertebrae, from the second cervical to the tail, carry ribs. These are very movable, articulating with a rather large, more or less vertically placed facet, which is borne by the parapophysis or transverse process; sometimes the rib retains traces of the original division into a capitular and tubercular portion. The ribs of the snakes, although long, consist only of their dorsal portions. In snake-shaped lizards, e.g. Pseudopus, rather long ribs begin with the fourth vertebra. Uncinate processes are developed only in Sphenodon and in the Crocodilia. They are not homologous structures, arising in the former from, the posterior margin of the middle of the dorsal portions of the ribs, overlapping the shaft of the next following rib; in the crocodiles they arise out of the middle portion of the ribs, remaining cartilaginous, whilst the middle portion codssifies with the dorsal. Only in Sphenodon and Crocodiles the thoracic ribs consist of three successive pieces; in the Lacertilia they consist only of the dorsal and the ventral or costosternal. The latter remain cartilaginous, or they calcify, but they never ossify. The sternum and further modifications of the ribs of the trunk. —The sternum of most reptiles consists (i) of an anterior portion (presternum, Parker; prosternum, Fiirbringer; mesosternum of Gegenbaur), which is generally broad, more or less rhomboid and carries the shoulder-girdle, and on its posterior sides several pairs of ribs; (2) of a posterior portion (mesosternum and xiphi- sternum of Parker; xiphisternum of Furbringer; metasternum of Gegenbaur), which is narrow, sometimes metameric, carries several pairs of ribs, and generally divides into a right and left xiphoidal half, each of which is continued into one or more ribs. These ribs tend to lose their connexion, and in these cases the sternum ends in two typical xiphoid processes. The distinction between pre- and metasternum is arbitrary. In Sphenodon the broad sternal plate carries only three pairs of ribs, the 8th to toth, and there is no xiphisternum. The other ribs of the trunk are long and compound, but they remain free and do not approach the mid-line. From the posterior edge of the sternum to the pelvis extends the complicated parasternum, embedded in the abdominal wall; it is composed of about two dozen sets of abdominal ribs, each set containing a right and a left and a median chevron-shaped piece. In the Crocodilia the presternum carries only two or one pair of ribs, always that of the loth vertebra. The narrow, more or less metameric metasternum carries seven or eight ribs, the last one to three being xiphoidal. The post-thoracic ribs gradually decrease in length; about three presacral vertebrae have no ribs, and so are typically lumbar. The sacral ribs are generally the 25th and 26th in Crocodilus and Alligator; sometimes the 24th and 2$th in Gavialis. The parasternum consists of only seven or eight transverse sets, each composed of two right and two left narrow splint-bones. All these parasternal elements belong to the category of dermal bones, together with those of the plastron of tortoises, inherited from Stegocephalian conditions. The Lacertilia present an almost endless variety. The presternum is rhomboid and broad; it carries from three to six pairs of ribs, mostly four or five; the first thoracic rib is that of the pth vertebra, the only exceptions being the chameleons with only five cervical vertebrae, and Varanus, which has usually nine cervicals like the crocodiles. The last cervical rib in these long-necked lizards is very long and has all the appearance of having but recently severed its connexion with the sternum. The presternum of Lacertilia sometimes has a window, e.g. some species of Lacerla, Phrynosoma, Iguana, or a pair of windows, e.g. Agama, Liolepis, Goniocephalus. The xiphi- sternum carries a variable number of ribs; it is either scarcely distinguished from the anterior plate, or it is long, and in these cases either double, e.g. Iguana, Gerrhonolus, Varanus, Zonurus, Agama, Cyclodus, Lacerta; or single, e.g. Zonosaurus. The post- sternal ribs shorten gradually in the majority of the Lacertae, and there is sometimes a ribless lumbar vertebra, e.g. in Iguana; in many Lacertilia, however, the ventral cartilaginous halves of the ribs are connected with those of the other side, either by ligaments, or they join together, forming complete hoops of thin cartilages. Such ribs occur in all Geckones and Cha- meleons, but also in many Iguanidae, Scincidae, and even 'in the Anelytropidae; their numbers vary much, from 27 in the Scincoid Aconlias meleagris, 7-10 in Polychrus, 8 in Chamaeleo i56 REPTILES [ANATOMY vulgaris, 4 or 5 in Anolis, to 1-3 in some other iguanids, skinks and geckos. Uroplates fimbriatus has 14, and the last four pairs are separated from the dorsal portions of their ribs; similar discontinuity occurs in geckos, the median portions bearing a striking, although not fundamental, resemblance to parasternal ribs. In the lizards with much reduced fore limbs, the sternum loses its connexion with the ribs from behind forwards; two sternal ribs existing in the Tejid ^^s ^^ v^ ^0 Ophiodes and in the Scincoid ! ' ' Acontias, one only in Pygopus, FIG. 32.-Rudimcnts of pec- none in Ophisaums s Pseudo- toral arch— i, of Acontias Pus and Anguis (in the latter one meleagris; 2, of Typhlo- rib is still connected in the saurus aurantiacus (after embryo). The sternum is like- wise quite free in Chirotcs in spite of its functional limbs; the sternum is still a large plate, with a window, and ending in two long, xiphoid processes. Lastly, the sternum has vanished without a trace, as in the snakes, in some species of Acontias, in the Anelytropidae, Dibamus and Aniella (Fiirbringer). In the limbless genera of Amphisbaenidae the sternum is very much reduced; in Trogonophis alone it is still represented by a narrow trans- verse bar connecting the ossicular vestiges of the shoulder-girdle; in the other genera the sternum has shrunk to a pair of nodules or to a single nodule. The pectoral or shoulder-girdle in its completest condition consists of a right and left scapula, coracoid, precoracoid and clavicles, and an unpaired interclavicle or episternum. The dorsal portion of the scapula remains cartilaginous, with or without calcification, and is usually distinguished as supra- scapula. The ventral portion of the precoracoidal and cora- coidal mass remains likewise more or less cartilaginous, rather unnecessarily distinguished as epicoracoid. Ossification begins near the glenoid cavity and thence spreads, eventually with the formation of a dorsal and a ventral centre. The resulting suture separates the dorsal or scapular from the ventral or coraco-precoracoidal mass. A kind of landmark, not always reliable, between coracoid and precoracoid is the exit of the supra-coracoidal nerve. The ventral margins of the coracoids articulate in tenon and mortice fashion with the antero-lateral margins of the sternum. The interclavicle, usually T-shaped, is a dermal bone and rests upon the ventral side of the girdle. The paired clavicles, sometimes fused together, rest upon the anterior end of the interclavicle and extend transversely to the acromial process of the scapula; the detail of the attachments varies much. The girdle is most complete in Sphenodon and in Lacertilia. In Sphenodon the coracoid forms one continuous mass with the precoracoid, without further differentiation; the clavicles are fused with the interclavicle into one T-shaped mass, the cross-arms of which are attached to the acromia by ligaments. In the lizards (except Heloderma) the much-broadened central and anterior halves of the girdle are fenestrated; the windows, always closed by membranes, are bordered by bony processes, distally by unossified cartilage. The first window to appear, or the most constant, lies between the coracoid and its pre- coracoid; in Anguis it is the only window, in this case not a primary feature. In other lizards, e.g. Uromaslix, a second window occurs between precoracoid and scapula, and even a third window can appear in the scapula itself, causing in many Iguanidae, e.g. Amblyrhynchus (see fig. 33, ms.), the so- called mesoscapula; an analogous window within the coracoid produces the mesocoracoid; unnecessary distinctions of little morphological value considering the great variability of these fenestrations in closely allied genera. The chameleons have lost the clavicles and the interclaviclp, and the scapula, which is very slender and long, is devoid of an acromial process. The coracoid forms one mass with the precoracoid, through the middle of which passes the supra- coracoidal nerve; the coracoids articulate by their whole bases with the sternum. Geckos possess a complete shoulder-girdle; the ventral por- tion shows, e.g. Hemidactylus, three pairs of windows; only FIG. 33. — Sternum and Shoulder-Girdle of Amblyrhynchus subcris- tatus (after Steindachner). cl, clavicle; co, coracoid; h, humerus; ic, interclavicle; me, mesocoracoid; ms, mesoscapula; pc, pre- coracoid ; i, scapula ; st, sternum. one in Uroplates. In the latter the interclavicle is much re- duced; the clavicles meet each other and are slender rods. In the Geckoninae and Eublepharinae the ventral halves of the clavicles are dilated and possess each a foramen; the inter- clavicle is cross-shaped. In the more or less limbless genera of lizards the shoulder- girdle is much reduced. In Chirotes, which still has functional fore limbs, the clavicles and the interclavicle are absent, the coracoids are not divided from the precoracoids; in the limb- less Amphisbaenidae the girdle is reduced to a pair of cylindrical ossicles in Amphisbaena, Blanus and Trogonophis; no vestiges exist in Rhineura, Lepidosternon and Anops. Foramina in the broadened clavicles occur also in various Lacertae, for instance in the Iguanid Lacmanctus, in the Scin- coid Trachysaurus, in Plestiodon, Zonasaurus and in Lacerta simonyi, but not in L. agilis. In Mabuia the median portions are especially broad and show each two foramina. Their pres- ence can be of but very doubtful taxonomic value. The girdle of the Crocodiles is considerably simplified. Scapula and coracoidae, movably united, at least in younger specimens. The precoracoid is slightly indicated by a process of the coracoid, which is perforated by the supra-coracoidal nerve near the glenoid cavity. Clavicles are absent. The interclavicle is reduced to a long, flat splint-bone, which is firmly fused on to the sternal cartilage. The Chelonian shoulder- girdle shows several very remarkable modifications. Instead of lying outside the trunk, it has been transferred into the cavity of the trunk, the carapace with the ribs covering it from the outside. An explanation of the changes implied in this trans- position is still extant. Chelonians are, moreover, the only reptiles besides Pterosauria in which the scapula is attached to the skeleton of the trunk. The scapulae stand in a more or less vertical position, and their dorsal end rests against the inside of the nuchal plate, where this is sutured to the first neural and the first costal plate, a little in front of and side- wards from the first short rib. From near its ventral end the scapula sends oft" a long process, which converges transversely with its fellow. This process, the clavicle(I) or the precora- coid of many authors, is the acromial process, the Plesiosauri giving the clue as to how an acromion can assume such an abnormal position. The coracoid, with a suture between it and the scapula, is very long and extends horizontally back- wards, not meeting that of the other side. The sternum being ANATOMY] REPTILES absent, and clavicles and interclavicles forming the epi-and endo-plastral elements of the plastron, the shoulder-girdle is nowhere in contact with the skeleton except at its dorsal end. The Fore Limbs. — The humerus has near its upper end a median process, and at a variable distance a lateral process, near which is the biceps-fossa. Above the radial or outer condyle exists a foramen for the passage of the radial nerve in Sphenodon, in the Lacertilia, and 'in many Chelonians, e.g. Cholone and Sphargis; such an ectepicondylar foramen is absent in crocodiles. Above the ulnar condyle exists, but only in Sphenodon, the entepi- condylar foramen, for the passage of the nervus medianus and brachial vessels. Thus Sphenodon alone possesses both foramina, the crocodiles neither. Ulna and radius always remain distinct; the former is generally the stouter although not always the larger bone. The carpus may contain as many as 12 separate elements: ulnare, intermedium, radiale, 2 centralia, a pisiform on the ulnar and a small nodule in a corresponding position on the medial side, and 5 distal carpals. In Sphenodon the centralia are sometimes fused into one, and the radial nodule is absent; the numbers of phalanges are, 2, 3, 4, 4 and 3 proceeding from the first to the fifth finger. The carpus of the Chelonia is like- wise primitive, with various unimportant reductions; Chelydra possesses one or two centralia, whilst pisiform and extra radial are absent; both these bones are present in Emys, but the centrale fuses with the radial carpal, and the fourth and fifth distal carpal are fused together. In Testudo the pisiform is small; intermedium, centrale and radiale are represented by one bone only, and the first, second and third distal carpals are fused, whilst the two remaining are free. In the marine turtles the fore limbs are transformed into paddles; the ulna is considerably shorter than the radius; all the normal nine carpal elements remain distinct; the pisiform is much enlarged, helping to increase the paddling surface, and it has moved from the ulnar carpal to the side of the fifth distal carpal. The three middle fingers and toes have mostly 3 phalanges; the pollex and hallux have always 2 ; the number of phalanges of the fifth finger varies from 3 to i, of the fifth toe from 2 to o. The greatest reduction occurs in Testudo and its allied genera of typical land-tortoises, Homopus, Pyxis and Cinixys, the formula for the fingers being 2, 2, 2, 2, 2 or i, and 2, 2, 2, 2, o for the toes. In Pelomedusa all the fingers possess 2 free phalanges only, owing to fusion of the first and second phalanges with each other. Considerable advance is marked by the Crocodiles. The intermedium and centrale are lost, the pisiform is small, ulnar and radiale are considerably elongated and enlarged. Of the distal carpals the two last are fused into one bone, and the three first, together with the central, are transformed into a pad-like cartilaginous and ligamentous piece between the large radial and the first and second finger, to which the pad is firmly attached. The other fingers articulate with the " humatum." The result of the whole arrangement is the formation of two main joints, one between fore arm and carpus, the other inter- carpal. The number of phalanges is 2, 3, 4, 4, 3. The conditions prevailing in Lacertilia are connected with those of Sphenodon. The intermedium is lost, the other normal carpalia are present, also the pisiform; the first distal carpal is much reduced and the correspondingly enlarged radial carpal comes into articulating contact with the first metacarpal. The numbers of phalanges are 2, 3, 4, 4, and 2 or 3 for the fifth finger. The hand of the chameleons is most modified; the first three fingers form an inner bundle opposed to the outer or fourth and fifth fingers; in correlation herewith the third and fourth distal carpals are fused into one rather large mass; the other elements remain free, and A. Stecker has found a small intermedium present in the young, in a position which indicates that its subsequent absence is due to loss, not fusion with neighbouring elements. The Pelvic Girdle. — The ilium is attached to the vertebral column by' means of the two sacraljribs.1 The ischia and the 1 In all reptiles, except a few fossil groups, the ilio-sacral connexion is post-acetabular, i.e. it lies in a transverse plane tailwards from pubic bones join the ilium at the acetabulum, which is not perforated, except in crocodiles. The ischia and pubes invariably form symphyses at their ventral ends, except the so-called pubes of the crocodiles, and these two symphyses are further con- tinuous with each other, dividing the pubo-ischiadic space into a right and left foramen obturatum of very variable size. They are small and round in Testudo, divided by a broad, bony bridge, larger in Chelone, separated by a chiefly ligamentous, partly cartilaginous string; largest they are in Sphenodon and in the Lacertilia. Frequently the symphysial portion at the anterior end of the pubic symphysis remains cartilaginous, unpaired, e.g. in most Chelonians and Lacertilians, comparable with the epipubis of Urodela. A corresponding cartilage, the os cloacae or hypoischium, is continued backwards, from the ischiadic symphysis towards the vent, serving for the attachment of sphincter muscles; it occurs in many lizards and tortoises. In the Chelonians the pubic bones are generally much stronger than the ischia, and they send out each a strong lateral pubic process, directed forwards and outwards; the obturator nerve passes through the wide obturator foramen. In the pleuro- dirous tortoises the ends of the ilia and those of the lateral processes of the pubes are much broadened and firmly anchy- losed with the posterior costal plates and with the xiphiplastron respectively. The whole pelvis, like the shoulder-girdle, lies inside the body. The pelvis of Sphenodon is essentially like that of the Lacertilia. The pubes are slender ; they send out a pair of lateral processes, near the base of which the obturator nerve pierces the shaft of its pubis. This lateral process is the homologue of the long, slender pubis of birds. The chameleons' pelvis is peculiar. The pubes are devoid of lateral processes, but from their anterior end arises a pair of small cartilages, in a transverse direction; their ends are connected by ligament with the median anterior portion of the ischiadic symphysis. The crocodilian pelvis is very aberrant. The ilium is broad and sends two processes to the acetabulum, which retains a foramen; the posterior process articulates movably with the ischium; the preacetabular process fuses in very young speci- mens with a separate, ossifying, cartilaginous piece, which then forms a rough joint with the anterior portion or process of the ischium, which closes the acetabulum on its ventral side. To this anterior ischiadic process is attached the freely-movable, club- shaped bone, generally called pubis. The homologies of these club-shaped bones and of the small bone mentioned above are not clear. The club-shaped bones remain asunder; the ischia form a long and firm symphysis. The obturator nerve passes out of the pelvis between the ischium and the club-shaped bone, close to the posterior margin of the latter. The posterior limbs show essentially the same composition as the fore limbs, but the modifications in the various reptilian orders are much greater. The femur has generally a well- marked neck. Fibula and tibia remain distinct; the former usually shows a reduction in thickness. In the tarsus we observe never more than two proximal tarsal elements, a re- duction due either to the suppression of the intermedium or to its enlargement and concomitant loss of the tibial element. The least-modified foot-skeleton is that of the Chelydridae, the lowest Chelonians. The proximal row is composed of a fibulare, and a much larger piece articulates with both tibia and fibula, the " astragalus" ; the centrale is present; the first three distal tarsals remain separate, each carrying a toe. The fused fourth and fifth tarsals carry the fourth toe, and, laterally attached, the hook-shaped fifth metatarsal. Chelone shows the same arrangement, except that the centrale is fused with the astra- galus; in Testudo, Emys, the fibulare, astragalus and centrale are fused into one broad mass, with the result of forming a cruro- tarsal and an intertarsal joint. The same arrangement reached by the Testudinidae is universal in the Lacertae, with the further modification that the three first distal tarsals fuse on to the proximal ends of their respective metatarsals. Most aberrant is the tarsus of Chameleons, in which the first and second toe one passing through the acetabulum. In birds it is likewise post- in mammals pre-acetabular. i58 REPTILES [ANATOMY form a bundle opposed to the rest; the fibulare and tibiale are fused into one bone; the fused fifth and fourth distal tarsals form a very large half-globular piece for the three outer toes, whilst the second toe is carried by the third distal tarsal, besides which there are three more small cartilages, one of which may be the displaced second tarsal or the still independent central. The tarsus of Sphenodon is like that of typical lizards, but none of its distal tarsals are fused on to metatarsals. The Crocodilian foot marks an advance. The astragalus is large, articulating well with tibia and fibula, and against the fibulare, which forms a typical, heel-shaped calcaneum. The fifth and fourth distal tarsals carry the fourth toe and the hook-shaped fifth meta- tarsal to which the fifth toe is reduced. The third, second and first distal tarsalia scarcely contain osseous nodules; they form together a wedge-shaped cartilaginous pad between the astra- galus and the first and second toes. This attachment of the distal tarsals to the metatarsals reminds us of the Lacertilian condition, the result in either case being a still more marked intertarsal joint in addition to the cruro-tarsal. Most well-footed reptiles retain all the five toes; only the crocodiles and a few tortoises have lost all the phalanges of the fifth toe. The phalangeal numbers are in the Lacertilia 2, 3, 4, 5 and 3 in the fifth toe; in chameleons 2, 3, 4, 4, 3; in most tortoises 2, 3, 3, 3, 2; but in Homo pus, Pyxis and Cinixys 2, 2, 2, 2, o; in the crocodiles 2, 3, 4, 4, o. The embryos of crocodiles are said to be hyperphalangeal; i.e. as many as 7 phalanges on the fourth; 5 or 6 on the fifth finger; 6 on the fourth toe, and there are traces of the fifth toe. In the adult the fourth toe remains without a claw. Burrowing and living in sand, or humus, is in many lizards correlated with reduction of the limbs and their girdles. The vestiges of the hind limbs come to lie as near the vent as possible. The reduction occurs in various families, independently. In most cases the fore limbs disappear first, but in the Amphisbaenidae, FIG. 34.— Vestiges of pelvic limb— i, cf. Chirotes, and in the of Lialis bartonii; 2, of Anguis fra- Tejidae, the reverse takes gilis; 3, of Amphisbaenafuliginosa. place. Whilst degeneracy f, femur ; il ilium ; ip, iliopectineum ; of the shoulder.girdle is p, pubis; t, tibia. , , , , , delayed long after the loss of the anterior limbs, that of the pelvic arch precedes the loss of the hind limbs. Cope has drawn up a tabular statistic of the loss of digits, limbs and their girdles on pp. 202-3 °f his work, Crocodiles, Lizards and Snakes of North America (Washington, 1900). The peculiar hind limbs of the Dibamidae are described in the article LIZARD. The majority of snakes have lost all traces of the limbs and their girdles, ex- cept the so-called Peropoda (see SNAKES: Classification). The vestiges of a Boa and of a Glauconia are shown in fig. 35- ^ r FIG. 35. — i, Vestigial pelvis and limb of Glauconia macrolepis. 2, The same parts of Boa (after Fiirbringer). /, lemur; il, ilium ; ip, bone called " iliopectineum " by Fiirbringer; p, pubis; t, tibia. Tegumenlary System. The skin of reptiles is characterized by the strong development of its horny stratum; on the outside of it exists a thin cuticular or epitrichial layer. An important feature in most lizards and in the snakes is the existence of a " subepirdemoidal " or transi- tional kyer which is produced by the migration of ectodermal cells into the cutis. The immigration takes place during the embryonic development, observed first by Kerschner, who, however, misinterpreted the process. Pigment cells, black chromatophores also, make their first appearance in the epiderm and then migrate into the transitional stratum, as has been first correctly stated by F. Maurer. The horny stratum is shed periodically, several times during the year, and as one entire piece in snakes and a few lizards, e.g. Anguidae; in most lizards, chameleons, geckos and in Sphenodon the thin, transparent colourless layer comes off in flakes. In crocodiles it is not shed except for the usual wear and tear, nor in tortoises, although in some e.g. Chrysemys, a periodical peeling of the large shields has been observed. In all reptiles the cutis is raised into papillae, or folds. When the papillae are small the skin appears granular; when they are large, flat, mostly imbricating, they form scales; when they are very broad-based and still larger, they are called scutes or shields. The overlying epidermal covering partakes of these elevations, often e.g. in many snakes, with a very fine system of ridges of its own. Such a scale, cutis and horny sheath, may form spikes, or crests. They all have only basal growth. Thus, for instance, a shield of a tortoise-shell is a much flattened scale, or cone, with the apex more or less in the centre, surrounded by marginal ridges which indicate the continuous additional growth at the base. The central " areola " represents in fact the size of the shield at the time of hatching. Of very common occurrence is the development of bone in the cutaneous portion of the scales; such osteoderms occur in many lizards, very strongly developed in the scutes of the crocodiles, especially on the back; they also occur in the skin of tortoises especially on their legs and on the tail, and they probably constitute the peculiar shell of Sphargis, the leathery turtle (see TORTOISE). Sphenodon and chameleons are devoid of such osteoderms, in geckos they are likewise absent, but calcifications occur in their tubercular skin. A similar process seems to have produced the egg-tooth of crocodiles and tortoises (see under Teeth below). Calcareous deposits, or at least deposits of guanine and more commonly of carbonate of lime, play a considerable role in the skin of lizards and snakes. These waste products of the metabolism are always deposited within cells, and a favourite place is the subepidermal layer. In combination with superimposed yellow or red pigment, and with the black chromatophores as a foil, partial or complete screen to the light, as the case may be, these mineral deposists are to a great extent answerable for the colours and their often mar- vellous changes in the skin (see CHAMELEON). Peculiar pits in the scales of snakes and crocodiles are described under Sense-Organs below. The skin of reptiles is very poor in glands, but the few which exist are well developed. Crocodiles possess a pair of glandular musk bags which open by rather large slits on the under jaw, against the inner side of the jaw. Another pair of musk glands are the anal glands. During great excitement all these glands can be everted by the crocodiles. Sphenodon and snakes have only the anal pair. Water tortoises have inguinal glands, which secrete a strongly scented fluid, opening near the posterior rim of the bridge. Trionyx has additional glands opening near the anterior part of the plastron. Peculiar glandular structures are the femoral pores of many lizards. They lie in a line from the inner side of the knee to the anterior margin of the anal region, to which they are restricted in the limbless Amphis- baenidae. Each pore leads into a subcutaneous pocket , sometimes with slightly acinous side chambers, the walls of which produce a smeary, yellowish matter consisting chiefly of the debris of disintegrated cells which dries or hardens on the surface in the shape of a little projecting rod. They occur in both sexes, but are most active in males during the pairing season. Their use is unknown. It would be far-fetched to liken them to fore- runners of the sebaceous portions of milk glands, although not so imaginary as to see in them and in the sensory pits of snake scales the foreruriners of the mammalian hairs! Claws, scarcely indicated in Batrachia, are fully developed in all limbed reptiles. The base is sunk into the skin like our own finger nails; the dorsal and ventral halves are differenti- ated into a harder, more curved dorsal sheath-like portion, and into the beginning of a sole, especially in crocodiles and in blunt-toed tortoises. The first claw to be reduced is that of ANATOMY] REPTILES the fifth digit. The claws of many geckos are " retractile," like those of cats; the adhesive lamellae on the under side of their digits have already been described (see GECKO). Nervous System. The hemispheres are still much longer than broad, and pass, especially in lizards, gradually into the olfactory lobes, into which continue the ventricles of the hemispheres. The dorsal walls of these are thin, especially in crocodiles, although they possess already a considerable amount of grey matter. The basal masses of the fore-brain bulge into the roomy ventricles like cushions. Fibres referable to a corpus callosum are scarcely separated from those of the still much stronger anterior commissure. The epiphysis comes to the surface between the hinder parts of the hemispheres. The pineal eye is described below under Sense Organs. The hypo- physis has tyit a shallow infundibulum. The mid-brain shows a pair of dorsal globular swellings, each with a cavity; they separate the hemispheres from the cerebellum. Of the hind- brain, the middle portion is by far the largest; although the dorsal wall of this cerebellum is thick, and rich in grey matter, it's surface is still quite smooth and it shows no trace of an arbor vitae. It covers but a small portion of the wide fourth ventricle. The spinal cord shows a brachial and a lumbar longitudinal swelling, especially marked in tortoises, but without a rhom- boidal sinus. The cord is continued into the end of the tail. The cranial nerves of the reptiles agree in their arrangement and distribution more with those of birds and mammals than with those of the Batrachia. The facial nerve sends a palatine branch to the palate and to the superior maxillary of the trige- minus, and a strong mandibular branch joins the third of the trigeminal, and further ramifications supply the sphincter muscle of the neck. The vagus and glossopharyngeus leave the cranium separately. The vagus then goes towards the heart, which in the /f Sauropsida is far re- moved from the head, and there possesses another ganglion, vari- ously called ganglion trunci vagi or g. nodosum. It is con- nected by a nerve with the large gang- lion supremum of the sympathetic. From FIG. 36.— Brain of Locertoogito. (After Ley- tne cardiac ganglion, dig.) i, Dorsal aspect; 2, vertical longi- and from the con- tudinal section, cb, cerebellum; ch, tinuation cerebral hemisphere; m, medulla oblon- vagus are sen(- gata ; olf, olfactory lobes ; on, optic nerve ; opl, optic lobes; p, pineal body or several branches epiphysis ; py, base of pituitary body. sue cession, which, having to pass below or tailwards from the transverse carotic, aortic and Botal- lian vessels, have to take again a headward course to the larynx and pharynx; a side branch enters the heart by its truncus. The main mass of the vagus then supplies lungs, stomach and further viscera. The accessory or nth cranial nerve arises with about half a dozen roots which extend often beyond the second cranial nerve; they collect into a thin stem which leaves the cranium together with the vagus, with which it is often fused; it supplies the cucullaris s. trarepius muscle. The hypoglossus arises by two ventral roots, leaving the skull by two holes through the lateral occipital bone, near the condyle. The united stem is invariably joined by strong branches from cervical nerves, always from the first, mostly also from the second, sometimes also from the third. The details vary much; occasionally there are three cranial roots and foramina, and then only the first cervical joins the hypo- glossus; this often fuses with the glossopharyngeal or with the nff the vagus. In the broad and well-muscularized tongue of the crocodiles the right and left hypoglossal branches form a com- plete ansa, an arrangement in which A. Schneider saw the infraoesophageal nerve ring of Invertebrata! The spinal nerves each issue behind, or through, the neural arch of the vertebra to which they belong genetically. The first spinal, or suboccipital, nerve has no dorsal roots, and, having lost its vertebra, an apparently anomalous arrangement has come to pass, in this way, that there are x cervical vertebrae, but x + i cervical nerves, a condition prevailing in, and char- acteristic of, all Amniota. The hypoglossal-cervical plexus is separated from the brachial plexus by several metameres, according to the length of the neck. The brachial plexus is composed of about 5 nerves; the variations have been studied chiefly by M. Fiirbringer. It is interesting to note that the brachial plexus still persists in snakes, although they have completely lost the anterior girdle and the limbs (Albertina Carlsson). A disturbance in the pelvic region likewise indi- cates in snakes the former existence of a pelvic or lu.mbo-sacral plexus, which in limbed reptiles is composed of about 5 nerves, the last of which is weak and in many cases (by no means the rule) issues between the two sacral vertebrae, sending one branch to the ischiadic, another to the public plexus which supplies the cloacal region. (For details of these plexuses see the papers by Mivart, Jhering and Gadow.) The sympathetic system shows considerable modifications in the various orders and even families of the reptiles. In the neck region, in Sphenodon and most lizards it is', on the right and left side, composed of two portions. One, more lateral and placed deeply, runs along the side of the vertebral column, starting from the first and second spinal nerves, with which it is connected by. so-called rami communicantes; it is not con- nected with the other spinal nerves until it reaches, in the thorax, the first stem of the brachial plexus, and hereabout lies the so-called second thoracic ganglion. The other, super- ficial and more ventral, portion arises from the petrosal gan- glion of the glossopharyngeal, and from the vagus ganglion, and then forms a long loop which joins the second thoracic gan- glion. In its long course it sometimes, e.g. in Varanus, forms one common stem with the vagus before it splits off. At a variable distance, but not far above the heart, the vagus pos- sesses a big swelling, the ganglion trunci vagi, and the sym- pathetic stem, in the same level, or farther down, has likewise a large ganglion, the g. supremum vagi, or first thoracic gan- glion. The vagus ganglion receives several nerve strands from this big sympathetic ganglion, and then divides as described above. In the crocodiles the deep portion of the sympathetic begins at the vagus and extends in rope-ladder fashion into the thorax, there being, as in birds, regular transverse communicating branches with the spinal nerves, and the longitudinal strands run through the transverse foramina between the capitular and tubercular portions of the cervical ribs. The other, ventral, por- tion starts by a right and a left branch from the vagus ganglia, but both branches unite at once into one unpaired stem, which is deeply embedded in the middle line between the ventral muscles of the cervical vertebrae. Very thin branches connect this unpaired stem with the right and left sympathetic portions ; small ganglia are embedded in the unpaired nerve. The so-called second thoracic ganglion is in reality a compound of all the sympathetic ganglia of the four or five metameres of the brachial plexus. It forms the point of juncture of the deep and the superficial cervical sympathetic portions. From the posterior region of the thorax backwards the right and left strands run along their side of the vertebral column, with a communicating branch and a ganglion for each metamere; sometimes one or more successive ganglia are combined, for instance near the cloaca. After having supplied the latter, the sympathetic system appears exhausted and is continued into the tail by but a very thin strand, which runs between the caudal vein and artery. The best illustrations of the sympathetic system are those by Vogt (neck of crocodile), J. G. Fischer (many i6o REPTILES [ANATOMY lizards), H. Gadow (cloaca of crocodile), J. F. v. Bemmelen (Sphenodon and others), W. H. Gaskell and H. Gadow (heart of tortoise). Sense Organs. 1. Tegumentary Organs of some Tactile or other Sense. — Reptiles possess apparently no traces of those tegumentary sense organs which, belonging to the domains of the trigeminal and vagus nerves, have spread far over the body in fishes and batrachia. They were developed by those classes in correlation with their essentially aquatic life. This does not apply to the reptiles which, as a class, are of absolutely terrestrial origin. Never- theless all recent reptiles possess numerous low sense-organs, " tactile bodies," in most parts of the skin, connected with the regional, spinal nerves. They are most obvious in snakes, appearing as one or more little colourless spots near the apex of each scale on the back. The spot is formed by a little cluster of epidermal cells, connected with a sensory nerve. Their lowest stage they show in Sphenodon and in lizards, whilst in crocodiles they have reached a higher stage, at the bottom of the pit, since the tactile bodies, mostly several together, have sunk into the cutis, below the epiderm, forming a little pit, mostly near to the anterior margin of the flat scutes. They are most obvious on the belly of crocodiles, whilst in the American alligator such pits are scarcer, not because the organs are absent, but because these have sunk still farther into the skin. The last stage is that met with in tortoises, which possess such tactile bodies in considerable numbers in the softer subepidermal layers, beneath the large horny shields which themselves show no traces of them. 2. Taste. — The respective organs do not seem to have been investigated. That they exist is amply proved by the careful predilection for certain kinds of food which is shown especially by vegetarian tortoises and lizards, independent of smell. Many lizards are, for instance, very fond of sugar. 3. Nose. — The sense of smell is well developed in all rep- tiles. In none is the olfactory organ degraded; that the nasal passages, the nose itself, are never degraded is explained by the fact that all reptiles invariably breathe through the nose, except snakes during the act of swallowing their prey. The nostrils, always paired, are frequently provided with valves, to shut out the water, or sand. In some water tortoises, e.g. Trionyx, Chelys, the nostrils are prolonged into a soft, unpaired proboscis. Double tubes exist in the snake Herpeton (see SNAKES, Opis- thoglypha). The nostril leads into an antrum or vestibulum, this again into the nasal cavity proper, at the dorsal farther end enters the olfactory nerve, whilst ventrally it leads into the naso- laryngeal duct, with its posterior narial opening, or choana. The ducts are short in snakes and lizards, the choanae lying in the front part of the palate, but in tortoises and crocodiles they are placed far backwards, as has been described under Skull above. Into the nasal cavity projects, from the septum, a concha, least developed in tortoises, most in lizards and snakes. Crocodiles show a beginning of separation into several conchae as in birds and mammals. A large nasal gland lies against the lateral, or ventral, side of the outer wall of the nasal cavity, into which also opens the naso-lacrymal duct. Jacobson's organ, of uncertain function, is present in most reptiles. It is paired. In tortoises it is still placed within its nasal cavity, against the median wall, and is still nothing but a recess of the same and its mucous lining. In lizards and snakes the organ has become completely separated from the nasal cavity, lying below it and opening, each by a separate passage, into the palate mouth, close to or still within the choanae. In snakes it is mushroom-shaped, with a very short stalk. It lies immediately below the floor of the nasal capsule, and the membranous wall of the cavity on which it lies is covered and protected by a bone, commonly called the turbinal, which extends out from the median nasal system to the maxilla. In crocodiles these organs are vestigial and soon disappear: 4. Ear. — In crocodiles the outer ear lies in a recess, dorsally overhung by the lateral edge of the bony squamoso-frontal bridge; it carries a flap of skin, provided with muscles, to close the ear tightly. In lizards the outer ear is quite unprotected, and when the meatus is very short and wide, the drum is quite exposed. No reptiles possess cartilages comparable to the mammalian outer ear. Sphenodon, chameleons, snakes have no outer ear, the skin passing over the region. So also in tortoises, but in some of the aquatic kinds its position is well indicated by softer and thinner skin; in others, for instance marine turtles, a thick leathery plug, or a bigger scale marks the former position. In various lizards, chiefly burrow- ing in sand, the ear passage is very narrow, or closed. The middle ear or tympanic cavity is quite obliterated in snakes, Amphisbaenas and some other snake-shaped lizards. In Anguis may exist individual traces. The cavity communicates with the mouth. In lizards the communication is a wide recess, lined with black pigment, so that in these creatures the whole auditory chain can easily be inspected from the oppned mouth. In tortoises the recesses are contracted into the Eustachian tubes, each of which opens by a separate aperture into the roof of the mouth. In the crocodiles part of the cavities is trans- formed into an intricate system of canals and passages. The two Eustachian tubes open together in the mid-lines protected by a valve, between the basioccipital and basisphenoid; thence arises a median passage which with lateral arms and loops extends upward through the occiput into the cranial roof, communicating with the tympanic cavity, and further continued through the quadrates and beyond into the mandibles, by the siphonium. In spite of the obliterated tympanic cavity of snakes, and the closed up outer ear passage and absence of a tympanic membrane in snakes and tortoises, these creatures can hear very well. The same applies to Sphenodon, but it seems doubtful whether chameleons can hear. Through the whole middle ear, from the fenestra ovalis to the drum-membrane, stretches the chain of auditory ossicles or cartilages, partly attached to the posterior wall by the common lining membrane. The arrangement appears simplest in snakes, in chameleons and in tortoises, not because it is primitive but because it is so much reduced, partly in correlation with the abolition of the outer ear. In these creatures the columella goes as a bony, slender rod straight to the middle of the quadrate, against which it leans, or with which it articulates by a short piece of cartilage, the extra-columella. Here the whole chain ends. It looks like a proof that columella = stapes, extra- columella = incus, and quadrate= malleus; or, with the usual ignoring of the little extra-columellar piece, that quadrate = incus, Gegenbaur's favourite impossibility. In those lizards which have a tympanic membrane conditions are far less reduced. The extra-columellar piece sends out three distal processes; one leans on to the middle of the tympanic membrane, the second usually is fastened to the bony dorsal rim of the meatus, the third is directed downwards and is continued as a thin ligament towards the inner angle of the articular of the mandible, but " before reaching this it comes to grief, being squeezed in between the quadrate and the posterior end of the pterygoid. The hyoid proper is of no account in snakes and tortoises, since it is reduced to very short distal pieces attached to the base of the tongue; but in lizards it remains in its original length, or it even lengthens, and shows many vagaries in its position and attachments. In embryos of Sphenodon and lizards it arises from near the junction of the columella with the extra-columella. It becomes very long, too long for the available space (perhaps correlated with lingual functions), and it forms a high loop, thereby causing the peculiar loop of the chorda tympani; the upward bend of the hyoid becomes connected with the parotic process of the cranium. Next aborts the portion between this connexion and the original proximal end of the hyoid, near the columellar mass. The upper end of the hyoid either remains attached to the parotic process (various lizards and Sphenodon) whence the lingual apparatus remains suspended, or the hyoid, having broken loose, leaves a little cartilage, Versluy's cartilage, behind, at the end of the parotic process, and the hyoid horn remains free, in the majority of lizards. In Sphenodon, whilst ANATOMY] REPTILES 161 passing the distal portion of the extra-columella, part of the hyoid fuses with it, often forming thereby a little hole, the remnant of imperfect fusion. In the crocodiles the arrangement is at first complete and diagrammatically clear, not obscured by vagaries of the hyoid, which is free and much reduced. In the embryo the large extra-columellar cartilage, abutting against the tympanic membrane, and with another process against the quadrate, sends its third, downward, process as a thick rod of cartilage to the posterior inner angle of the mandible with which it is directly in cartilaginous continuity. It was W. K. Parker's mistake to call this cartilage the cerato-hyal. In young embryos it looks like an upward continuation of Meckel's cartilage, much resembling mammalian conditions. But in nearly ripe embryos this cartilage is already reduced to a string of connective tissue, cartilage remaining only at the upper end, and where this string enters the mandible lies the siphonium, the tube which connects the air cavities of the mandible with the Eustachian passages, the long connecting channel becoming — side by side with the extracolumellar-mandibular ligament — embedded into a canal of the quadrate, so that in older stages, and above all in the adult, the proper display of the whole arrangement requires a FIG. 37. — Diagram showing Evolution cf the Ossicular Chain of the Ear. I. Hyostylic Elasmobranch. H, hyoid; Hrn, hyomandible; M, mandible; P Q, palatoquadrate. 2. Lacertilian. Co, colu- mella or stapes; and E, extra-columella with supra-, extra- and infra- " stapedial " processes. 3. Hypothetic stage between 2 and 4, Sphenodon. Par = parotic bone. 5. Lacertilian. Parotic pro- cess with a piece of cartilage at its end, remnant of piece of the hyoid ; connexion of intra-stapedial process with mandible vanish- ing. 6. Embryo of Crocodile. Continuous cartilaginous connexion of extra-columella with Meckel's cartilage. 7. Embryonic Mammal; for comparison. Cd, the new condyle, articulating with Sq, squamosal; Cor, coronoid process; quadrate trans- forming into tympanic ring. little anatomical skill. The whole string, whether cartilaginous or ligamentous, which connects the downward extracolumellar process with the articulare, is of course homologous with the continuation of Meckel's cartilage into the malleus of foetal and young mammals; and the chain of bones and cartilages between the auditory capsule, fenestra ovalis, and the proximal part of the mandible is also homologous wherever such a chain occurs; lastly, fenestra ovalis and membrana tympani are fixed points. Consequently columella=stapes, extracolumella of Sauropsida= lentiform+incus+malleus of Mammalia. The inner ear has been studied minutely and well by C. Hasse, E. Clason and G. Retzius. It is enclosed by the periotic bones. The fenestra rotunda is surmounted by the opisthotic, the fenestra ovalis by the same and by the pro-otic, and this protects also the anterior vertical semicircular canal. The posterior canal is opisthotic, the horizontal is pro- and opisthotic. The anterior canal is the largest of the three, a feature characteristic of the Sauropsida. The lagena, with its own acoustic papilla, begins to show a basilar membrane with papilla, at the expense of that in the sacculus. In Sphenodon and lizards a slight curving of the lagena indicates the beginning of a cochlea, and a scala is developed in crocodiles, but neither cochlea nor scala is specially twisted. The endo-lymphatic ducts end as closed sacs, in lizards and snakes, in the roof of the skull, between the occipital and parietal bones. They reach an enormous development in many geckos, where they form large twisted sacs beneath the skin, covering the sides of the neck, which then assumes a much swollen appearance. They contain white otolithic masses, with lymph. It is remarkable that the extent of these sacs varies not only in allied species, but even individually, independent of sex and age, although they are naturally liable to increase with age. 5. Eyes are present in all reptiles, although in many of the burrowing snakes and lizards they may be so completely covered by the skin as to have lost their function. Most reptiles have upper and lower lids, moved by palpebral muscles, and a third lid, the nictitating membrane, which can be drawn over the front of the cornea from the inner angle obliquely up and backwards. Its mechanism is simplest in lizards. A muscle, a split from the retractor muscle of the eyeball, arises from the posterior part of the orbit, is attached to the posterior wall of the eyeball, and there forms a pulley for the long tendon which arises from the median side of the orbit and passes over the back of the ball forwards into the nictitating [membrane. Contraction of this muscle draws the membrane backwards and over the eye. In crocodiles and tortoises the tendon of the nictitating membrane broadens out into a muscle (M. pyramidalis), which arises from the median side of the posterior portion of the ball; above the optic nerve it crosses over the broad insertion of the retractor of the ball, without being much guided by it, although this muscle by its contraction slightly prevents the nictitating tendon and muscle from touching the optic nerve. It is easy to recognize the mechanism of birds as a combina- tion of the two types just described; their ,musc. quadrates s. bursalis is of course the single muscle of the lizards, but now restricted to, and broadened out upon, the eyeball. Special Modifications of the Lids. — In the snakes the upper and lower lids are reduced to the rim, and the nictitating membrane has become the permanent cover, which protects the eye like a watch-glass, leaving between itself and the cornea a space, drained by the naso-lacrymal duct, and behind this space the eyeball moves as freely as in other animals. A similar arrange- ment exists in tb,e true geckos, not in the Eublepharidae, which still possess the outer lids. In some lizards, especially such as live in deserts, the middle of the lower lid has a transparent disk, and it is always the lower lid which is drawn over the eye, the upper in nearly all Sauropsida being much smaller and less movable; for instance, some specimens of the Lacertine genus Eremias in Africa and India. In the Indian genus Cabrita, and in Ophiops of Africa and India, the lower lid is permanently fused with the rim of the shrunken upper lid and forms a trans- parent window superficially looking like that of the snakes. Exactly the same arrangement has been developed by A Uepharus, one of the Scincidae. The eyeball is provided with the usual rectus and obliquus muscles, in addition to a retractor oculi. Apparently all reptiles possess a pair of Harderian or nictitating glands, which open in front, in the nasal, inner corner, and lacrymal glands which open likewise into the conjunctival sac, but near the outer or temporal corner. The secretion of both is drained off through the lacrymal canals, which in lizards open below in the outer wall of the posterior nares; in snakes they open into the mouth by a narrow aperture on the inner side of the pala- tine bone. The walls of the anterior half of the sclerotic of lizards, tortoises and Sphenodon contain numerous cartilaginous or osseous plates, which imbricate in ring shape; they are absent in snakes and crocodiles. Internally the eye of most reptiles possesses at least traces of a pecten; very small indeed in tortoises, or in crocodiles where it is represented by only a few mosslike, pigmented vessels. In many lizards these vessels, arising from near the optic nerve, form a network which extends right up to the posterior side of the lens; in others, especially in Iguanidae, is developed a typical, large pecten, deeply pigmented with black, fan-shaped or umbrella-shaped, some- times folded. In chameleons it is a short cone; apparently xxm. 6 REPTILES [ANATOMY quite absent in Sphenodon. A falciform process and other remnants of a campanula are absent. In most of those reptiles which have but a rudimentary pecten, the retina is supplied by hyaloid vessels which spread over the surface of the vitreous body; such superficial vessels disappear with a greater develop- ment of the pecten, and the retina receives a choroid supply; special retinal arteries from the a. centralis retinae, and veins, exist in snakes. Ciliary processes of the choroid are usually small, a proper ciliary body being least' developed in crocodiles; all reptiles have a ciliary muscle. The shape of the contracted pupil varies from round to a vertical slit; the latter is most marked in Sphenodon. The retina shows usually a fovea centralis, sometimes but slightly indicated by a shallow depression; it is well marked in chameleons. The retina contains only cones, rods being absent; fat-drops on the apex of the cones are common; their usual colours are green and blue. 6. The pineal, median or parietal eye is the terminal organ of the epiphysis of the brain, with which it is connected by a nerve-containing string. Among recent reptiles it exists in Sphenodon and in the Lacertilia, with vestiges in snakes. It is embedded in the median parietal foramen. Externally its presence is generally marked by the scales being arranged in a rosette, with a transparent central scale. The organ itself is distinctly a dioptric apparatus, with all the essential features of an eye; a pigmented retina of the arthropodous simple type surrounds an inner chamber which is nearly filled by a cellular globular mass which projects into it from above; this is the so-called lens, in reality much more like the corpus vitreum in its still cellular condition, while the real lens has to be looked for in the superimposed tissue. The whole organ is best developed in Sphenodon, even in the adult; but whether it is still functional, and what its function is, remain unknown. The throwing of a beam of light upon this eye, by means of a lens, produces no effect. Whilst in Sphenodon the " lens " is rather dull and the efferent nerve is still present, in various lizards the " lens " is more perfect, but the nerve is degenerated. We conclude that the whole organ is now without the least visual function, whilst in various extinct groups of reptiles and Stego- cephali it was fully developed. It has been well investigated by de Graaff, W. B. Spencer and A. Bendy. The Muscular System. A useful account of the differentiation of the muscles in the main reptilian groups, with their almost endless modifications in correlation with walking, climbing, swimming, gliding and burrowing, with limbs complete or absent, would fill several pages of this article and would necessitate many illustrations. The literature is great; it comprises many good detailed de- scriptions of various kinds of reptiles, and several monographs. M. Fiirbringer has devoted a whole series to the muscles of the neck, shoulder-girdle and fore limbs. Hand in hand with these investigations went that of the innervation, without which myology would lack scientific value. The present writer has devoted much time to the muscles and nerves of the pelvis and hind limbs, and has, in tabular form, compared them with those of other vertebrates. The results of all these labours are rather disappointing, except for the study of myology as such, which raises many interesting questions. Broadly speaking, the muscles of typical reptiles, crocodiles and lizards are more highly differentiated (by no means always more numerous, but more individualized by origin and insertion, the behaviour of the tendons), more effectively disposed according to mechanical principles, than in Batrachia, and less than in birds and mammals. This can easily be proved, whether we take for comparison the muscles of the neck, of the larynx or hyoid, or limbs. Lowest.in general stands Sphenodon, next to it the lizards, highest the crocodiles, while tortoises and snakes show the greatest reduction and specialization. In the tortoises it is the non-yielding box of carapace and plastron which has caused great changes within the region of the trunk proper. First, all the epiaxial muscles have vanished; the same applies to the costal muscles; but traces of dorso-lateral muscles occur on the inside of the posterior half of the carapace, extending as a longitudinal system from one transverse process to the next in many of the lower aquatic tortoises, as perfectly useless vestiges; or more striking, these muscles exist in the young, and disappear with age, for instance in Testudo. Secondly, it is rather surprising that the rigid shell has offered so little or no inducement to the muscles of the girdles, neck and tail to transfer their origins upon it. Thirdly, the retractile neck of the typical cryptodirous tortoises is correlated with a pair of long retractor muscles, which in the shape of a pair of broad, vertical ribbons (between which is received the S-kinked neck) extend far back along the vertebral column, almost to the level of the pelvis. In snakes, owing to the loss of limbs and girdles, only the spinal and costal muscles remain, besides of course those of the abdomen and the visceral arches. The vestigial muscles of the limbless lizards and of the peropodous snakes have been monographed by Fiirbringer in much detail without great results. Respiratory Organs. All reptiles breathe by lungs, and they possess no vestiges of gills, not even during their embryonic stages, although gill clefts are invariably present in the embryo. Nor does any part of the outer skin assist respiration, as is so commonly the case in Batrachia; yet, strictly speaking, the lungs are not the only organs of respiration in the class of reptiles, since various tortoises possess additional breathing apparatus in the anal sacs and in certain recesses of the throat, to be mentioned farther on. The Larynx, instead of lying at the bottom and. far back in the throat, as in the Batrachia, is considerably moved for- wards so as to rest upon the hyoid and to project into the pharyngeal cavity. A pair of arytenoid cartilages, enclosing the glottis, rest upon several more or less fused tracheal cartil- ages, which thus represent the cricoid, but there is no thyroid cartilage. A small process from the anterior median edge of the cricoid is the beginning of an epiglottis. Vocal chords are indicated by lateral projecting folds of the inner membran- ous lining of the larynx, and are in a few cases effective in producing a voice. Crocodiles and alligators have a powerful, loud, bellowing voice; many tortoises utter weak, piping sounds, especially during the pairing season; and also various lizards can emit a feeble squeak, for instance, Psammodromus hispanicus, and the geckos. Sphenodon, at least the males, can grunt. Snakes have no voice; they can only hiss like all other reptiles, but a curious modification exists in the larynx of the North American Coluber s. Pityophis, e.g. C. melanoleucus: the epiglottis is more enlarged, and laterally compressed so that the hissing sound is much strengthened by the vibration of the epiglottis. The larynx possesses a constrictor and a dilator muscle, which arise from the ary- tenoids and from the cricoid respectively, and are attached to the hyoid. Chameleons have bladder-shaped sacs which can be filled with air from a slit immediately below the larynx. For further modifications see G. Tornier. The Trachea is furnished with cartilaginous rings and semi- rings, which extend to the lungs. As a rule the trachea is straight; in Crocodilus americanus it forms a loop; and similar curvings occur in various tortoises in correlation with the retractile neck. The two bronchi are shortest in Sphenodon, very long in most tortoises, where they begin frequently already half down the neck. In Sphargis most of the trachea is divided by a longitudinal partition. It is an advance upon amphibian conditions that the bronchus enters its lung no longer at its apex, since an anterior, pre-bronchial lung-portion has come into existence. This is still very short in Sphenodon, while in crocodiles, tortoises and in the highly developed Varanidae the bronchus enters near the middle of its lung, so that the anterior portion is nearly as long as the posterior. The shape of the trunk influences that of the lungs. In the snake-shaped forms, both snakes and lizards alike, the lungs have become ANATOMY1 REPTILES very asymmetrical, one of them being much larger than th other, which is often quite aborted. The simplest form of lungs is that of Sphenodon; the pre bronchial part is still small. Each lung is still a sac with on large lumen, the walls being honeycombed. In the lizard the walls are more spongy, and several septa begin to extent more or less far from the walls into the lumen, towards eacl bronchus. Some of these septa begin to cut the lung intc lobes, especially in Varanus and in chameleons. In the latte exists a further specialization, a side-departure, in the shapi of several long, hollow processes which are sent out from the posterior portions of the lungs and extend far into the body cavity and between the viscera. By means of them these creatures can " blow " themselves out. They are of mor phological interest since they are first stages of air-sacs so marvellously developed in birds, and possibly also in various Dinosaurs. In the Amphisbaenids the left lung alone remains The lungs of crocodiles have reached a considerably higher stage. They alone in reptiles are, on the ventral side, com- pletely shut off from the viscera by a pleural, partly mus- cularized, membrane. From each bronchus extend a number of broad septa towards the periphery, dividing the originally single lumen into many chambers, perhaps a dozen, from the walls of which wide secondary or parabronchial canals extend into the alveolar meshwork, in very regular arrangement, in series like organ-pipes. The lungs of the tortoises are, in adaptation to the peculiar shape of the body, stowed away along the back, as far as the pelvis, and only their ventral surface is covered by a strong peritoneal membrane which receives muscular, diaphragmatic fibres. The inner division of the lungs into chambers has pro- gressed so much that a sort of mesobronchus has become dis- cernible; the arrangement of the side-bronchi is far less regular than in crocodiles; the whole lung is much more honeycombed, meshy and spongy. The mechanism of breathing of tortoises is not such a puzzle as it is sometimes stated to be. Of course the rigid box of the trunk excludes any costal, or abdominal breathing, but by pro- truding the limbs or the neck, piston-like, an effective vacuum is produced in the box. Moreover, the throat is distended and worked considerably by the unusually large and very movable hyoid apparatus, by which air is pumped into the lungs. The lungs of the snakes are very thin-walled, with a very wide lumen, and only for about the first half from the heart backwards the walls are alveolar enough for actual respiratory function, while towards the blind end the sacs are so thin and sparsely vascularized that they act mainly as reservoirs of a large amount of air. Frequently their posterior portions receive blood vessels not from the pulmonary arteries but directly from those of the trunk. In correlation with tKe long, cylindrical body, the lungs are much elongated and they are not equally developed. The asymmetry shows great differences in the various groups, consequently the asymmetry has been developed independently in those groups. It is usually stated that the left lung is much smaller than the right. This is but rarely the case. The most recent observations are those of E. D. Cope (Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. (1894), xxxiii. 217). In Boidae both lungs are large, although unequal: the left or more dorsally placed one being the larger. In Ilysia the right is functional, the left is ventral and vestigial. In Rhinophis the right is very small, the left larger. In Glaucoma and Typhlops the right lung alone is developed: the left is^juite aborted. In Colubridae the left lung alone is functional, while the right is vestigial. There is no trace of the right in Elapinae and Hydro- phinae and most Viperidae. In the Colubridae the right, or ventral, lung is, when present at all, reduced to a length of from 2-5 mm., and it then communicates with the anterior portion of the left lung by a foramen, in level of the heart, whilst the right bronchus is aborted. A further complication is the so-called tracheal lung, which is present in Typhlopidae, Ungalia of the Boidae, in Chersydrus of the Acrochordinae, in the Hydrophinae and Viperidae. This 163 peculiar organ is a continuation of the anterior portion of the functional lung, extending far headwards, along the trachea, with the lumen of which it communicates by numerous openings. In Chersydrus this mysterious organ is " composed of coarse cells and without lumen, extends from the heart to the head, and is discontinuous with the true lung; the trachea communi- cates with it by a series of symmetrical pores on each side." In Typhlops it extends likewise from the heart to the throat, as a cellular body but without lumen or connexion with either trachea or lung. Thyroid and Thymus. The Thyroid of the reptiles is a single, unpaired organ, placed ventrally upon the trachea and one or other of the arterial trunks, more or less distant from the heart. In snakes it lies on the mid-line near the heart; a little farther up in Sphenodon; still farther in lizards, and chameleons near the root of their gular sac. In tortoises it is globular, at the division of the carotic trunk. In crocodiles it is bilobed. The Thymus is paired. It is largest in crocodiles, extending on either side of nearly the whole neck, along the carotids and jugulars. In the tortoises they are much shorter; in Sphenodon and lizards are two pairs, more or less elongated; in the snakes are sometimes as many as three pairs, elongated but small, attached to the carotis near the heart. As usual the thymus bodies become much reduced with age. The Spleen. The Spleen varies much in shape and position. In lizards it is mostly roundish, elongated in Sphenodon, and placed near the stomach; in crocodiles it lies in the duodenal loop behind the pancreas; similarly situated in snakes, but in the tortoises it is much concentrated, large and attached to the hind-gut. The Body Canty. The body cavity of the reptiles is subdivided into several sacs or cavities by serous membranes of peritoneal origin. The number of these subcavities differs much in the various groups. The pericardial sac is always complete. In tortoises the lungs are retro-peritoneal, a dense serous membrane spreading over their ventral surface from the walls of the carapace forwards to the liver and shutting off a saccus hepato-pulmonalis from the rest of the peritoneal cavity. Snakes possess, besides the modifications mentioned above, separate chambers for the stomach, right and left liver, and for the gut, whilst the pleural cavities as such have been destroyed. In lizards a " post-hepatic septum " divides liver, lungs and heart from the rest of the ntestines. This transverse vertical septum is best developed, almost complete, in some of the Tejidae, in others it seems to be more imperfect, and it is probably a further development of the uspensorial ligament of the liver, which is ultimately inserted upon the ventral wall of the body. The subdivisions have reached their highest development in he crocodiles, there being, besides the pericardial and the two )leural cavities and the usual peritoneal room, a right and left icpato-pericardiac, an hepato-gastric, and an hepato-pulmonal ac. The caudal and ventral edges of these liver-sacs are fused in to the ventral body-wall, thus producing a complete trans- verse partition, headwards of which lie the lungs, liver and icart. This partition, morphologically not homologous with he mammalian diaphragm, more resembling the imperfect tructure in birds, acts, however, as a perfect diaphragm, since : is well furnished with muscular fibres. These are attached o its whole periphery, with centripetal direction, especially n the ventral half. These fibres are transgressors upon this eptum from a broad sheet of muscles, which, inserted together ith the septum upon the body-wall, arise from the iliac bones, fie pubes, and the greater portion of the last pair of abdominal ibs. This broad muscular sheet, covering the intestines, is be so-called abdominal diaphragm or peritoneal muscle. Its ontinuation upon the transverse septum is the crocodilian muse, diaphragmaticus, and in functional effect very similar 164 REPTILES [ANATOMY to that of the Mammalia, whilst the abdominal diaphragm undoubtedly causes abdominal respiration. We have seen that these crocodilian conditions do not stand quite alone, but are connected with simpler features in the other reptiles. Two recent, very lengthy papers have been written on this subject by I. Bromann (1904) and by F. Hochstetter (1906), besides two in 1902 by G. Butler. The Heart. The Heart of all reptiles is removed from the head and is placed well in the thorax, in the Varanidae even a little beyond it. Only in snakes the heart lies headwards from the hilus of the lungs, not cauda'lwards, generally at about the end of the first fifth of the body. The batrachian conus arteriosus is reduced, one set of semilunar valves guarding the entrances into the truncus arteriosus which now issues directly from the heart. A sinus venosus exists still in Sphenodon and Chelonians, in which it may even receive separate hepatic veins, but in crocodiles, lizards and snakes the sinus as such exists no longer, forming part of the right atrium. All the hepatic veins enter the stem of the posterior vena cava, which henceforth enters the heart as inferior vena cava. This, the largest, and the right and left anterior vena cavae, are the only three veins which enter the right atrium. Into the left open the two pul- monary veins. Right and left atrium have in all reptiles a complete septum between them. The ventricular portion shows considerable steps towards the differentiation into a right and a left ventricle, but the partition is very incomplete in tortoises, lizards and snakes, quite complete only in the crocodiles. The most important character of the reptilian heart, absolutely diagnostic of it, is the fact that the systemic vessel which leaves the right ventricle turns to the left to form the left aorta, while the stem which comes from the left ventricular half arches over to the right as the right aorta. It is not at all necessary to conclude that this fact excludes the reptiles from the mammalian ancestry and to hark back to conditions as indifferent as are those of the batrachia. The Foramen Panizzae shows the way to a solution, how ultimately all the arterial blood from the left ventricle may pass, first through the root of the right arch, then through this hole into the left, whilst the rest of the right arch, and the root of the left, obliterate. The difficulty is not much greater than that of deriving the birds' condition from the reptilian. The Foramen Panizzae, which exists only in the Crocodilia, lies exactly where the right crosses dorsally over the left aorta. The whole is not the last remnant of the originally undivided truncus, as is taught generally, but it is a new foramen, a hole dug by the left arterial blood into the venous right aorta. According to the recent observations made by F. Hochstetter the foramen comes into existence in a very late embryonic stage. Whilst the batrachian single ventricle possesses only one ostium ventriculare or outlet into the truncus, in the reptiles the inter-atrial. septum extends considerably downwards into the base of the ventricle, so as to produce a right and a left niche, and correspondingly two ostia instead of one. The atrio- ventricular valves are still membranous, even in crocodiles; attached to them are muscles, trabeculae carneae, from the very trabecular walls of the ventricle; they are especially spongy in tortoises. By means of the arrangement of some of these trabeculae, perhaps still more through the confluence of their basal portions, an imperfect ventricular septum is initiated. Certainly even in tortoises, which represent the lowest stage, the venous blood is received into and sent out by the same right side of the ventricle, while the arterial blood is correspondingly managed and dodged by the left side. That there is not very much mixture of the two kinds of blood, in spite of the wide communication in the ventricle, is further due to the peristaltic systole and diastole of the various divisions of the heart. — The heart of Chelonians is broader than long. In correlation with the very much flattened body of Trionyx and its allied genera, the whole heart is dislodged from the middle line, far over to the right side; the vessels of the left side are correspondingly much elongated and have to cross the neck, trachea and oesophagus. — The apex of the heart is attached to the pericardium by a special ligament in the Crocodilia and in many Chelonia, e.g. Testudo, but it is absent in Clemmys. Sometimes this little ligament sends a tiny blood vessel into the liver. Arterial System. Crocodiles. — The left aorta crosses obliquely beneath the right and gives off only the coeliac, just before joining the right aorta in the level of the eighth thoracic vertebra. The aorta descendens sends off, besides intercostals and other segmentals into the body-wall, the mesenteric, right and left iliac, a pair of renal and ischiadics, a cloacal and the caudal artery. The right aorta forms the main root of the a. descendens. Close to the heart it sends off two coronaries and a short carotis primaria which divides at once into two anonymae, the left of which is the stronger. The right anonyma divides into the subclavia and collateralis colli, the left into subclavia and carotis subverte- bralis. Each subclavia sends off an a. vertebralis communis, which runs headwards and, with another longer branch, down- wards, giving off intercostals, and then joins the descending aorta. Tortoises. — The left aorta is rather more separated from the truncus, which it crosses ventrally in an oblique forward direc- tion; it sends off a left cardiac to stomach and oesophagus, a coeliac and mesenteric, and then a communicating branch to the right aorta. The a. descendens gives off paired supra- renals, spermatics, very large iliacs, then a pair of renals, hypogastrics and the caudal. Each iliac artery divides into a recurrent intercostal anastomosing with the axillaries, an epigastric (sending off the crural and anastomosing with thoracics and humerals), and other arteries to abdominal muscles and to the shell. The hypogastrics supply the cloacal region and then continue as the ischiadics. But there are many anastomoses which cause great variation in the different tortoises. The right aorta sends off a right cardiac, the coronary, and the right and left anonymae which are quite symmetrical, each dividing into subclavia and carotis; in the angle lies the thymus. Lizards. — Two common carotids arise either side by side, or by one carotis primaria, from the right aortic root. In the majority each common carotis ascends the neck and then divides into the vessels for the head and another branch which turns back and goes into the descending part of the aortic arch. In chameleons two carotid stems ascend the neck and there is no recurrent vessel. In the Varanidae the two common carotids start from a long carotis primaria; there is no recurrent vessel. The vertebral arteries come from the origin of the subclavians and run to the head in a very lateral position. The subclavian arteries (which occur also in limbless lizards) arise far away from the carotids out of the descending arch of the right aorta, in a level often far behind the heart. " Anonymous " arteries are consequently absent in lizards. Snakes. — The left aorta is stronger than the right, both com- bining soon to form the descending aorta. Owing to the absence of fore limbs and shoulder-girdle the conditions are much simpli- fied. In most snakes the right aorta sends off but one strong carotic vessel which represents the left carotis communis whilst the right is much reduced or even quite absent; further, there is only one vertebral artery, which either runs along the right side of the vertebral column or it divides soon into a right and a left vessel along the neck. In conformity with the reduction of one lung there is usually but one pulmonary vessel. Venous System. Crocodiles. — Elach, right and left, anterior vena cava is com- posed of a subclavian (axillary and external jugular), an internal jugular, common vertebral and an internal mammary vein. The posterior vena cava is composed of the two revehent renals, veins from the genital glands and ducts, revehent veins of the suprarenals (which, like birds, still have a portal system), and the big vein from the fat body. Thus the vena cava posterior ANATOMY] REPTILES 165 perforates the right liver, receiving from it many hepatic reve- hent veins and also the big revehent vessel from the left lobe; next it receives the coronary vein and then enters the heart as inferior vena cava. The portal vein arises out of the coccygo-mesenteric (which comes out of the bifurcation of the caudal), collecting the blood from most abdominal viscera and from the thorax and breaks up in the right liver. The rest of the venous system is rather complicated. The big caudal vessel divides near the vent, receives an unpaired cloacal and a rectal vessel, and goes off to the right and left, each of which trunks receives an ischiadic and an inter-sacral vein and then divides into the v. renalis advehens which breaks up in the kidney, and the abdominal vein. The latter are interesting; they run in the abdominal wall, receive the obturator and other pelvic veins, intervertebrals and intercostals, the crurals, and the epigastrics out of the body- wall. Then these two abdominals (Rathke's internal epigastrics) go to the liver, which they enter to either side of the gall bladder, collecting also blood from the stomach and from the vertebral column. Both break up in the liver. Consequently all the blood from " below the heart " passes through some portal system — renal or hepatic — except that which comes from the genital glands and ducts and from the fat body. Tortoises. — The venous system much resembles that of the crocodiles, but many and wide anastomoses, especially on the inside of the carapace and plastron, exist between often distant vessels, so that one lucky injection may fill the whole system. There are three advehent renal veins which collect on the back of their kidney into one stem; they dissolve completely into a portal system, and leave the kidney on its ventral surface as one v. renalis revehens. The right and left then form the v. c. posterior which perforates the posterior margin of the right liver, then headwards of the liver takes up the hepatic and enters the heart. The three pairs of afferent renal veins are composed as follows. The externa collects from the shell and the abdominal muscles; the posterior collects along the rectum from the genital glands, the bladder, and from parts of other pelvic viscera; the anterior comes from the anterior part of the shell and runs back- wards to the kidney, with frequent anastomoses with the other advehent renal veins. The abdominals arise, as in the crocodiles, with the external advehent renal from the lateral continuation of the bifurcated caudal, which takes up vessels from the pelvis, the shell and the crural. The abdominal itself takes up a femoral vein, vessels from the abdominal and pelvic muscles, and from the plastron, and then dives into the body-cavity, receives veins from the fore limbs, and enters the right lobe of the liver, there to break up.' The hepatic portal collects from the intestinal tract, spleen and pancreas. Consequently in tor- toises all the blood from below the heart passes through some portal system. The most important peculiarity of the Lizards is the condition of the abdominal veins ; they combine into a single stem (after having collected the blood from the fat body and from the ventral body- wall of the pelvic region) which dives into the body-cavity to join, embedded in the ventral hepatic ligament, the left branch of the portal vein. The chief characteristic of the abdominal is that it does not communicate directly with the caudal, and that it forms an unpaired stem. The renal portal system receives its blood from the tail, the hind limbs, the abdominal wall and the urine-genital organs, all the blood passing into a right and a left advehent vein. The suprarenal portal system drains from the abdominal wall and the supra- renal bodies, and issues into the revehent renals. These, with some intervertebrals and with hepatics, constitute the inferior vena cava. Lymphatic System. The lymphatic vessels frequently accompany the big arteries of the trunk, either surrounding them with a meshwork or ensheathing them completely, .especially in tortoises. The lymphatics from the head and neck combine with stems which accompany the veins of the fore limbs; they join the thoracic ducts and these open into the brachio-cephalic veins, as they do in birds. The lymph from the tail flows into the ischiadic veins or into the advehent renal veins. Reptiles possess only a posterior pair of lymph-hearts; they are placed near the root of the tail against the ends of one of the transverse processes. In snakes they lie in a space protected by the ribs and transverse processes of the original sacral vertebrae. Lymph glands proper are not developed in reptiles, except in the shape of the so-called mesenteric^gland of crocodiles. Blood. The red corpuscles are invariably oval, and, since they still possess a nucleus, biconvex. Numerous measurements have been made by G. Gulliver (P.Z.S., 1845, pp. 93-102), their long and short axes range between 0-015-0-023 and 0-000-0-21 mm. respectively. That means to say they are very much larger than those of mammals, considerably larger than those of most birds, and in turn much smaller than those of amphibia. Digestive System. Teeth. — All the groups of recent reptiles have teeth, except the tortoises, which have lost even embryonic traces of them. In the under jaw they are restricted to the dentary bones. In the upper they are almost universal in the maxilla and premaxilla, although the latter has lost them in most of the snakes. The pterygoids are toothed in most snakes and in a few lizards, e.g. Lacerta and Iguana. The palatines are toothed -in Sphenodon and in some lizards. Only the young of Sphenodon and the chameleons have a few small teeth on the vomer. The teeth themselves consist of dentine with a cap of enamel and with cementum around their base. In the crocodiles they are planted into separate alveoles in the maxilla, premaxilla and under jaw. In lizards they are either pleurodont, i.e. they stand in a series upon a longitudinal ridge which projects from the lingual side of the supporting bone, or they stand upon the upper rim of the bone, acrodont. In either case they are, when full grown, cemented on to the bone. Acrodont are amongst lizards only the Agamidae; the Tejidae are intermediate, almost acrodont. All the snakes and Sphe- nodon are acrodont. The latter is in so far peculiar as its broad- based, somewhat triangular teeth are much worn down in old specimens; originally there are several in the premaxilla, but the adults bite with the somewhat curved-down portions of the premaxillaries themselves, or with what remains of the anchy- losed bases of the original teeth, which then, together with the bone, look like a pair of large chisel-shaped incisors. The lateral edges of the palatines of Sphenodon likewise carry teeth, those of the mandibles fit into a long slit-like space between the palatine and the maxillary teeth. This is a unique arrange- ment. Further, it is surprising that in this old, Rhyncho- cephalian type the supply of teeth has become exhausted, whilst in the other recent reptiles the supply is continuous and appar- ently inexhaustible. The new teeth lie on the lingual side of the old set, and long before the new tooth is finished part of the base of its older neighbour is absorbed, so that the pulp-cavity which persists in nearly all reptilian teeth becomes free. Ulti- mately the old tooth is pushed off and the new is cemented into its place. In the crocodiles it has come to pass that several sets of teeth are lodged more or less into one another's bases. Where crocodiles and alligators collect habitually the ground is sometimes found strewn with thousands of teeth, large and small, every creature shedding about seventy teeth many times during its long life. Some or all teeth of various families of lizards and snakes have a more or less pronounced groove or furrow along their anterior convex curve. The usefulness of this furrow in facili- tating the entering of saliva into the bitten wound is merely incidental, but this preformed feature has in many snakes been improved into a fearful weapon. In the Opisthoglypha a few of the most posterior teeth in the maxilla are enlarged, have deeper furrows, and lie in the vicinity of the poison ducts. In the Proteroglypha one or two of the most anterior maxillary i66 REPTILES [ANATOMY (after Bocourt). teeth are enlarged and furnished with a deep groove for the reception of poison. In the Solenoglypha or Viperidae the enlarged teeth of the Opisthoglypha have moved to the front, owing to re- duction of the anterior portion of the maxilla. The latter, much shortened, moves with the firmly anchylosed poison fang upon the prefrontal as its pivot, being pushed forward, or " erected," by the ectopterygoid bone, which con- nects it with the pterygoid, and this in turn can be moved forwards and backwards, together with the quad- i, rate. (See fig. 24, skull of Vtpera antero - internal as- nasicornis and the diagram of the pect of the tooth, mechanism in article SNAKES.) In SngTudinaT^oove^he still unfinished fang the furrow 2, postero- external 1S open, later the edges close together aspect of the_ same and the end of the duct of the gland tooth, showing a itself is surrounded by the substance Tna7 rowe g " of the growing basal portion of the tooth, so that the furrow is converted into a canal continuous with that of the gland. The poison is now sure to be projected into the very deepest part of the wound with the precision of a surgical instrument. The Pro- teroglypha, with their long, non-erectile maxillae, bite, or, like Elaps, deliberately chew their victim; the Viperidae rather strike with the mouth widely open. The teeth of snakes and lizards are often of irregular size; but it is rare that a kind of differentiation into incisors, canines and molars occurs. In many lizards, especially in Iguanidae, some teeth are multi- cuspid, trilobed, or somewhat serrated; in Tiliqua, universally known as Cyclodus, most of the hinder teeth are roundish crushers. Lizards and snakes are born with an " egg-tooth " which is lost a day or two after hatching. Its function is the filing through of the eggshell. This tooth, always unpaired, is in Tropidonotus natrix one millimetre long and half a millimetre broad at its base, which rests upon a middle depression of the premaxillary bone; it stands forward above the mouth and is curved upwards. In crocodiles and tortoises the same effect is produced by another organ, which, as in birds, lies well out- side the mouth on the top of the end of the snout and consists of a little cone of calcified epidermis. Tongue. — The tongue of the crocodiles is very broad and flat, and with nearly its whole broad base attached to the floor of the mouth; however, in its whole circumference its edge is well marked, and it arises on its hinder border as a transverse fold which meets a similar fold descending from the palate in front of the posterior nares. By these folds the mouth can be com- pletely shut off from the nasal passages into the trachea. The upper surface of the tongue contains several dozen large flat papillae, each with a central pit-like opening; it is not known whether they are gustatory organs. Besides scarce mucous glands on the tongue, there is an absence of salivary glands in the mouth. The tongue of tortoises is likewise short, broad, and not protractile, and there appears to be only a sublingual gland; the surface of the tongue is 'covered with velvety papillae in the terrestrial, with larger folds in the marine Chelonians. In the Lacertilia the tongue presents a number of variations which have been referred to as diagnostic characters of the various families of LIZARDS (q.ii.). The chief modifications are the following: Either flat and broad, not protractile, e.g. Agamidae; or the body of the tongue is somewhat cylindrical, elongated, and the whole organ can be protruded; lastly, the anterior half of the tongue, which can be protruded, is retractile or telescoped into the posterior portion, e.g. Anguidae. Jn nearly all cases the posterior dorsal end of the body of the tongue is well marked off by a margin raised above the root, a character which does not occur in any snake. The upper surface is either smooth or curved with velvety, flat, or scaly, always soft, papillae. In the majority the tip of the tongue is bifid, either slightly niched or deeply bifid. The tips con- tain tactile corpuscles, although sometimes covered with a horny epithelium. The most specialized is the tongue of the chameleon. The body of this tongue is very thick, club- shaped, fleshy and full of large mucous glands which cover it with a sticky secretion. The base or root is very narrow, composed of extremely elastic fibres and supported by a much elongated copular piece of the hyoid. This elastic part is, so to speak, telescoped over the style-shaped copula, and the whole apparatus is kept in a contracted state like a spring in a tube. A pair of wide blood vessels and elastic bands extend from the base into the thick end, which in an ordinary chame- leon can be shot out to a distance of about 8 in. The tongue of the snakes is invariably slender, smooth and almost entirely retractile into its posterior sheath-like portion. It is always bifid and contains many tactile and other sensory corpuscles by which these creatures seem to investi- gate. The tongue is always protruded during excitement. How this is done is not very obvious, since the hyoid apparatus itself is much reduced. There is a niche in the middle of the rostral shield to permit protrusion of the tongue whilst the mouth is shut, and probably herewith is correlated the almost uni- versal absence of teeth in the premaxilla. The tongue and the larynx are placed very far forwards in the mouth and, during the act of swallowing, the larynx approaches the chin, or it may even protrude out of the mouth to secure breathing during the often painfully protracted act. Of Glands, sublingual glands are of general occurrence in reptiles; they open near the root or in the sheath of the tongue. Labial glands seem to be absent in crocodiles and tortoises, but upper and lower labial glands exist in lizards and snakes, generally in considerable numbers. Heloderma is the only lizard in which some of these glands — those along the lower jaw — produce a poisonous secretion, each small gland conducting its secretion towards the base of one of the somewhat furrowed teeth. In the snakes, upper and lower labial glands are well developed for salivation. It is the upper series which attracts our interest by its eventual modification into the deadly poison glands. Probably the saliva of most snakes, like their serum, possesses toxic properties. In most of the harmless Colubrine snakes the glands extend in a continuous series from behind the premaxilla along the whole of the upper jaw, with numer- ous openings. In the Opisthoglypha a gradual differentiation takes place into an anterior, middle and posterior portion; the middle, extending from below and behind the eye back- wards, is the thickest and yellowish in colour; behind it follows a small portion, reddish grey like the anterior portion, with which it is more or less continuous below the middle complex. Thus, still rather indifferent, is Dryophis. In Dipsas, e.g. D. fusca, the middle portion has become predominant; some of its enlarged ducts lead to the pair of posterior, enlarged and well-grooved, maxillary teeth. It is this middle portion which becomes the characteristic poison gland with one long duct. The gland itself retains its position; all the other upper labials, except the anterior series, abort. In the Viperidae the poison duct opens near the base of the perforated fangs, which, owing to the shortening of the anterior portion of the maxilla with its teeth, have come to be the only teeth in the upper jaw. In the Elapine, still more in the Hydrophine snakes, the position of the gland and its duct is the same, but the duct has been carried past the smaller harmless teeth which stand in the maxilla and open at the base of the anterior maxillary teeth. The effect is the same, although the poison fangs are not homologous, in the one case the most posterior, in the other the most anterior, of the maxillary series. In Doliophis, one of the Malay genera of Elapine snakes, each poison gland sends an enormously elongated recess far into the body-cavity. (For some other details see SNAKES; VIPER; and RATTLESNAKE. The best account of the buccal glands and teeth of poisonous snakes is that by G. S. West, P.Z.S., 1895, pp. 812-826.) Stomach, &c. — In lizards and in Sphenodon the wide pharynx and oesophagus passes gradually into the stomach, which is ANATOMY] REPTILES 167 more or less spindle-shaped, never transversely placed. The walls of the stomach are thrown into longitudinal folds which contain the specific gastric glands, whilst glands are absent in the oesophagus, excepting scattered and very simple slime glands. The circular muscular fibres of the stomach are much stronger than the longitudinal fibres. The end of the stomach is generally marked by a pyloric valve. The walls of the mid gut are said to be devoid of glands. The end gut, marked by a circular valve, is considerably wider and there is a caecum, mostly left-sided, largest in leaf-eating lizards, rarely absent, as, for instance, in Anguis. The absorbent portion of the rectum is always strongly marked off from the cloaca by a circular fold or sphincter, which projects into the widened coprodaeum of the cloaca. In those lizards which, like Varanus, have no urinary bladder, there are two successive sphincters, marking off two chambers, one, the upper or innermost, for the reception of the faeces, the lower for that of the urine. In adult crocodiles the stomach is transformed into a gizzard; it is more or less oval, with a wide fundus and with two opposite apo-neurotic or tendinous disks whence radiate the muscular fibres. The muscular walls remain, however, comparatively thin, like those of birds of prey. There is a distinct pyloric stomach and then follows the pylorus. The inner lining of the stomach is velvet- like with numerous gastric glands which form groups with net- like interstices. There is a distinct duodenal loop which contains the pancreas. The more convoluted mid gut is lined with net-like meshes which farther back assume a longitudinal zigzag arrange- ment; towards the end gut the walls become quite smooth, but in the end gut the walls again show a very narrow-meshed structure. None of these folds of the mid and hind gut is said to contain digestive glands; they seem to be entirely absorbent. The oesophagus of most tortoises shows longitudinal folds with very numerous mucous glands. In the Chelonidae the pharynx and adjoining part of the gullet are covered with little tubercles upon each of which opens a small gland. Farther down they give way to large, more or less conical papillae, which assume a considerable size, point backwards, and are covered with a somewhat horny epithelium. Similar conical, horny papillae exist also in Sphargis, in which the oesophagus, moreover, makes a long loop half round the stomach before passing into it, an absolutely unique feature. The transition into the stomach is quite gradual. The latter is strongly muscular, partly transversely placed, and possesses often a very distinct pyloric stomach. In Chelone conical papillae extend into the cardiac portion. In the majority of tortoises the inner lining shows longitudinal folds with numerous small glands, mucous and gastric, but their distribution differs much in the various families and even genera. The lining of the mid gut shows either longitudinal folds or a network, without glands, except in some cases, Lieberkiihn crypts, e.g. in Trionyx, not in Testudo and Chelone. The hind gut begins suddenly, but there is no caecum; its inner walls contain numerous glands in Testudo, Emys, not in Chelys, Trionyx, Cinosternum. In the snakes the oesophagus is very thin-walled and passes imperceptibly into the stomach, which continues in a longitudinal direction, scarcely wider in the middle. Its muscular coating is surprisingly weak. There is a small pyloric portion. Mucous and especially long-bodied gastric glands are numerous. The wall of the mid gut carries numerous papillae variably arranged, velvet-like, or densely crowded little blades supported by longitudinal or by meshy folds. The hind gut is short, often constricted into several successive chambers, mostly smooth inside; there is a short, rather wide caecum which seems best developed in Viperidae; sometimes absent. The total length of the snakes' gut is always short, there being only short folds possible or necessary in the body cavity, which itself is of extra- ordinary length. Yet, while in Typhlops the gut is almost straight, it forms numerous convolutions in Torlrix. Whilst in all other reptiles the gut, at least stomach, liver and mid gut, are suspended by the mesentery from the vertebral column and hang free into the body cavity, in some snakes, especially often described in Boa and Python, the body cavity is cut up into numerous spaces, by peritoneal folds which connect neighbouring twists of the canal into bundles and attach them to the ventral surface of the body-wall. Probably the gut is thereby secured against dislocations in adaptation to the peculiar twisting contortions of the body, especially in the act of climbing. The mesentery of reptiles is remarkable for the possession of smooth, non-striated, muscular fibres. In most lizards, not in other orders, the peritoneum so far as it covers the abdominal cavity shows a deep black pigmentation; this pigment is situated in the connective tissue, not in the epithelial layer; it stops suddenly towards the thorax. In some lizards, e.g. in Anguis, the black pigment extends, more or less scattered, upon the mesentery and thence upon the intestines. The same pigment colours the pharynx with its recesses entirely black in many lizards. There is no compensating correlation between this internal pigment and that in the outer skin. The Liver of lizards is more or less bilobed; more so in crocodiles; while in tortoises the broad right and left lobes are connected by a narrow isthmus. In the snakes it is much elongated and extends from the heart backwards along the right side of the oesophagus, closely connected in its long course with numerous short branches into, or from, the inferior vena cava and the portal vein. A gall bladder is always present. The ducts into and from the cyst sometimes form a complicated network, for instance in Varanus (F. E. Beddard); the bile is carried by one or more ducts into the duodenal portion of the mid gut. The microscopic structure of the reptilian liver has been compared with that of monotremes by M. Fiirbringer. The Pancreas is a compact body attached to the duodenal region, which surrounds it by a loop i i the crocodiles, as is the case in birds and mammals. The Cloaca of the reptiles shows a great advance upon the simple batrachian arrangement. • It is no longer one common chamber, but consists of three successive chambers with the further tendency of separating the temporary retention and the passage of the faecal, urinary and genital products from each other. The arrangement is simplest and most typical in the lizards. There is first the proctodaeum or vestibulum of the cloaca, epiblastic in origin. ' Its outer boundary is formed by the cloacal lips, covered so far by the usual scaly integument. Just within this chamber arise the paired copulatory organs, and, when they are present, as in Sphenodon and snakes, the two anal glands. Secondly, the urodaeum, middle or urino- genital chamber, hypoblastic in origin. It is separated from . the proctodaeum by a more or less circular fold which is pro- vided with sphincter muscles, which form the true vent, and this is always round; whilst the outermost opening in lizards and snakes is a transverse slit. Farther inwards, headwards, the urodaeum is shut off by another circular fold, generally very well marked, especially in its dorsal half, which is higher and thicker. Into the dorsal, and innermost, recess of this urodaeum open the genital and urinary ducts; on the ventral side arises the urinary bladder. The whole chamber is always empty, being only a passage room, and in the female the copulatory chamber. The urine is of course collected in the bladder; when this is absent the fluid is pressed into the third chamber, the coprodaeum, which is often subdivided into two, or even three, successive rooms by circular folds. This coprodaeum serves for the temporary storage of the faeces, eventually mixed with the urine. Micturition and defaecation are in most lizards two successive separate acts. The snake's arrangement is a side-departure of that prevailing in lizards. The urodaeum is transformed into a dorsal recess into which open above the oviducts, while the ureters open below, in the caudal corner. A horizontal fold imperfectly shuts off the wide urino-genital chamber or recess from the ventral half of the original urodaeum. The coprodaeum is marked above and below by strong sphincters. There is no urinary bladder. In crocodiles the protodaeum is rather shallow, but long; from its ventral wall arises the unpaired copulatory organ, the basal investing membranes of which continue into the ventral i68 REPTILES [ANATOMY half of the uro-proctodaeal fold, near which open the male ducts. Very young crocodiles possess a typical middle chamber or urodaeum, into the dorso-lateral corners of which open the ureters, but soon the strong circular fold between urodaeum and coprodaeum disappears completely, so that both chambers now form one large oval room, which is used solely for the storage of the urine, there being no bladder. The faeces are kept in the not specially dilated rectum. The cloacal arrangement of the Chelonia is a further develop- ment of early crocodilian conditions, but it has become rather complicated and shows a surprising resemblance to that which still prevails in the Monotremes. The proctodaeum is deep and very long, especially in the males. From its innermost and ventral walls arises the large copulatory organ. From the urodaeum is separated off a deep ventral recess into which open the ureters and the genital ducts, and it is continued by a long neck into the large bladder. Between the dorsal wall of this recess and the ventral wall of the main portion of the urodaeum arises a horizontal fold which, diverging, is continued on to the investing skin of the penis, helping to form the edges of the deep longitudinal furrow on its morphologically dorsal surface. If the lips of this furrow were closed, urine and all the genital products would pass through this urethral canal, but in reality only the semen is conducted through it (the furrow during the state of turgescence being transformed into a closed tube), whilst urine and eggs escape through the wide slit near its inner end. This is an arrangement almost the same as that of Ornithorhynchus. The urodaeum is separated from the rectum by a strong sphincter, and there is, as in the crocodiles and mammals, no special coprodaeum. The Chelonian urodaeum is further complicated by the occurrence of a pair of large anal sacs, thin-walled diverticula on the dorsal side. Such sacs, not to be confounded with the anal glands of other reptiles, exist in many water tortoises, especially in the Chelydidae, also in various aquatic Testudinidae, e.g. Emys, in Platy sternum, and sometimes in Trionyx; they are absent in the Chelonidae and in the typically terrestrial tortoises. These sacs have highly vascularized walls and a considerable layer of circular and longitudinal non-striped muscular fibres; their inside is some- times villous, never glandular. They are incessantly filled and emptied with water through the vent, and act as additional respiratory organs, like a kind of water lungs. When such a tortoise is suddenly taken out of the water it squirts out a stream of water, which is not, as is usually supposed, the urine from the bladder. In connexion with the cloaca may be mentioned the frequent occurrence of peritoneal canals. In the tortoises their abdominal openings are situated in a recess of the peritoneal cavity close to either side of the neck of the bladder; in the females they extend as funnels, generally blind, into the cloaca on or near the base of the clitoris. In the males they extend, without having communication with the cavities of the corpora cavernosa, and without ramifications, as canals along the dorsum penis and either terminate blindly in the glans (Testudo, Chelone), or they open, each by a small orifice, in the groove at the base of the glans. In crocodiles these canals are short and open near the base of the copulatory organ, protected by a small papilla. They are present in both sexes, but are still closed in newly hatched and very immature specimens. In an adult Nile crocodile they are wide enough to pass an ordinary lead pencil. The function of these outlets from the body cavity is obscure. ,In Sphenodon the writer has found them as closed funnels which project as soft papillae into the proctodaeum a little to the right and left and caudalwards from the urino-genital papillae. Urinary Organs. The kidneys of the reptiles show, like those of the birds and mammals, a considerable advance upon those of the Batrachia. They are, in the adult, represented entirely by the metanephros; the segmental tubes have no longer any nephro- stomes opening into the body cavity, not even during any time of their development, and it has come to a complete separation of the efferent genital ducts from the kidneys and from their ureters. Yet these differences are but of degree, there being a continuous bridge from Batrachian to Lacer- tilian conditions. In Lacerta, for instance, in which these features have been studied most thoroughly, the mesonephros continues as the only functional excretory organ during the first year of the young creature until and during its first hiber- nation, when the formation of the metanephros takes place, and with it the complete separation of the vasa deferentia from the kidneys. Until then the segmental canals remain in the male as common carriers of semen and urine, at least morphologically, not physiologically, since in the immature there is no occasion for the conduction of semen. The kidneys of these young lizards show precisely the same arrangement as- that of the Batrachia, excluding the Discoglossidae. Clearly the metanephros is developed from, and is part of, the posterior portion of the mesonephros, the glomeruli of which no longer open into the segmental duct, but become connected with a new canal, the future ureter, which sprouts from the distal portion of the segmental duct and grows headwards. Or let us put these important changes in another way. Since there are originally several segmental ducts (permanent in the male newt) which tailwards more and more lose their connexion with the testes, until — in the posterior portion of the mesonephros — they become entirely urinary ducts, the hindmost of these sprouts (in lizards postembryonic, much earlier in birds and mammals) independently, but at the same time as the neigh- bouring mass of the mesonephros, the growing glomeruli of which then connect with the sprouting processes of the ureter. Phylogenetically and ontogenetically it is evident enough that the kidneys are essentially one organ, the anterior portion of which is the oldest and decays, whilst farther backwards new and more differentiated portions continue to grow. Pro-, meso- and metanephros and successive wave-like stages of the same organ with morphological and functional continuity, until the next, improved portion is ready. It is important that in the Discoglossidae, especially in the male Alyles, an arrangement has come to pass which much resembles that of the Amniota. The mesonephros has, by a simple contrivance, become a metane- phros, provided we define the former as a kidney which is still connected with true segmental ducts. The supra-renal bodies, adrenals, head-kidneys or Nebennieren, are yellowish bodies which lie more in connexion with the generative glands than with the kidneys, always closely attached to the vena cava posterior just above the kidneys. They are very elongated in the snakes, in a ro-foot python they measure about one inch in length; they are flattened in tortoises, roundish in crocodiles. In all reptiles the kidneys are retroperitoneal, and they do not project into the body cavity. Their position is different in the various groups, and their general shape is much affected by the shape of the body. In the Ophidia they are much elongated, and of course far in front of the pelvic region, which has been moved to the cloaca. They are placed asymmetrically, the right extending farthest forwards. They consist of many transverse lobes, sometimes in such a way as to appear spirally twisted. Each terminates considerably in front of the cloaca. Each ureter begins at the anterior end of the kidney, and thence proceeds on its inner and dorsal border, receiving ducts from the interspaces of the numerous lobes. In the male each ureter opens upon a papilla, together with the vas deferens; in the female the ureter is joined by a blind canal, the vestige of the male duct. No snake has a urinary bladder. The urinary excretion is white, chalky, consisting mainly of uric acid in crystals, with very little fluid. In the Lacerttlia the kidneys are more posteriorly placed than in snakes. They lie between the pelvis and the cloaca and are generally close together, sometimes partly fused with each other. Only in the Amphisbaenids the right kidney extends more forwards. They are usually transversely furrowed. The ureters open dorso-laterally into the urodaeum upon papillae as in the snakes. In the females the remnants of the segmental ANATOMY] REPTILES 169 ducts, or vestigial representatives of the vasa efferentia,areoften of considerable length, persistent in chameleon and Uromastix, much reduced in geckos, or disappearing with age as in Lacerta. The urine of most lizards contains much solid uric acid, which is retained in the urodaeum and voided as a rather solid, white mass, not united with the faeces. Those which have a greater amount of fluid urine have a bladder which receives the fluid portion. The opening of this bladder is on the ventral side of the cloaca, not in direct connexion with the ureters. The bladder is very rarely absent, e.g. in Varanidae and Amphisbaenidae. The Crocodilia have the kidneys placed below the pelvis; their surface shows meandering convolutions separated by furrows. The ureters are for the greater part of their length deeply sunk into the substance of the kidneys, which they leave near the hinder ends, to run freely for a short distance along the dorsal sides of the cloaca, and they open, each separately, and away from the vasa deferentia, into the dorsal side of the urodaeum, which, together with the coprodaeum, forms a large oval chamber, and this being filled with the very fluid urine, functionizes instead of the absent bladder. In Chelonia the kidneys lie in the pelvis, short and thick, more or less trihedral; the surface is marked with many shallow meandering grooves and fewer deeper furrows. Each ureter, composed of several large successive canals, leaves its kidney near the inner hinder end, and then runs free for a short space, crossing the gut to open into the neck of the urinary bladder, which arises ventrally out of the urodaeum, which itself has become a recess of the cloaca. The bladder is large, often more or less two-horned, attached to the pelvic wall by a peritoneal fold, and it contains very fluid urine. The kidneys of Sphenodon are very small and far removed from the generative organs. The ureters open," each close to the vas deferens of its side, beneath a little papilla, on the dorsal side, rather near the midline of the urodaeum, whence arises a long-necked bladder. Reproductive System. The Ovaries are always in pairs, placed headwards at a distance from the kidneys in Sphenodon, lizards and snakes; in the latter the right ovary lies farther forward. In tortoises, and especially in the crocodiles, where they are very long and much twisted or lobated, they are situated close to the kidneys and even accompany them. The ovaries of lizards and snakes con- tain many and large lymph spaces; those of the other reptiles are much denser in structure. The ripening eggs always cause them to assume the shape of a bunch of grapes. The oviducts are each held by a peritoneal fold which arises from near the dorsal midline. The abdominal ostia are long slits and are turned towards the side, away from the ovaries. The walls of the ducts gradually become thicker, glandular and much folded. Whilst the ripe eggs, often in considerable numbers, receive their shell, each egg lies in a separate chamber; in the geckos, which lay only one pair of eggs, the two respective chambers have become permanent features. In Sphenodon each oviduct opens together with the ureter of its side near the dorsomedian line of the urodaeum. In most lizards the two oviducts and the two ureters have four separate openings in the dorsal wall of the rather deep dorsal recess of the urodaeum. But in Lophura both oviducts unite (like the ureters) and have only one opening, which is placed a little nearer towards the pelvis than the urinary opening, but they are divided by a longitudinal septum which extends almost to their common orifice. In the snakes the oviducts likewise open into the dorsal recess, sometimes by a common ostium, which is provided with a strong sphincter. The whole recess acts like a vagina for the reception of one of -the copulatory organs. The oviducts of the crocodiles open in a decidedly ventral position, on either side close to the base of the clitoris, a considerable distance from the openings of the ureters. In the tortoises the oviducts open separately into a wide ventral urino-genital sinus, at the base of the neck of the bladder. The Testes correspond in position with the ovaries; in snakes and Amphisbaenids the right is placed farther head- wards than the left. The usual shape is elongated, sometimes pointed forwards. The Epididymis is sometimes of the same size as the testis and then consists of many meandering con- volutions of the vas deferens which is composed of several canals from the testis. The convolutions are held together by a peritoneal lamella. Towards the cloaca they become much smaller and shorter, and the vas deferens passes along the median side of the ureter. In Sphenodon these open separately, each near and below the same papilla near which opens the ureter of the same side. In most lizards the vas deferens unites with its ureter into one short canal which opens beneath or upon a small papilla in the upper corner of the urodaeal recess, far away from the penis. In snakes vas deferens and ureter of each side are likewise commonly united. In the crocodiles each vas deferens passes from the dorsal side of the cloaca to the ventral side, not accompanied by the ureter, and opens into the blind sac which forms the basal continuation of the deep groove on the dorsal side of the penis. In the tortoises the epididymis is very large and the vas deferens is also much convoluted; each opens separately near the neck of the large urinary bladder close to the backward continuation of the deep longitudinal groove of the copulatory organ. Remnants of the Miillerian ducts run parallel with the vasa deferentia, and similar remnants of the Wolffian ducts accompany the oviducts in crocodiles and tortoises, least degenerated of course in young specimens. Such reciprocal vestiges occur most likely also in lizards, and in female snakes a. vestige of the male duct joins its ureter. In a nearly adult male Sphenodon the present writer missed the female remnants. The copulatory organs show very important modifications. Sphenodon is the only recent reptile which is devoid of such an organ; its imperfect substitute is an unpaired, thin, but high membranous fold which arises from the dorsal middle of the circular fold between urodaeum and coprodaeum. During copulation this part of the cloaca is probably everted to secure conception, a striking resemblance to the arrangement found in the Caecilia. The organs of all lizards and snakes are paired, in their quiescent state withdrawn into deep pockets which open on the right and left posterior corners of the proctodaeum or outer chamber of the cloaca, which for this reason has assumed the shape of a transverse slit in all lizards and snakes. Hence these have sometimes been called Plagiotremata. Each organ can be everted and tucked in like the linger of a glove, a muscle being attached to the inside of the apex; when everted, the muscle extends through the length of the organ; each muscle arises from the ven- tral side of several trans- verse processes of the tail FIG. 39.— Mate copulatory organs of . , Lacerta aguis (after Leydig).*i, *», vertebrae, at a consider- organs Of right and feft sioVs— able distance from the between them is the anal aperture; cloaca. In the embryo each PP, preanal plate, organ arises as a conical protuberance, or papilla, which projects out of the vent. Later it becomes inverted. Prob- ably this ontogenetic feature recapitulates the phylogeny of these organs, which have to be looked upon as swell- ing flaps or portions of the walls of the cloaca which were pro- truded during copulation, and which in time borrowed, and specialized, muscular fibres from the ventral tail muscles. On the outer everted side of each organ is a furrow for the reception of the semen. The apex is either single or more or less deeply bifurcated, each arm being followed by the likewise divided furrow. The outer investing membrane of these> very muscular erectile bodies is epidermal; often, especially in snakes, pro- vided with numerous papillae, folds or other excrescences. In xxm. 6 a ff* REPTILES [ANATOMY many snakes these are spiny and hard, but according to Leydig this hardness is not due to a horny substance but to the deposi- tion of calcifying matter. E. D. Cope has investigated the almost endless minor modifications of these penial features and uses them for taxonomic purposes in the snakes. Vestiges of these organs occur in females of snakes and lizards. Close to these organs of the snakes lies a pair of anal glands of some size, which pour their very offensive secretion through an opening close to the base of each penis. The same glands occur in the same position in Sphenodon, which has no copulatory organs, and in crocodiles they appear as evertible musk glands. Hence J. E. V. Boas, not knowing of their existence in both sexes of snakes, tried to homologize them with the paired penes of reptiles, an error which has been repeated in C. Gegenbaur's Lehrbuch, vol. ii. p. 533. The crocodiles and tortoises possess a single, median copula- tory organ; it lies on the ventral or anterior end of the cloaca, the outer opening of which is therefore a longitudinal slit, hence the term ucthotremata. In the crocodiles the organ is attached to the caudal corner of the ischiadic symphysis by a strong and roundish fibrous band, which arises single from the ventral sides and forms partly the continuation of the two fibrous halves of the organ; the bulk of the crura, comparable to corpora cavernosa, is not attached to the pelvis, as generally stated, but projects backwards towards and into the pelvic cavity. This portion is especially rich in venous cavernosities. The outer coating of the glans possesses various papillary pro- jections, which are furnished with sensory, hedonic corpuscles. On the morphologically dorsal side of the organ, not on the dorsum penis, is a deep groove which ends towards the crura in a blind sac, into the farther corner of which open the vasa deferentia. In a full-grown Nile crocodile the whole organ is about 10 in. long. In young females up to a total length of 3 or 4 ft. the clitoris is nearly of the same size as the male organ, but it remains stationary and appears very smaU in large specimens. The organ of the tortoises is essentially of the same type as that of the crocodiles, but it is nowhere directly attached to the pelvis or to any other skeletal part. The whole organ, when withdrawn, lies in a ventral, long recess of the wide outer cloacal chamber, and its crura extend so far back as to form the continuation of the ventral and lateral walls of the recessus which is continued into the neck of the urinary bladder. Its orifice and those of the seminal ducts are enclosed by the walls of the deep groove which runs along the underside of the organ. This is always of considerable size, surprisingly large in Trionyx. The clitoris is small, sometimes tiny. The sexual act is extremely prolonged in Chelonians and still more so are the preliminaries, but in crocodiles it is the deed of a few seconds. Lizards and snakes insert only one side. There remains the question whether the unpaired organ of the crocodiles and tortoises, which is the prototype of the mammalian organ in every essential point, and the paired organs of the lizards and snakes, are to a certain extent homo- logous organs in so far as they can both be derived from the same indifferent condition. With this view we assume that originally the protrusible walls of the outer cloacal chamber became specialized into a right and left imperfect intromittent organ, that subsequently, in lizards, those hemipenes were shifted back towards the tail and were henceforth bound to develop separately, while , in the crocodiles, tortoises, mammals and birds the two primitive lateral evertile flaps approached each other towards the ventral anterior side of the cloaca, and that this led to a fusion, beginning probably at the basal part, which at the same time was farther withdrawn from the surface and secured the reception of the sperma from both vasa deferentia into one canal. This hypothesis has been objected to by Boas, but accepted by Gegenbaur (p. 538) after having been rejected on p. 533 of his Lehrbuch. The Fat bodies belong at least physiologically to the genera- tive system. They are placed outside the peritoneum. In lizards they appear as two masses in the pelvic region, the black peritoneal lining covering only their dorsal side. They consist of a network of arteries and connective tissue, the meshy spaces of which are filled with " fat "; they each receive an artery from the femoral vessel which enters them in the inguinal region; the veins collect into the abdominal. In snakes the fat bodies are very long, extending from the cloaca to the liver. Tortoises seem to have only traces of them, but in Sphenodon and in crocodiles they resemble those of lizards. — The peculiar organ suspended from the right abdominal wall of crocodiles, variously mentioned as mesenteric gland or body, or fatty spleen, by Butler, is possibly related to the same category. The fat bodies of reptiles are sometimes vaguely alluded to as hibernating bodies; like the fat bodies which are attached to the generative glands of Amphibia they do not become reduced during the eventual hibernation but are largest before the pairing season, by the end of which they are exhausted, looking reddish or grey after the loss of their stores of fat and probably other important contents The Embryonic Development. Fertilization of the egg always takes place internally, and the egg containing a large amount of food-yolk is of course meroblastic. It is sufficient to mention that many lizards, some chameleons and many snakes (not Sphenodon, geckos, crocodiles and Chelonians) retain their, in these cases very thin-shelled, eggs in the oviducts until the embryo is 'ready to burst the egg-membrane during the act of parturition or immediately after it. Such species are usually called ovo- viviparous, although there is no difference between them and other viviparous creatures, for instance the marsupials. The majority of reptiles are oviparous and the egg is enclosed in a strong parchment shell, with or without calcareous deposits. Only gas exchange can take place between such an egg and the outside, and it loses by evaporation, whilst in the batrachian egg various other exchanges are easy through the thin membrane. The salamander embryo, within its thin egg-membrane, even grows to a size many times larger than the original egg, it does not only breathe, but it is also nourished through the gills, and by some means or other the waste products are partly eliminated without filling the bladder. The amphibia are born as larvae and live as such for a long time, often in a most imperfect condition. Nothing of all this applies to the reptile, which leaves the egg as a perfect little imago. A great amount of yolk supplying the material, and a large " bladder " to receive the waste products and to act as respiratory organ, have made this possible. That the allantois and the amnion behave precisely in the same way in the mammals with their much reduced yolk, only testifies to the superior value of these organs, and after all there is no difference in this respect between a monotreme and a reptile. These two organs seem to have come into existence with the reptiles and constitute the most reliable diagnostic feature between higher and lower vertebrates. All reptiles, birds and mammals have a navel, a feature unknown and impossible in Batrachia and fishes. A few remarks on these important embryonic organs may not be superfluous, especially concerning their possible origin. Whilst the urinary bladder of the Batrachia remains within the body throughout the embryonic stage, this organ undergoes in the higher vertebrates, reptiles, birds and mammals, con- siderable modifications, and it assumes, henceforth as Allantois, new important functions besides that of being the receptacle of the embryonic urine. The development of the Allantois is in -intimate causal connexion with that of the Amnion. All the Allantoidea are also Amniota and vice versa, but the term Amniota is preferable, since the basal portion of the Allantois remains in the adult as the urinary bladder, as an organ hence- forth equivalent to and homologous with that of the Anamnia. The primary feature seems to be the allantois which leaves the body cavity, remains without the amniotic folds, even after these have enclosed the body within the amniotic bag, and ANATOMY] REPTILES 171 then spreads nearly all over the. inner side of the egg-shell Having thus come into the closest possible contact with the atmospheric air, the vessels of the allantois can exchange their carbon dioxide for oxygen and the allantois becomes the re- spiratory organ of the embryo. Herewith stands in direct correlation the complete absence of any internal and of externa. gills in the embryonic reptiles. The blood vessels of the allan- tois are fundamentally the same as those of the batrachian bladder, namely, branches from the pelvic arteries (later hypo- gastrics) and veins which return from the base of the bladder to the abdominal wall and thence to the liver. In the normal reptilian egg, surrounded by its non-yielding shell, space is absolutely limited, and whilst the yolk is being diminished and increased secretion of urine distends the bladder, this soon protrudes out of the body cavity proper into the extra-embryonal coelomatic space between the true amnion and the false amnion or serous membrane. It fills this space so far as the yolk-sac allows it. It seems reasonable to suppose that this growth of the allantois has been one of the causes of the caudal amniotic fold; the sinking of the embryo into the space of the diminishing yolk-sac is no doubt another cause, but the fact remains that the amnion is the chief hindrance to the closing of the body-wall at the region of the future navel. The life-histories of embryonic development are the domain of the embryographers. They are the imperfect accounts of the ways and means (often crooked and blurred, owing to short cuts and in adaptation to conditions which prevail during the embryonic period) by which the growing creature arrives at those features which form the account of the anatomical structure of the adult. Comparative anatomy, with physiology, alone lead through the maze of the endless embryonic vagaries and afford the clues for the reconstruction of the real life-history of an animal and its ancestry. For detail the reader is referred to numerous papers quoted in the list of literature, and to the various text-books, above all to the Handbuch d. vergleichenden Entwicklungsgeschichle d. Wirbelthiere, edited by O. Hertwig, Berlin. AUTHORITIES ON ANATOMY: Bibliography. — The appended list of papers (many with shortened titles) represents but a fraction of the enormous literature dealing with the anatomy of reptiles. Special stress has been laid upon the more recent publications. A great amount of information, general and detailed, is contained in Bronn's Klassen u. Ordnungen d. Thierreichs, the three volumes concerning reptiles having been written by C. K. Hoffmann (Leipzig, 1878-1890) ; E. D. Cope's Crocodilians, Lizards and Snakes of North America, U.S. Nat. Mus., Washington, 1900; H. Gadow's " Am- phibia and Reptiles," vol. xiii. of The Cambridge Natural History (London, 1901) ; above all in C. Gegenbaur's Vergleichende Anatomie d. Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1898-1901). Skeletal. — J. F. v. Bemmelen, " Schaedelbau v. Dermochelys coriacea," Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896); E. Gaupp, " Morphologic d. Schaedels," Morpholog. Arbeiten (1894), iv. pp. 77-128, pis.; ibid. (" Problems Concerning the Skull "),Anat.Ergebn. (1901), x. pp. 847- looi. W. K. Parker," Skull of Lacertilia," Phil. Trans. 170 (1880), pp. 595-640, pis. 37745 ; " of Tropidonotus," ibid. (1879), 169, pp. 385-417, pis.; "Crocodilia," Trans. Zool. Soc. (1885), xi. pp. 263—310, pis.; "Chamaeleons," ibid. (1885), xi. pp. 77-195, pis. 15-19.; F. Siebenrock, " Kopfskclet d. Scincoiden, Anguiden u. Gerrhosaur- iden," Ann. Nat. Hofmuseum (Wien, 1892), vii. 3. Of the enormous, still increasing, literature concerning the homologies of the auditory ossicles, a few only can be mentioned; the papers by Kingsley and Versluys contain most of the previous literature : W. Peters, several most important papers in Monatsber. Ak. Wiss. (Berlin, 2ist Nov. 1867, 5th Dec. 1867, 7th Jan. 1869, i?th Jan. 1870, I5th Jan. 1874). H. Gadow, " Modifications of the First and Second Visceral Arches, and Homologies of the Auditory Ossicles," Phil. Trans. 179 (1888), B. pp. 451-485, pis. 71-74; " Evolution of the Auditory Ossicles," Anal. Anz. (1901), xix. No. 16. J. Versluys, " Mittlere u. aussere Ohrsphare d. Lacertilia u. Rhynchocephalia," Zool. Jahrb. Anal. (1898), 12, pp. 161-406, pis. (most exhaustive and careful) ; ibid., " Entwickl. d. Columella auris b. Lacertiliern," ibid. (1903), 18, pp. 107-188, pis. (. S. Kinsrslev, "The Ossicula auditus," Tufts College Studies, No. 6 (1900). E. Gaupp, " Columella auris," Anal. Anz: (1891), vi. p. 107. T. H. Huxley, " The Repre- sentatives of the Malleus and Incus of the Mammalia in the other Vertebrata," P.Z.S., 1869. W. K. Parker, " Struct, and Develop- ment of Crocodilian Skull," Trans. Zool. Soc. (1883), xi., especially pis. 68 and 69. H. Gadow," Evolution of the Vertebral Column of Amphibia and Amniota," Phil. Trans. (1896), 136, pp. 1-57 (with a list of ninety-three papers). G. B. Howes and H. H. Swmnerton, " Development of the Skeleton of Sphenodon," Trans. Zool. Soc. (1901), xvi. pp. 1-86, pis. 1-6. G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of Chelonians, Rhynchocephalians and Crocodiles, Brit. Mus. 1889- Cat. of Lizards (3 vols., 1885-1887); Cat. of Snakes (3 vpls., 1893- 1896); these volumes contain a great body of ostcological obser- vations, ignored by most compilers of anatomical text-books; " Osteol. of Heloderma, and Vertebrae of Lacertilia," P.Z.S pp. 109-118 (1891). L. Calori, "Skeleton of Varanus, Lacerta," Mem. Ace. Set. Instil. Bologna (8, 1857, and 9, 1859). E. D. Cope, " Osteology of Lacertilia, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. (1892), 30, pp. 185-221; "Degeneration of Limbs and Girdles," Journ. Morph. (1892), vii. pp. 223-244. E. Ficalbi, Osteologia del Plati- datttlo (Pisa, 1882). A. Goette, " Beitrage z. Skeletsystem," Arch, micr. Anal. (1877), 14, pp. 502-620. A. GQnther, '' Anatomy of Hattena," Phil. Trans. (1867), 157, pp. 595-629, pis. S. Orlandi, 1 Note anatomiche s. Macrosincus, Atti S. Lig. (Geneva, 1894), v. 2 ; Skelet d. Seine. Anguid. Gerrhosaurid," Ann. Naturhist. Hofmus. (1895)- x. pp. 17-41; " Skelet d. Agamidae," Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Wien (1895), 104, pp. 1089-1196. F. Siebenrock, " Skelet v. Brookesia," Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Wien (1893), 102, pp. 71-118; "Skelet v. Uro- plates," Annal. Naturhist. Hofmuseum (1892), vii. pp. 517-536, 1893; "Skelet d. Lacertiden," Sitzb. Ak. Wiss. Wien (1894), 102, pp. 203-292. C. Smalian, " Anat. d. Amphisbaenid," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 11885), 42, pp. 126-202. A. Voeltzkow, " Biolog. u. Entwickl.* von Crocodiles," Abh. Senckenb. Ges. (1899), 26, pp. 1-150, 17 pis. E. A. Case, " Osteology and Relationships of Protostega," Journ. Morph. (1897), xiv. pp. 21-60. H. Goette, " Entwickl. des Carapax d. Schildkroeten," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1899), 66, pp. 40-434, pis. O. P. Hay, " Morphogeny of Chelonian Carapace," Amer. Nat. (1898), 32, pp. 929-948. G. Baur, " Morphol. Unterkiefer d. Rept.," Anat. Anz. (1896), xi. pp. 410-415. M. Fiirbringer, " Brustschulter- apparat und Schultermuskeln. Reptilien," Jena Zeitschr. (1900), 34, pp. 215-718, pis. 13-17 (with a list of many titles of papers con- cerning reptiles ; and a new, unsatisfactory classification of the whole class). C. K. Hoffmann, " Becken d. Amphib. u. Reptil.," Niederl. Arch. f. Zool., iii. E. Mehnert, " Beckenguertel d. Emys lutaria," Morph. Jahrb. (1890), 16, pp. 537-57L pH; " Os hypoischium, &c. d. Lidechsen, Morph. Jahrb. (1891), 17, pp. 123-144, pi. W. K. Parker, " Shoulder Girdle and Sternum," Roy. Soc. London, 1868. A. Rosenberg, " Development of Skeleton of Reduced Limbs," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1873), 23, pp. 116-170, pis. A. Sabatier. Comparaison des ceintures et des membres ant. et post," Mem. Ac. Montpellier (1880), xix. C. Gegenbaur, Untersuch. 2. verg. Anat., I. Carpus u. Tarsus " (1864), II. " Schulterguertel " (1865) (the most important monographs). A. Banchi, " Parafibula," Monitore Zool. Italiano (1900), xi. No. 7 (A nodule ][ between femur and fibula in Lacerta). G. Baur, " Carpus u. Tarsus d. Reptil.," Anatom. Anzeig. iv. No. 2. G. Born, " Carpus u. Tarsus d. Saurier," Morph. Jahrb. (1876), 2, pp. 1-26, pi. A. Carlsson, " Gliedmassenreste bei Schlan- gen, Svensk. Vetensk. Ac. Handlingar, ii. (1886). A. Johnson, ' Development of Pelvic Girdle," Q.J.M.S. (1883), 23, pp. 399-411. G. Kehrer, " Carpus u. Tarsus," Ber. Naturf. Ges. (Freiburg, i. 1886). W. Kuekenthal, " Entwickl. d. Handskelets des Crocodiles," Morph. Jahrb. (1892), 19, pp. 42-55. H. F. Sauvage, " Membre anterieur du Pseudopus, Ann. Sci. Nat.-Zool. 7. art. 15 (1878). A. Sleeker, " Carpus u. Tarsus bei Chamaeleon," Sitzb. Ak. Wtss. (1877), 75, 2, pis. R. Wiedersheim, GliedmassenskeleU, Schulter u. Beckenguertel t"~" »_uv-i -j««\-nii, vjfn>u./f*t*-ooc-f*o/v^*-^«-*-f . >t rt ill tr r 14* JJt L Kt rl ffHt fli t (Jena, 1892). K. Baechtold, #6er dte Giftwerkzeuge der Schlangen (Tubingen, 1843). A. Duges, " Venin de 1'Heloderma," Jubil. Soc. Biol. (1899), pp. 34-137. D. F. Weinland, " On the Egg-tooth of the Snakes, Proc. Essex Institute (Salem, 1856); and in Wurttemb. Jahresheft. Verein vaterl. Naturk. (1856). G. S. West, " Buccal Glands and Teeth of Poisonous Snakes," P.Z.S. (1895), pp. 812-826, pis. 44-46. Tegumentary. — A. Batelli, " Bau der Reptilienhaut," Arch. mikr. Anat. (1880), 17, pp. 346-361, pis. J. E. V. Boas, " Wirbelthier- cralle," Morph. Jahrb. (1894), xxi. pp. 281-311, pis. A. Haase, ' Bau d. Haftlappen bei den Geckotiden,'" Arch. Naturg. (1900), 61, pp. 321-345, pis. R. Keller, " Farbenwechsel d. Chamaeleons," Arch. ges. Physiol. (1895), 61, pp. 123-168. C. Kerbert, " Haut der Reptilien," Arch. mikr. Anat. (1876), 13, pp. 205-262. F. Maurer, Epidermis und ihre Abkoemmlinge (Leipzig, 1895). F. Schaefer, ' Schenkeldruesen d. Eidechsen, Arch. Naturg (1902), 68, pp. 27-64, pis. F. Todaro, Ricerche f. nel labor, di anal, norm, di Roma ,1878), II. i. F. Toelg, " Drusenartige Epidermoidalorgane d. Eidechsen u. Schlangen, Arb. Zool. Inst. Wien (1904), 15, pp. 119-154, pis. Nervous System. — J. F. Bemmelen, "Beitr. Kenntnissd. Halsgegend >ei Reptilien Mededeel," Natura Artis Magistra (Amsterdam, 1887). ^. Edinger, " Zwischenhirn d. Reptilien," Abh. Senckenb. Ges. (1899), 20, pp. 161-197, P'S- J- G. Fischer, " Gehirnnerven d. Saurier," Abhandl. Naturwiss. Verein, Hamburg, II. (1852), pp. 115-212 with many excellent illustrations). M. Fiirbringer, " Spino- occipital Nerven," &c., Festschr. f. Gegenbaur, iii. (1896). S. P. Gage, " Brain of Trionyx," Proc. Am. Micr. Soc. (1895), xvii. pp. 185-222. E. Gaupp, " Anlage d. Hypophyse b. Sauriern," Arch. mikr. Anat. (1893), 42, pp. 569-680. Giuliani, " Struttura d. midolla spinale d. Lacerta viridis, Ric. Lab. di Anat. Roma, ii. *. Grimm, " Riickenmark v. Vipera berus," Arch. Anat. Phys. (1864), 172 REPTILES [DISTRIBUTION pp. 502-51 1, pi. 12. C. L. Herrick, " Brain of Certain Reptiles," Journ. comp. Neural. (1891), i. pp. 1-36, iii. (1893), pp. 77-106, 119-140, with many plates. 0. D. Humphry, " Brain of Chelydra," Journ. comp. Neural. (1894), pp. 73-116. H. v. Jhering, Das peripherische Nervensystem (410, Leipzig, 1873), pis. St G. Mivart and R. Clarke, " Sacral Plexus of Lizards, &c.," Trans. Linn. Soc. Zool. i. (1877), PP- 5'3~532i P'S- 66, 67. H. F. Osborn, " Origin of the Corpora callosa," Morph. Jahrb. xii. pp. 530-543. H. Rabl-Rtickhard, " Centralnervensystem d. Alligator," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1878), xxx. pp. 336-373, pis. 19 and 20. " Python," ibid. (1894), Iviii. pp. 694-717, pi. 41. G. Ruge, " Peripher. Gebiet. d. N. facialis " (masti- cator muscles, &c.), Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896), iii. L. Stieda, " Centralnervensystem d. Emys," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. (1875), xxv. PP- 361-408. Sense Organs. — R. Hoffmann, " Thraenenwege d. Vogel u. Reptil.," Zeitschr. f. Naturw. (Nat. Verein Sachsen u. Thuring., 1882). C. Rose, " Nasendriise u. Gaumendriisen d. Crocodils," Anat. Anz. (1893), viii. pp. 745-751. C. Ph. Sluitez, " Jacobson's Organ v. Crocodilus," Inat. Anz. (1892), vii. pp. 540-545. O. Seydel, " Nasen- hohle u. Jacobson's Organ d. Schildkroten,' Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896), ii. B. Solger, " Nasenwand u. Nasenmuschelw. d. Reptil.," Morph. Jahrb. (1876), i. pp. 467-494, pi. E. Beraneck, " Parietal- auge d. Rept.," Jen. Zeitschr. (1887), xxi. pp. 374-410, pis.; ibid., Anat. Anz. (1893), No. 20. P. Francotte, " L'CEil parietal, &c. chez les Lacertiliens," Mem. couronnb Ac. Belgique (1898), 55, No. 3. H. W. de Graaf, Structure and Development of the Epiphysis in Amph. and Rept. (Leiden, 1886; written in Dutch). W. B. Spencer, " Presence and Structure of the Pineal Eye in Lacertilia," Q.J.M.S. (1886), 27, pp. 165-237, 7 pis. H. Strahl u. E. Martin, " Entwickl. d. Parietalauges b. Anguis u. Lacerta, " Arch. f. Anat. u. Phys. (1888), pp. 146-165, pi. 10. A. Dendy, " Development of Parietal Eye of Sphenodon," Q.J.M.S. (1899), 42, pp. 1-87 and pp. 111-153, 13 plates. H. Miiller, Schriften z. Anat. u. Physiol. d. Auges, edit. O. Becker (Leipzig, 1872). E. Ficalbi, " Palpebralapparat d. Schlangen u. Geckonen," Alt. Soc. Tosc. Pisa, ix. C. K. Hoff- mann, " Anatomie d. Retina d. Amph. Rept. u. Vogel. Niederl.," Arch. Zool. (1875), iii. M. Borysiekiewicz, Retina v. Chamaeleo vulgaris (Leipzig, 1889), 7 pis. M. Weber, " Nebenorgane d. Auges d. Reptil.," Arch. f. Naturg. (1897), 43. E. Clason, " Gefiororgan d. Eidechsen," Anatom. Studien (Leipzig, 1873). C. Hasse, " Gehor- organ d. Krokodile," &c., ibid; " Gehororgan d. Schildkroeten, von Tropidonotus natrix," ibid. G. Retzius, Gehororgan d. Wir- belthiere, i. (Stockholm, 1881). Muscles.— -O. C. Bradley, " Muscles of Mastication of Lacertilia," Zool. Jahrb. Anat. (1902), 18, pp. 475-488. M. Furbringer, " Ver- gleich. Anatomie d. Schultermuskeln," Jena Zeitschr. (1873), vii. muskeln d. Crocod. Eidechs. Schildkroeten," Morph. Jahrb. (1882), vii. pp. 57-100, pi.; " Myologie d. hinteren Extremitaet d. Rep- tilien," ibid. (1882), vii. pp. 327-466, pis. G. M. Humphrey, " Muscles of Pseudopus," Journ. An. Phys. (1872), vii. G. Killian, " Ohrmuskeln d. Crocodile," Jen. Zeitschr. (1890), xxiv. pp. 632- 656, pi. F. Maurer, " Ventrale Rumpfmuskulatur d. Reptil.," Festschr. f. Gegenbaur (1896), i. St G. Mivart, " Muscles of Iguana," P.Z.S. (1867), p. 766; " of Chamaeleon," ibid. (1870), p. 850. N. Ros6n, " Kaumuskeln d. Schlangen u. Giftdruese," Zool. Anz. (1906), 28, pp. 1-7. A. Sanders, " Muscles of Platydactylus," P.Z.S. (1870), p. 413; " of Liolepis," ibid. (1872), p. 154; " of Phry- rosoma," ibid. (1874), p. 71; F. Walther, " Visceralskelett u. Mus- kulatur b. Amph. u. Rept.," Jen. Zeitschr. (1887), xxi. pp. 1-45, pis. Respiratory System. — F. E. Beddard, " Trachea and Lungs of Ophiophagus bungarus," P.Z.S. (1903), pp. 319-328. G. Butler, ' Suppression of one Lung in various Reptiles," ibid. (1895), Turtle," Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sci. (1884), pp. 316-318; and Amer. Nat. (1886), xx. pp. 233-236. J. Henle, Vergl. anal. Beschreibung d. Kehlkopfes (1839). F. Siebenrock, " Kehlkopf u. Luftroehre d. Schildkroeten," Sitzb. Ak. Wien (1899), 108, pp. 563-595, pis. G. Tornier, " Kopflappen u. Halsluftsaecke bei Chamaeleonen," Zool. Jahrb. Anat. (1904), 21, pp. 1-40, pis. D. Bertelli, " Pieghe dei reni primitivi nei Rettili. Contribute allo sviluppo del dia- framma," Atti Soc. Toscan (Pisa, 1896), 15, (1898), 16. I. Bromann, Entwicklung d. Bursa omentalis und aehnlicher Recessbildungen (Wiesbaden, 1904). G. Butler, " Subdivision of Body-cavity in Lizards, Crocodiles and Birds," P.Z.S. (1892), pp. 452-474, 4 pis.; " Subdivision of Body-cavity in Snakes," ibid. (1892), pp. 477- 497, pi. 6; " The Fat Bodies of the Sauropsida," ibid. (1889), p. 602, pis. 59-60. F. Hochstetter, Scheidewandbildungen in d. Leibeshohle der Krokodile, Voeltzkow, Reise in Ostafrika, vol. iv. pp. 141-206, pis. 11-15 (Stuttgart, 1906). Vascular System. — F. E. Beddard, various papers on vascular system of Ophidia and Lacertilia, P.Z.S. (1904); "Notes on Anatomy of Boidae," ibid. (1903), pp. 107-121. F. E. Beddard and P. C. Mitchell, " Structure of Heart of Alligator," ibid. (1895). A. Greil, " Herz u. Truncus arteriosus d. Wirbelthiere Reptilien," Morph. Jahrb. (1903), 31, pp. 123-310, pis. O. Grosser and E. Brezina, " Entwickl. Venen d. Kopfes u. Halses bei Reptil.," Morph. Jahrb. (1895), pp. 289-325, pis. 20 and 21. F. Hochstetter, several important papers on vascular system of reptiles, Morph. Jahrb. (1891, 1892, 1898, 1901); ibid., " Blutgefass-System," O. Hertwig's Entwickl. d. Wirbelthiere (Jena, 1902) ; " Blutgefaess- System d. Krokodile," Voeltzkow, Reise in Ostafrika (Stuttgart, 1906, iv.). A. Langer, " Entwickl. Bulbus cordis bei Amph. u. Rept.," Morph. Jahrb. (1894), pp. 40-67. J. Y. Mackay, " Arterial System of Vertebrates, homologically considered," Memoirs and Memoranda in Anatomy (London and Edinburgh, 1889), i. B. Panizza, Sopra il sistema linfatico dei rettili (Pavia, 1833). C. Roese, " Vergl. Anat. d. Herzens d. Wirbelthiere," Morph. Jahrb. (1890), 16, pp. 27-96, pis. A. Sabatier, Etudes sur le cceur el la circulation centrale (Paris, 1873); " Transformat. du syst^me aortique," Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser. (1874), 5, J. 19. H. Watney, " Minute Anatomy of Thymus," Phil. Trans. (1882), 173, pp. 1063-1123, pis. 83-95. Urino-genital System. — J. E. V. Boas, " Morphol. d. Begattungs- organe d. Wirbelth.," Morph. Jahrb. (1891), xvii. pp. 171-287, pi. 16. J. Budge, " Das Harnreservoir d. Wirbelthiere," Neu Vorpommern, Mittheil. 7 (1875), pp. 20-128, pi. W. R. Coe and B. W. Kunkel, " Reproduct. Ore. of Aniella," Amer. Natural. (1904), 38, pp. 487-490. H. Gadow, Cloaca and Copulatory Organs of the Amniota, Phil. Trans. B. (1887), pp. 5-37, pis. 2-5. K. Hellmuth, " Kloake u. Phallus d. Schildkroeten u. Krokodile," Morph. Jahrb. (1902), 30, pp. 582-613. F. v. Moeller, " Urogenital- system d. Schildkroeten," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool., 65, pp. 573-598, pis. F. W. Pickel, " Accessory Bladders of Testudmata," Zool. Bull. (1899), ii. pp. 291-301. F. Schoof, Zur Kenntniss d. Vro- genitalsystems d. Saurier. Arch. f. Naturg. (1888), 54, p. 62. P. Unterhoessel, " Kloake u. Phallus d. Eidechsen u. Schlangen," Morph. Jahrb. (1902), 30, pp. 541-581. O. Schmidtgen, " Cloake und ihre Organe bei Schildkroter," Zool. Jahrb. (1907), pp. 357-412, pl. 32- 33- (H. F. G.) IV. DISTRIBUTION IN SPACE This zoo-geographical review deals only with modern reptiles. We begin with a survey of the faunas of some of the most obvious land-complexes which bear close resemblance to the now classical " regions " of P. L. Sclater and A. R. Wallace. None of these " regions " has definable frontiers, and what acts as a bar to one family may be totally ignored by another. According to the several orders of reptiles the world is mapped out in very different ways. The African fauna does not stop at the Suez Canal, nor even at the Red Sea; there is a transitional belt notice- able in the countries from Syria to Arabia, Persia and India. To the north, Indian influence extends right into Turkestan, or vice versa; the Central Asiatic fauna passes into that of India. On the Chinese side prevailing conditions are still almost un- known; Wallace's line is more or less rigidly respected by Trionychidae, hooded Elaps, vipers and Lacertidae, while it has not the slightest influence upon crocodiles, pit vipers, Varanidae, Agamidae, &c. In the western hemisphere we have a grand illustration of the interchange of two faunas and of the fact that it is neither a narrow strait nor an equally narrow isthmus which decides the limitation of two regions. Central America and the Antilles form one complex with S. America. The nearctic region ends at the edge of the great Mexican plateau, which itself is a continuation o.f the north continent. Many nearctic forms have passed southwards into the tropics, even into far- off S. America, but the majority of the southerners, in their northern extension, have been checked by this plateau and have surged to the right and left along the Pacific and Atlantic tropical coastlands. The present writer happens to have made a special study of this part of the world (cf. "The Distribution of Mexican Amphibians and Reptiles," P.Z.S., 1905, pp. 191-294); the N. and S. American faunas have therefore been more fully treated in the following review of the various faunas. No doubt others can be treated in a similar manner, but the physical features between N. and S. America are unique, and the results are closely paralleled by those of the fauna of birds. The narrow and long neck of the isthmus of Panama (once no doubt much broader) is no boundary; if the meeting of N. and S. had taken place there, that narrow causeway would be crowded, and this is not the case. NEW ZEALAND. — The only recent reptiles are Sphenodon (q.v.), which testifies to the great age of these islands; about half a dozen Scincidae of the genus Lygosoma, members of a cosmopolitan family; and some few geckos, e.g. Naultinus, of a family of great DISTRIBUTION] REPTILES I73 age, world-wide distribution and with exceptional facilities of distribution. AUSTRALIAN REGION. — Of crocodiles only C. johnstoni in N. Australia and Queensland; C. porosus on the N. coast, and occur- ring on various Pacific islands, as far E. as the Fiji Islands. Tor- toises are represented only by the pleurodirous Chelydidae, e.g. Chelodina; they are absent in Tasmania and on the Pacific islands. New Guinea possesses the aquatic Carettochelys, sole type of a family. The bulk of the Lacertilian fauna is composed of skinks, geckos, agamoids and Varanidae, with the addition of a small family which is peculiar to the region, the Pygopodidae. A peculiar type, Dibamus, inhabits the borderlands, namely, New Guinea, the Moluccas, Celebes and the Nicobar Islands; and, finally, a single iguanoid, Brachylophus, is common in the Fiji Islands; how it came there, or how it survived its severance from the American stock, is a mystery. The skinks are in this region more highly developed and more specialized than in any other part of the world ; they exceed in numbers the geckos, which generally accompany the skinks in their range over the smaller islands of the Pacific; in these islands members of these two families represent the whole of the Lacertilian fauna. The Australian agamoids are chiefly peculiar and partly much differentiated forms (e.g. Moloch and Chlamy- dosaurus), but some have distinct affinities to, or are even identical with, Indian genera. The Varanidae are also closely allied to Indian species. Of snakes, amounting to about one hundred species only, we note about one dozen Typhlopidae, and of Pythoninae simply Python, and the Boine Enygrus on the islands from New Guinea to Fiji. There are but surprisingly few innocuous colubrine snakes, scarcely a dozen, and all belonging to Indian genera. The bulk of the snakes belong to the poisonous Elapinae, all of genera peculiar to the region, e.g. Acanthophis, Pseudechis, Notechis. Such a prepon- derance of poisonous over harmless snakes is found nowhere else in the world. Tasmania is tenanted by poisonous snakes only. In Australia we meet, therefore, with the interesting fact that, whilst it is closely allied to S. America, but totally distinct from India by its Chelonians, its lizards and colubrine snakes connect it with this latter region. With regard to the other Ophidians, they have their nearest allies partly in India, partly in Madagascar, partly in S. America; and the character of the Australian snake fauna consists chiefly in its peculiar composition, differing thereby more from the other equatorial regions than those do among them- selves. Wallace's line marks the boundary between India and Australia only as far as Chelonians are concerned, but it is quite effaced by the distribution of lizards and snakes. Thus in ftew Guinea lizards of the Indian region are mixed with Pygopodidae, and an island as far E. as Timorlaut is inhabited by snakes, some of which are peculiarly Indian, whilst the others are as decidedly Australian. The islands N. of New Guinea and of Melanesia are not yet occupied by the Ophidian type, and only species of Enygrus have penetrated eastwards as far as the Low Archipelago, whilst the Fiji Islands and the larger islands of Melanesia have sufficiently long been raised above the level of the sea to develop quite peculiar genera of snakes. INDIAN REGION. — Of Crocodilia C. paluslris, the " mugger " or marsh crocodile, and C. porosus; Gavialis gangeticus; Tomistoma schlegeli in Borneo, Malacca and Sumatra. Of tortoises Platy- sternum megacephalum, type of a family from Siam to S. China; many Trionychidae and Testudinidae, mostly aquatic; whilst the terrestrial Testudo is very scantily represented. One species which is common in the Indian peninsula (T. stellata) is so similar to an African species as to have been considered identical with it; the Burmese tortoise is also closely allied to it, and the two others extend far into western-central Asia. Thus this type is to be considered rather an immigrant from its present headquarters, Africa, than a survivor of the Indian Tertiary fauna, which com- prised the most extraordinary forms of land tortoises. Wallace's line marks the E. boundary of Trionyx; species of this genus are common in Java and Borneo, and occur likewise in the Philippine Islands, but are not found in Celebes, Amboyna or any of the other islands E. of Wallace's line. Agamidae are exceedingly numerous, and are represented chiefly by arboreal forms, e.g. Draco (g.f.) is peculiar to the region, Ceratophora and Lyriocephalus exclusively Ceylonese; terrestrial forms, like Agama and Uromastix, inhabit the hot and sandy plains in the N.W., and pass uninterruptedly into the fauna of western-central Asia and Africa. The Geckonidae, Scincidae and Varanidae are likewise well represented, but without giving a characteristic feature to the region by special modification of the leading forms except the gecko Ptychozoon homalocephalum in Malaya. The Lacertidae are represented by one characteristic genus, Tachydromus — Ophiops and Cabrita being more developed beyond the limits assigned to this region. Finally, the Euble- pharidae and Anguidae, families whose living representatives are probably the scattered remains of once widely and more generally distributed types, have retained respectively two species in W. India, and one in the Khasi Hills, whilst the presence of a single species of chameleon in S. India and Ceylon reminds us again of the relations of this part of the fauna to that of Africa. The Indian region excels all the other tropical countries in the great variety of genuine types and numbers of species of snakes. Boulenger1 recognizes 267 species, i.e. about one-fifth of the total number of snakes known. India is the only country in the world possessing viperine, crotaline and elapine poisonous snakes (their proportion to harmless snakes being about I : 10), e.g. Vipera russeui, the " dabpia " (see VIPER) ; Lachesis, e.g. gramineus, an arboreal pit viper; Naja tripudians, the cobra; Bungarus coeruleus, the " krait " ; CaUophis ; and Hydrpphinae along the coasts of the whole region. Several sub-families and families are peculiar to the region: the Uropeltidae with Rhinophis in southern India, and Uropeltis confined to Ceylon; Ilysiidae in Ceylon and Malay Islands, elsewhere only in S. America; the opisthoglyphous Elachis- todon westermanni of Bengal ; the Homalopsmae, with many species from Bengal to N. Australia; further the Amblycephalidae; Xenopeltis unicolor, sole type of a family; and the Acrochordinae, a sub-family of aglyphous Colubridae, ranging from the Khasi Hills to New Guinea. Of other Colubridae, we notice numerous Tropidonotus, Coronella and Zamenis, the latter one of the most characteristic types of the warmer parts of Eurasia. Tree-snakes, e.g. Dipsas and Dendrophis, are common. Of other families we note a great number of Typhlopidae, of which T. braminus occurs even on Christmas Island. Lastly various species of Python, but no Glauconiidae, the only family not represented in the Indian region, which claims the Uropeltidae, Xenopeltidae and Amblycephalidae as peculiar to itself. Giinther remarks that to this region Japan has to be referred. This is clearly shown by the presence of species olOphites.Callophis, Trimeresurus s. Lachesis, Tachydromus, characteristically Indian forms, with which species of Clemmys, Trionyx, Gecko, Halys, and some Colubrines closely allied to Chinese and Central Asiatic species are associated. Halys is a central Asiatic pit viper. The few reptiles inhabiting the northern part of Japan are probably of palaearctic origin. THE AFRICAN CONTINENT. — Of crocodiles, C. vulgaris in the E., C. cataphractus and Osteolaemus tetraspis in the W. There are many Chelonians, especially small land tortoises of Testudo, and with Cinyxis which is peculiar to this continent ; the freshwater Clemmys only in the N.W. corner; several genera of the pleurodirous Pelo- medusidae, Pelomedusa galeata, which is equatorial and southern, with an outlying occurrence in the Sinai peninsula, and Sternothaerus with several tropical and southern species; of Trionychidae the tropical Cycloderma and Cyclanorbis peculiar to the country, and the large Trionyx triunguis which ranges from the Senegal and Congo into the Nile system with its big lakes, but occurring also in Syria. Of Lacertilia the geckos and skinks, and the typically old world families of Lacertidae and Varanidae are well represented; also Amphisbaenidae ; Gerrhosauridae and Zonuridae, peculiar to Africa and Madagascar; a few Eublepharinae and a few of the so-called Anelytropidae in West Africa. But the most important feature of this Lacertilian fauna is the almost universal distribution of chameleons in numerous and some highly specialized forms, Chame- leon and Rhampholeon. We note the entire absence of Iguanidae and of Anguidae, the latter represented by Ophisaurus only in the north-western corner. Of snakes only one sub-family is peculiar, the Rhachiodontinae with the sole species Dasypeltis scabra, the egg-swallowing snake. Many Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae, but no Ilysiidae; large pythons, Eryx in the N., and a boa, Pelophilus fordt in the W. of Africa. Of poisonous snakes there is an abundance, notably the Viperinae have their centre in this continent; besides Echis, which is also Indian, there are peculiar to the continent Bitis, the puff- adder, Causus, Atractaspis, Cerastes, and Atheris which is an arboreal genus, all lof which see under VIPER. The pit vipers are entirely absent. Elapinae are numerous, e.g. hooded cobras like Naja haje and Sepedon the " ringhals." Many opisthoglyphous tree snakes and a considerable number of innocuous colubrines, e.g. Lycodon, Psammophis and Coronella or closely allied genera all also in India, but Cpluber-\ike forms and Tropidonotus are very scantily represented, chiefly in the N. On the whole the reptilian fauna of Africa is not rich, considering the huge size of the continent, but this may be accounted for by the great expanse of desert in the N. half and of veld in the S. Lastly, the enormous central forests are still scarcely explored. MADAGASCAR and certain other islands have a fauna which is as remarkable for its deficiencies as it is for its present forms. The following well-defined groups are absent: Trionychidae and Chely- didae; Agamidae, Lacertidae, Anguidae, Amphisbaenidae, Varanidae and Eublepharinae; all the Viperidae and Elapinae, so that this large island enjoys perfect absence of poisonous snakes, not counting the practically harmless opisthoglyphous tree snakes; there are further no pythons and no ilysias. The actual fauna consists of: Crocodilus vulgaris, which is said to be extremely abundant; of Chelonians, Pelomedusa galeata and 1 The same authority enumerates 536 species of reptiles for British India, i.e. about one-sixth of all the recent species of reptiles (Fauna of British India, edit. W. T. Blanford, London, 1890). 174 REPTILES [DISTRIBUTION Sternothaerus, both also in Africa, Podocnemis, which elsewhere occurs in South America onty, and several Testudinidae ; of these Pyxis is peculiar to Madagascar, while Testudo has furnished the gigantic tortoises of Aldabra, the Seychelles, and recently extinct in Mauritius and Madagascar. Of lizards are present a few Gerrho- sauridae and Zonuridae, both African types; the remarkable occurrence of two iguanid genera Chalarodon and Hoplurm, both peculiar to the island; skinks, many geckos, and Uroplates, sole type of the Uroplatinae and an abundance of chameleons, of the genera Chameleon, with Ch. parsoni, the giant of the family, and the small species of Brookesia, a genus peculiar to Madagascar. Of snakes we note Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae, and the remarkable occurrence of Boinae, two of the genus Boa (Pelophilus), one of Corallus on the main island and Casarea on Round Island. There opisthoglyphous mostly arboreal snakes, and the rest are jcuous colubrines, some few with Indian and African affinities, are innocuous e.g. Zamenis s. Ptyas, more with apparently S. American relation- ship, or at least with resemblance in taxonomic characters. An analysis of this peculiarly compound and deficient fauna gives surprising results, namely, the almost total absence of affinity with the Indian region, close connexion with Africa by the posses- sion of Gerrhosauridae, Zonuridae, Chameleons and Pelomedusidae; lastly, the presence of several tree boas, of Podocnemis and of Iguani- dae, i.e. families and genera which we are accustomed to consider as typically neo-tropical. Peculiar to Madagascar, autochthonous and very ancient, is only Uroplates. Ancient are also the tortoises, chameleons, geckos, boas, typhlops, gerrhosaurids and zonurids. The absent families may be as ancient as the others, but most of them, notably Varanus, lacertids and agamids are of distinctly northern, palaeotropical origin, and we can conclude with certainty that they had not spread into S. Africa before Madagascar and its satellites became severed from the continent. EUROPE AND TEMPERATE ASIA. — The present reptilian fauna of this vast area is composed almost entirely of the leavings of those groups which are now flourishing with manifold differentiations under more genial climes, in Africa and India. Fossils, none too numerous, tell us that it was not always thus, since crocodiles, alligators and long-snouted gavials, all the main groups of chelo- nians, iguanoids, &c., existed in England, the crocodilians persisting even towards the end of the Tertiary period. There are no crocodiles now in the Eurasian sub-region, excepting small survivors in the Jordan basin, on the borderland of Africa; but the Yang-tse-Kiang is inhabited by an alligator, A. sinensis, while all its congeners are now in America. This finds, to a certain extent, a parallel in Trionyx, of which one species lives in the Eu- phrates basin, likewise borderland, and another, T. maacki, in rivers of N. China, e.g. in the Amoor. Of other Chelonians we note several species of Testudo, two of them European; Emys europaea, chiefly in Europe, with the other species E. blandingi in the eastern United States ; and a few species of Clemmys, a truly periarctic genus. Of Lacertilia we exclude the chameleon. Of geckos Hemidac- tylus turcicus extends from Portugal to Karachi; Platydactylus facetanus is at home in most S. Mediterranean countries; Teratos- cincus is peculiar to the steppes and deserts of Turkestan and Persia; other geckos in the transitional region from Asia Minor to India. Of Lacertae we have Anguidae, Agamidae, Lacertidae, Amphisbaenidae and Scincidae, most of them in Europe represented by but one or two species. Thus Blanus cinereus in Mediterranean countries, Asia Minor and Syria, represents the Amphisbaenidae which are found nowhere else in Europe or Asia, but plentiful in Africa and both Americas. Of the Anguidae, Anguis fragilis is peculiar to Europe, Ophisaurus apus in S.E. Europe, another in Indo-Burman countries, with the rest of the species in N. America. Of Scincidae few in Europe, e.g. Chalcides s. Seps s. Gongylus, others from Asia Minor eastwards, e.g. Scincus, and Ablepharus in Turke- stan. Agamidae do not occur in Europe but they exist in considerable numbers from Asia Minor and Turkestan to China, with Phryno- cephalus peculiar to central Asia. Lastly, the Lacertidae, of which several species of Lacerta, Psammodromus, Acanthodactylus in Europe, but the majority in Africa and warmer parts of India; in a similar manner the Manchurian forms are related to Chinese. The total number of palaearctic snakes amounts to about sixty, the majority living in the Mediterranean countries and in W. Asia. One Typhlops in the Balkan peninsula and in W. Asia, in Persia also Glauconia ; Eryx jaculus extends into Greece from S.W. Asia as sole representative of the Boidae. Several vipers, the common viper, V. berus, from Wales to Saghalien Island, V. aspis, V. latastei and V. ammodytes in S. Europe; a pit viper, Ancistrodon. e.g. halys, in the Caspian district, thence this genus through China and again in N. America. Echis extends N. into Turkestan. The Indian cobra ranges N. to Transcaspia and far into China. All the other snakes belong to the aglyphous and opisthoglyphous Colubridae; of the latter Coelopeltis is peculiar to S. Europe and S.W. Asia; Macro- protodon cucullatus to S. Spain, the Balearic Islands and N. Africa; Tephrometoppn peculiar to Turkestan and neighbouring countries; none extending into E. Asia. Of the aglyphous coiubrines the most characteristic genus is Zamenis incl. Zaocys, very widely spread and including more species than any other palaearctic genus; several species of the wide-ranging genus Tropidonotus, besides Coluber. with Rhinechis scalaris in S.W. Europe. There are, besides, other genera, especially in the debatable countries of S.W. Asia, Persia and Afghanistan, and speaking generally the colubrines show less affinity to African than to Indian forms, just as we should expect from the prevailing geographical conditions. If it were not for the N.W. corner of Africa and portion of its N. coast, the European fauna would have very little in common with Africa. NORTH AMERICA.— Of this huge continent only the United States and Mexico come into consideration, since N. of 45° latitude reptilian life is very scarce. The area, however, with these restrictions, is larger than the Indian and Malay countries, and larger than the Australian region. Yet the fauna is comparatively poor, very poor indeed, if it were not for Mexico and the Sonoran province, which seems to be the ancient centre of distribution of much of the present typically N. American fauna. Characteristic of the area is the abundance of Chelonians and Iguanidae, to which Tejidae have to be added in the S.; equally characteristic is the complete absence of Pleurodirous Chelonians, of Chameleons, Agamidae, Lacertidae, Varanidae and Viperinae. The fauna is composed as follows: Crocodilia, with Crocodilus americanus and Alhgator mississigpiensis in the S. Of Chelonians the Chelydridae, peculiar to the E. half but for the reappearance of a species of Chelydra in Central America; many Cinosternidae like- wise almost peculiar to the area; of Testudinidae an abundance of freshwater forms, notably Chrysemys, and Emys in common with Europe, whilst terrestrial tortoises are extremely scanty, namely one species of Testudo, T. polyphemus, the gopher, and two of Cistudo, e.g. C. Carolina; lastly, two Trionyx in the whole of the Mississippi basin and thence N. into Lake Winnipeg, 51° N. Lacer- tilia: Geckos are very scarce; N. America has received only Sphaerodactylus notatus from the Antilles into Florida, and Phyllo- dactylus tuberculosus into California from the Pacific side of Mexico ; Eublepharinae are absent. Of Iguanidae we have a typically Sonoran set, e.g. Crotaphytus, Holbrookia, Uta, Phrynosoma, Scelo- porus, and a S. set of which only Anolis extends out of the tropics. It is significant that only a few species of Sceloporus and Phrynosoma extend into the United States, although far N.; of the large genus Anolis only A. carolinensis enters Texas to Carolina. Sceloporus may be called the most characteristic genus of Sonoraland and Mexico. Of the tropical family of Tejidae only Cnemidophorus, with many species in Mexico, a few in the adjoining N. states, and with C. sexlineatus over the greater part of the Union. Anguidae: Ophisaurus ventralis in the United States; the other species in the Old World. Diploglossus peculiar to mountains of Mexico. Gerrho- notus, the main genus, centred in Mexico, but G. coeruleus ranges from Costa Rica along the Pacific side right into British Columbia, the most northern instance of a New World reptile. Xenosaurus grandis of Mexican mountains is the monotype of a family, and the same would apply to Heloderma (H. suspectum, the Gila monster of the hottest lowland parts of Arizona and New Mexico; and H. horridum of Mexico) if it were not for Lanthanotus of Borneo. Scincidae: of this cosmopolitan family America possesses the smallest number, and it is significant that the number of species decreases from N. to S. ; Eumeces from Minnesota and Massachusetts through Mexico, with many species, and Lygosoma s. Mocoa laterale from S.E. and Central States to Mexico. Xantusiidae, a small family, is composed of a N. or Sonoran and a S. or Central American-Antillean group; e.g. Xantusia of the deserts of Nevada and California. Aniella, monotype of a family of California to El Paso, Texas, i.e. peculiar to Sonoraland, Amphisbaenidae with Rhineura in Florida and the marvellous Chirotes in Lower California and the Pacific side of Mexico ; the other members of this family are tropical so far as America is concerned. Snakes: of Typhlopidae only Anomalepis mexicana, peculiar to Nueyo Leon; of Glauconiidae several extending N. into Texas and Florida. Boinae continue N. as the arenicolous Lichanura of Lower California and Arizona, and the likewise arenicolous Charina boltae which extends from California to the state of Washington; the other members of the family are all tropical, extra-regional. Of Viperidae only pit vipers occur, but of them rattlesnakes cover the whole of the habitable area; Ancistrodon, without a rattle, e.g. the moccasin snake and the water viper, has other species in central and E. Asia. Of Elapinae, far into the E. United States only the genus Elaps with a few species, of which E. fulvius, the commonest, ranges from S. Brazil far into the S. and E. states. A few opis- thoglyphous, terrestrial, snakes just enter the United States from Mexico, e.g. Trimorphodon. Of aglyphous colubrines species of genera like or resembling Tropidonotus, Coronella and Coluber, in- cluding Pityophis and Spilotes, are abundant, the latter being very characteristic; Ischnognathus and Contia, Ficimia and Zamenis likewise are clearly nearctic, or Sonoran. The Greater Antilles have essentially neotropical, i.e. Central American and S. American affinities, but there is also some Sonoran infusion. — There is Crocodilus americanus; no Chelonians are natives except one or two Chrysemys. Of Lacertilia, geckos are abundant; of Iguanidae several arboreal forms, notably the large Iguana, and Metopoceras of Haiti, and Cyclura, both peculiar; of Anguidae Celestus, peculiar, but closely allied to Diploglossus; of Xantusiidae the peculiar genus Cricosaura s. Cricolepis. Of DISTRIBUTION] REPTILES Amphisbaenidae Amphisbaena itself occurs in Puerto Rico and on the Virgin Islands. Of Tejidae only Ameiva, not Cnemidophorus. Snakes: a Typhlops in Puerto Rico; of boas Epicrates, Ungtuia and Corallus, the latter re-occurring in Madagascar. Absent are: Viperidae, Elapinae and Opisthoglyphs; of aglyphous colu- bnncs the Central American genera Urotheca, Dromicus, Drymobius and Leptophis; the genera of distinctly northern origin. SOUTH AND CENTRAL AMERICA. — The fauna is very rich. It is advisable first to mention those groups which are either confined to Central America (including the hot lowlands of Mexico), e.g. the Dermatemydidae, Eublephannae, Anelytropsis and the aglyphous colubrines: Urotheca, Dromicus, Drymobius, Leptophis, Rhadinea, Streptophorus, or which, from their N. centre have sent some genera into Central America, or beyond into the S. continent : e.g. Chelydra rossignoni, ranging from Guatemala to Ecuador; one Cinosternum extending into Guiana; Testudo labulata, the only terrestrial tortoise of S. America, besides the gigantic creatures of the Gala- pagos Islands; a few Eublepharinae reaching Ecuador; of Anguidae Gerrhonotus coeruleus, extending S. to Costa Rica; of Scincidae, Mabuia and Lygosoma, which extend far into S. America, and the same applies to the Amphisbaenidae. Immigrants from the N. are probably also the Iguamdae, although they have found a congenial home in the S. countries, where they are now represented by an abundance of genera and species, e.g. Laemanctus and Corytho- phanes of Mexico, Anolis, Iguana, Basiliscus, Ctenosaura,Polychrus, Hoplurus, Chalarodon. Amongst snakes the following appear to be of N. origin: Boidae (with the Pythonine Loxocaemus mcolor in Mexico), in spite of their great development of boas and anacondas in the S. ; certainly Crotalinae, of which only one species, C. terrificus, is found in S. America; further, some aglyphous colubrines, which have sent a few species only into Central, and still fewer into S. America,* e.g. Tropidonotus, Ischnognathus, Contia* Ficimia, Coluber, Spilotes, Pityophis, Coronella* and Zamenis. After these numerous restrictions we should expect the genuine autochthonous fauna of the S. American continent to be very scanty, especially if we remember those important Old World groups which are absent in America, e.g. Varanidae, Lacertidae, Agamidae and chameleons, and that Central and S. America have no Triony- chidae. The oldest S. American reptilian fauna is composed as follows. It is the only part of the world which possesses Chelydidae in abundance, e.g. of Chelys the Matamata, Hydromedusa, and of Pelomedusidae, Podocnemis, which re-occurs in Madagascar. Cro- codilia are represented by Crocodilus americanus and C. moreleti in the N. and by about five species of Caiman. Of Lacertilia geckos are rather few, mostly in the N.W. of the continent, more numerous in Central America and the Antilles. The Tejidae are clearly a neotropical family, with several dozen genera in S. America; of all these, only Ameiva and the closely allied Cnemidophorus extend through and beyond Central America: Ameiva into the E. and W. hot lands of Mexico and into the Antilles, Cnemidophorus through Mexico far into most of the United States with a few species. Of snakes there is an abundance. Typhlopidae and Glauconiidae are well represented. Of aglyphous colubrines many genera, some of these extending northwards into Mexico, but not to the Antilles, e.g. Atractes, Tropidodipsas, Dirosema, Geophis, Xenodon. Opisthoglypha are very numerous in genera and species both in S. and Central America, whence many of the arboreal forms extend into the hot countries of Mexico, while a few terrestrials have spread over the plateau and thence into the United States, none entering the Antilles; such typical neotropical genera are Himan- todes, Leptodira, Oxyrhopus, Erythrolamprus, Conophis, Scolecophis, Homalocranium, Petalognathus, Leptognathus. Most of the Ambly- cephalidae are neotropical, the others in S.E. Asia. Of Elapinae only the genus Elaps occurs, but with many species. Of the Cro- talinae, Lachesis is the essentially neotropical genus, with many species, some of which enter the hot lands of Mexico, e.g. L. lansbergi s. lanceolatus, a very widely distributed species, the only pit viper which has entered the Lower Antilles. The above survey of the world shows that but very few of the principal families of reptiles are peculiar to only one of the main regions." The occurrence of some freak, constituting a little family or sub-family by itself in some small district, and therefore put down as peculiar to a whole wide region, cannot be much of a criterion, e.g. Rhachiodon, Elachistodon, Acrochordinae, Uroplates, Xenosaurus, Heloderma, Aniellidae, Dibamus, A'nelytropidae, Platysternum. They are not characteristic of large countries, but rather local freaks. Quite a number of very ancient families have such a wide distribution that they also are of little critical value, notably the peropodous snakes, which have survivors in almost any tropical country; such cosmopolitans are also geckos and skinks. A difficulty which is ever present in such zoogeographical in- vestigations is the uncertainty as to whether our zoological families and sub-families and even genera are genuine units, or heterogeneous compounds, as for instance the Anelytropidae, of which degraded skinks there is one in Mexico, two others in W. Africa. Heloderma in Mexico and Lanthanotus in Borneo are both without much doubt descendants of some Anguid stock, but when we now combine them, in deference to our highest authority, as one family, we thereby raise the tremendous problem of the present distribution of this Antilles. South America. North America. Eurasia. 1 II If .9 < Chelydridae * . o . .|_ _|_ O o o o o Testudinidae . 0s _|_ _j_ _J- o Chelydidae . . o _|_ O o o o o Pelomedusidae o ij- 0 o -j- -)- o o Trionychidae o 0 -)_ _)- b -)- o Chamaeleonidae o 0 o o _)_ ^_ o 0 Varanidae 0 o o 0» _J_ o Agamidae 0 o 0 -)- _)- o -ir -(- Iguanidae -J- ^_ _)- o 0 -)_ 0 o Lacertidae o 0 o -j_ o o Zonuridae ) Gerrhosauridae ) o o o o + + o o Anguidae -)- -)- -)- -l_ -)-' 0 -)- 0 Amphisbaenidae Tejidae .... 1 + o o o o 0 o o o o • Pygopodidae . Viperinae o o o 0 0 o 0 0 0 o 0 0 Crotalinae o -)-. J. +' o o -J- o Elapinae o + + +' + o + + family. Boas and pythons are likewise not above suspicion, cf. some boas in Madagascar and the python Loxocaemus in Mexico. The opisthoglyphous col j brines are almost certainly not a natural group, not to speak of numerous genera of the aglyphous assembly. To avoid arguing in a circle, such doubtful units had better be avoided whilst building hypotheses. G. Pfeffer has recently endeavoured to show by an elaborate careful paper (" Zoogeographische Beziehungen Siidamerikas," Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. viii., 1905), " that nearly all the principal groups of reptiles, amphibians and fishes had formerly a universal or sub- universal distribution, and that therefore it is not necessary to assume a direct land connexion of S. America with either Africa or Australia, with or without an Antarctic." Many cases of such a former universal distribution are undoubtedly true, but the question remains how the respective creatures managed to attain it. For true characterization of large areas we must resort to the combination of some of the large wide-ranging families, and equally important is the absence of certain large groups; both to be selected from the following table. 1 Including the related Dermatemydidae and Cinpsternidae. 2 With an exception. ' Entering, or in the borderland. 4 Mediterranean countries. 6 Rhineura; formerly wider distribution. 6 In Asia. Deductions from this table show, for instance, that Australia is quite sufficiently characterized by the possession of Chelydidae and Varanidae; Madagascar by the presence of chameleons and Pelomedusidae. On the other hand, the separation of the whole of Africa from Asia, or the diagnosis of the palaearctic " region," would require the combination of several positive and negative characters. Chelonians are very diagnostic, expressed by the following com- binations of families: — America as a whole: Chelydridae and Cinosterridae and Der- matemydidae. N. America: Chelydridae and Trionychidae, but only E. of the Rockies. S. America : Chelydidae and Pelomedusidae. Africa : Trionychidae and Pelomedusidae. Madagascar: Pelomedusidae and Testudinidae. India and Eurasia: Trionychidae and Testudinidae. Australia : Chelydidae only. That the Chelonians are regionally so very diagnostic that their main families are still in rational agreement with the main divisions of land, is perhaps due, first, to their being an ancient group; secondly, to their limited means of distribution (none across the seas, omitting of course Cheloniidae, &c.); and lastly, to their being rather in- different to climate. Note, for instance, Trionyx ferox from the Canadian lakes to the Gulf of Mexico, Cinosternum pennsylvanicum from New York to New Orleans. It may be taken for certain that wherever a Testudo occurs as a genuine native, it has got there by land, be the locality the Galapagos, Aldabra, Madagascar or some Malay islands. The Trionychidae reveal themselves as of periarctic origin, being debarred from Australia, Madagascar and the neotropical region (alleged from Eocene Patagonia). Testu- dinidae are cosmopolitan, excluding Australia, and practically also the Antilles; and Testudo is most instructive with its almost similar distribution; but something has gone wronjf with this genus in America, where it flourished in mid-Tertiary times. Pleurodira are less satisfactory than they appear to be from a merely statistical point of view. The Pelomedusidae, being known from European Trias and from nearctic cretaceous formations, 176 REPTON— REPUBLIC may have had a world-wide distribution; but Chelydidae may well have centred in an antarctic continent. Chelydridae were periarctic and have disappeared from Eurasia; N. American offshoots are the Cinosterridae and Dermatemydidae, the latter now restricted to Central American countries. CrocodUia, probably once universal, afford through the Chinese alligator an instance of the original intimate connexion of the whole holarctic region, paralleled by many other animals which now happen to be restricted to E. Asia and to eastern N. America. Lacertilia are less satisfactory for short diagnoses. America alone combines Iguanidae and Tejidae : — N. America: Iguanidae, Anguidae, Tejidae (and Rhineura in Florida). S. America: Iguanidae, Anguidae, Tejidae and many Amphis- baenidae. Africa and Madagascar: Chameleons and Zonuridae and Gerrho- sauridae. Madagascar : Chameleons and Iguanidae. India: Varanidae, Agamidae and Lacertidae, all of which also in Africa. Australia alone has Pygopodidae. The Lacertilia are now distributed upon principles very different from those of the tortoises. According to the lizards the world is divided into an E. and a W. half. The W. alone has Iguanidae and Tejidae, the E. alone that important combination of Varanidae and Agamidae. Further subdivision is in most cases possible only by exclusion, e.g. exclusion of Lacertilia and chameleons from Australia; of Varanidae and Agamidae from Madagascar. Lizards are rather susceptible to climatic conditions, infinitely more than water tortoises. As regards Ophidia, America has Crotalinae and Elapinae, but no Viperinae. Eurasia and India alone combines Viperinae, Crotalinae and Elapinae. Africa, Viperinae and Elapinae but no Crotalinae. Australia only Elapinae. Madagascar none of these groups. The Viperinae must have had their original centre in the palae- arctic countries, and they have been debarred only from Australia and Madagascar. Both vipers and pit vipers are still in Asia, but true vipers are absent in America, with their fullest develop- ment now in Africa, whilst pit vipers went E., covering now the whole of America, and having developed the rattlesnakes in Sonora- land. The Elapinae are undoubtedly of Asiatic origin; they have overrun Africa, were too late for Madagascar, but early enough for Australia, where they are only poisonous snakes; and only one genus, Elaps, has got into, or rather, has differentiated in America, in the S. of which it is abundant. Opisthoglypha are useless for our purpose; they are cosmopolitan, with the exception of Australia, but probably they have one ancient centre in S. America, and another in the old world. Amblycephalidae afford another of those curious instances of apparent affinity between S.E. Asia and Central America; paral- leled by Pelamis bicolor, which ranges from Madagascar to Panama, while all the other Hydrophinae belong to the Indian Ocean and the E. Asiatic seas. Aglyphous Colubrines show undoubted affinity between N. America and Eurasia; the whole group is absolutely cosmopolitan, and many of the genera, e.g. Coluber, Tropidonotus and Coronella, have proved their success by having acquired an enormous range. Snakes have comparatively few enemies, and they possess exceptional means of distribution. It is rare for a terrestrial species to have such a wide range as Crotalus terrificus, from Arizona to Argentina, or as the India cobra, which, like the tiger, is equally at home in Malay islands, Manchuria and Turkestan. The tortoises divide the habitable world into a S. and a N. world, much as do the anurous Batrachians; the lizards split it into an E. and a W. hemisphere. The poisonous snakes, the most recent of reptiles in their full development and distribution, allow us to distinguish between Australia, America and the rest of the world. (H. F. G.) REPTON, a village in the S. parliamentary division of Derby- shire, England, 8 m. S.W. of Derby, on the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 1695. It is famous for its school, founded in 1557 by Sir John Port, of the neighbouring village of Etwall, which has valuable entrance scholarships, and two leaving exhibitions to the universities annually. The number of boys is about 300. The school buildings are modern, but incorporate considerable portions of an Augustinian priory established in 1 1 7 2 . There was an ecclesiastical establishment on this site in the 7th century, the first bishop of Mercia being established here. This was destroyed by the Danes in 874. In the second half of the loth century, during the reign of Edgar, another church was founded. The existing parish church of St Wystan retains pre-Conquest work in the chancel, beneath which is a remarkably fine vaulted crypt, probably dating from the reign of Edgar, its roof sup- ported on fluted columns. The monastery was dissolved by Henry VIII. REPUBLIC (Lat. respublica, a commonweal or common- wealth), a term now universally understood to mean a state, or polity, in which the head of the government is elective, and in which those things which are the interest of all are decided upon by all. This is notoriously a very modern interpretation of the term. In the ancient world of Greece and Rome the franchise was in the hands of a minority, who were surrounded by, and who governed, a majority composed of men personally free but not possessed of the franchise, and of slaves. Modern writers have often used respublica, and literal translation, as meaning only the state, even when the head was an absolute king, provided that he held his place according to law and ruled by law. " Republic," to quote one example only of many, was so used by Jean Bodin, whose treatise, commonly known by its Latin name De Republica Libri Sex, first appeared in French in 1577- Englishmen of the middle ages habitually spoke of the commonwealth of England, though they had no conception that they could be governed except by a king with hereditary right. The coins of Napoleon bear the inscription "Republique ' franQaise, Napoleon Empereur." Except as an arbitrary term of art, or as a rhetorical expression, " republic " has, however, always been understood to mean a state in which the head holds his place by the choice of his subjects. Poland was a republic because its king had in earlier times to be accepted, and in later times was chosen by a democracy composed of gentry. Venice was a republic, though after -the "closing of the great council " the franchise was confined to a strictly limited aristocracy, which was itself in practice dominated by a small oligarchy. The seven states which formed the confederation of the United Netherlands were republics from the time they renounced their allegiance to Philip II., though they chose to be governed by a stadtholder to whom they delegated large powers, and though the choice of the stadtholder was made by a small body of burghers who alone had the franchise. The varieties are many. What, however, is emphatically not a republic is a state in which the ruler can truly tell his subjects that, the sovereignty resides in his royal person, and that he is king, or tsar, " pure and absolute," by the grace of God, even though he may hasten to add that " absolute " is not " despotic," which means government without regard to law. The case of Great Britain, where the king reigns theoretically by the grace of God, but in fact by a parliamentary title and under the Act of Settle- ment, is, like the whole British constitution, unique. There is in fact a fundamental incompatibility between the conceptions of government as a commonwealth and as an institution based on a right superior to the people's will. Where the two views endeavour to live together one of two things must happen. The ruler will confiscate the rights of the community to himself and will become the embodiment of sovereignty, which is what happened in most of the states' of Europe at the close of the middle ages; or the community, acting through some body politic which is its virtual representative, will confine the head of the government to denned functions. The question of representation is dealt with separately (see REPRESENTATION), but the conception of a republic in which all males, who do not belong to an inferior and barbarous race, share in the suffrage is one which would never have been accepted in the ancient or medieval world, for it is based on a foundation of which they knew nothing, — the political rights of man. When the Scottish reformer John Knox based his claim to speak on the government of the realm on the fact that he was " a subject born within the same " he advanced a pretension very new to his generation. But it was one which was fated to achieve a great fortune. The right of the subject, simply as a member of the community, to a voice in the commimity in which he was born, and on which his happiness depended, implied all " the rights of man " as they were to be stated by the American Declaration of Independence, and again by the French in 1789. As they could be vindicated only by revolt against monarchical governments in the old world and the new, and as they were incompatible with all the convictions which make monarchy possible, they embodied REPUBLICAN PARTY 177 themselves in the modern democratic republics of Europe and America. It is a form of government not much more like the republic of antiquity and the middle ages than the French sans- culottes was like Harmodius and Aristogeiton, whom he admired for being what they most decidedly were not — believers in equality and fraternity. But it does, subject to the imper- fections of human nature, set up a government in which all, theoretically at least, have a voice in what concerns all. REPUBLICAN PARTY. Of the three important American parties which have called themselves Republican,1 this article deals only with that one which was organized during the years 1854 to 1856 and has been in control of the government of the United States during the larger portion of the half century since the presidential election of 1860 Origin and Character. — Sectionalism, the movement which tended to break the Union into two separate republics, one based on free labour, the other on that of slaves, had gained before the middle of the rpth century such headway as to compel a reconstruction of the party system. The beginning of this reconstruction was heralded by the rise of the Liberty party (?.».), in 1840, its completion by the disruption in 1860 of the Democratic party along sectional lines, and the election of Abraham Lincoln by a sectional vote. The event which determined the date of the birth of the Republican party was the repeal by the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854 of that provision of the Compromise of 1820 which excluded slavery from national territory N. of the geographical line 36° 30' and the formal substitution in that bill of " squatter " for national sovereignty, in deciding the question of slavery in the Territories. The enactment of this bill introduced a new and highly critical stage in the relations between North and South. Down to 1850 the differences of the two sections over slavery had always been arranged by mutual concessions. In 1854 this expedi- ent was set aside. Without giving anything in return, Douglas and his supporters took from the free-labour section an invalu- able barrier against the extension of slavery: and through the doctrine of " squatter sovereignty " denied to Congress the power to erect such barriers in the future. But this only hast- ened a crisis that could not have been greatly delayed. Cal- houn had already discerned the true source and deadly nature of the growing sectional estrangement, and Lincoln was soon to utter the prophetic words: " This government cannot endure permanently, half slave and half free." The immediate result of the agitation over the repeal was to convince a large number — which soon became a majority — of the best citizens of the North, irrespective of party, that the restriction of slavery was essential to the well-being both of the North and of the Union as a whole. In order to give effect to this conviction it was necessary to form a new party. The agitation which prepared the way for its rise began in Congress during the debates on the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, and spread thence throughout the North. The West was more quickly responsive than the East. But everywhere large elements of the existing parties came together and agreed to unite in resisting the extension of slavery. Before the discussion of the repeal in Congress had reached its later stages, a mass meeting of Whigs, Democrats and Free Soilers at Ripon, Wis- consin, resolved that if the Kansas-Nebraska Bill should pass: " They would throw old party organizations to the winds and organize a new party on the sole issue of the non-extension of slavery." The name Republican was formally adopted at a state convention of the new party held at Jackson, Michigan, on the 6th of July 1854, and by other Western state conven- tions on the 1 3th of the same month. The great majority of the new party had been either Whigs or Democrats. In two cardinal points they were agreed, namely, opposition to slavery and belief in the national, as opposed to the federative, nature of the Union. In other points there was at the beginning much disagreement. For- 1 The party organized by Thomas Jefferson; the National Republicans, 1824-1834; and the Republican party of the present tunately the issues on which there was agreement overshadowed all others long enough to bring about a fusing of the two ele- ments. It was the union of the Whig who believed in making government strong and its sphere .wide, with the Democrat who believed in the people and th~e people's control of govern- ment, that made the Republican party both efficient and popular. History. — Before its advent to power, from 1854 to 1860, the tasks of the Republican party were three: to propagate the doctrine of slavery restriction by Congressional action; to oppose the extension of slavery under the operation of the doctrine of squatter sovereignty; and to obtain control of the Federal government. In each it was successful. Through- out the North and under such leaders as Seward, Lincoln, Chase, Sumner, Henry Ward Beecher and Horace Greeley, all the resources of the press, the platform, the pulpit and (an institu- tion then powerful but now forgotten) the lyceum or citizens' debating club, were fully enlisted in the propaganda. Other events that turned to the advantage of the Republicans were the brutal assault upon Charles Sumner in the Senate Chamber in 1856, the Ostend Manifesto, advising in the interest of slavery the acquisition of Cuba by force if Spain should refuse to sell, the enforcement — sometimes brutal and always hateful — of the Fugitive Slave Law (q.v.), and the quarrel of Douglas with the administration and the South over the application of squatter sovereignty to Kansas. On the other hand, the decision of the Supreme Court in the case of Dred Scott, which the Re- publicans refused to accept as good law, and the raid of John Brown at Harper's Ferry, which they condemned,' brought them into serious embarrassment. In the prosecution of the third task, the attainment of office, the party followed wise counsels and was fortunate. In its first national platform, that of 1856, the party affirmed its adherence to the principles of Washington and Jefferson, denied the constitutional right of Congress or a Territory to establish slavery, and declared that it was " both the right and duty of Congress to prohibit in the Territories those twin relics of barbarism, polygamy and slavery." At the close of the resolutions there was a demand for government aid to a Pacific railway and for the improvement of rivers and harbours. The platform of 1860 was more comprehensive. It added to the planks of the first, an arraignment of the administration and the Dred Scott decision, and demands for a protective tariff and a homestead act. Although the popular vote for Abraham Lincoln was more than a half-million greater than that for John C. Fremont, the party's candidate in 1856, never- theless it was the disruption of the Democratic party that made the Republican triumph possible. On the other hand, the Republican party was the strongest member of the new party system as reorganized on the sectional principle. Moreover, in character and purpose, as well as numerical strength, it was better qualified than its rivals to meet the impending crisis. The War Period, 1861-1865. — Between the election of Mr Lincoln in November 1860, and his inauguration on the following 4th of March, seven of the slave-holding states seceded, formed a Confederacy and withdrew their representatives from the national legislature. All attempts to arrange a compromise failed. The vacillation of President Buchanan, and the position taken in his annual message that the national government had no right to coerce a seceding state, gave strong support to the disunion movement. These events forced upon the Republican party a change of policy Hitherto its efforts had been directed chiefly to excluding slavery from the Territories. Now the first duty was to save the Union from disruption. In order to do this it was necessary to unite the North, and to bring to the support of the Union a large proportion of those border slave states, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri, in which there was considerable Union sentiment. Hence the party laid aside completely the earlier issue of slavery restriction and accepted as the sole issue of the hour the main- tenance of the Union. Indeed, in order to secure more easily the co-operation of loyal Democrats, it even gave up its own name for a time and called itself the Union party. REPUBLICAN PARTY During the early period of the war the President checked all efforts on the part of zealous subordinates, civil and military, to make the war for the Union even incidentally a war upon slavery. In his efforts to unionize the border states Mr Lincoln in March 1862 urged that Congress should co-operate with any state in providing for a voluntary, gradual and compensated emancipation. Congress acceded, but not one of the border states would undertake emancipation. Many of the Republican leaders rejected the border state policy of the President and urged a more radical course towards slavery. In replying to Horace Greeley, who voiced the discontent in a public letter, to which he gave the title, The Prayer of Twenty Millions of People, Mr Lincoln in August 1862 wrote: " My paramount object is to save the Union and not either to save or destroy slavery." But as evidence accumulated that slavery was a strong military support of the Confederacy the policy of destroying slavery as a means of saving the Union grew in favour. To this policy Mr Lincoln on the 22nd of September 1862 com- mitted himself, the Republican party and the cause of the Union. The first response was distinctly unfavourable. The immediate effect was " to unite the South and divide the North." A considerable element of the Democratic party became disloyal, while the party as a whole opposed all measures looking to the destruction of slavery. The autumn elections greatly reduced the Republican majority in Congress. But the new policy steadily gained ground until the Republican party in its third national convention, which met on the 7th of June 1864, resolved: " that as slavery was the cause and now constitutes the strength of this rebellion, justice and national safety demand its utter and complete extirpation from the soil of the republic." In the following year slavery was finally abolished by the Thirteenth Amendment. On the Republican party, since it had an effective majority in each house of Congress, rests the responsibility for the legisla- tion of the war period. The theory of loose construction of the Constitution was accepted. Throughout the Civil War, Congress, proceeding upon this theory, made prompt provision for the prosecution of the war. It passed Legal Tender Acts; it established a system of national banks; greatly raised the tariff rates; and in order to hasten the settlement of the Far West and to make that section an integral part of the Union, it passed a Homestead Act and an act providing for a railway to the Pacific. For a time, while disloyalty was most rife in the North, there was a sharp curtailment of the rights of the individual citizen through the suspension, initiated by the President 'and approved by Congress, of the writ of Habeas Corpus. Most of the acts, which their opponents held to be violations of the Constitution, were in general acts of question- able utility. The results of the war, which came to a close early in 1865, vindicated in a signal way the principles, policies and leadership of the Republican party. It had saved the Union; it had established the national character of the Union so firmly as to bring to an end the doctrine of the right of secession; and it had destroyed slavery. The party had been singularly fortunate in its founders and leaders. Of these three were pre-eminent: Horace Greeley, William H. Seward and Abraham Lincoln — Greeley in the field of journalism, Seward in the two realms of idealistic and practical politics, and, greatest of all, Abraham Lincoln who won and held the people. Reconstruction. — The larger tasks of the period from the close of the Civil War in '1865 to the inauguration of Rutherford B. Hayes in 1877 were three: first, to accomplish with the least possible disturbance the transition from war to peace; second, to settle certain matters of dispute with France and England that had arisen during the progress of the war; arid third, to reconstruct the South. Full responsibility for the way in which these tasks were discharged rests upon the Republican party, for it was in control of the presidency and the Senate throughout the period and of the House until December 1875. In the first and second it was notably successful. The soldiers of North and South returned at once to the fields of productive labour. The colossal war establishment was quickly reduced to the requirements of peace. The French withdrew from Mexico. The Alabama Claims were submitted to arbitration. But the reconstruction of the South proved difficult in the extreme. The strain of a prolonged and exhausting war, the upheaval of emancipation, and the utter collapse of the Confederate government, had thrown the elements of social, economic and civil life in the South into almost hopeless disorder. To restore these to normal relations and working was but part of the task; the other and more important part was to apply those methods of reconstruc- tion which would tend to make one nation out of hitherto discordant sections. In his third annual message, Dec. 8th, 1863, Lincoln brought forward the so-called presidential plan of reconstruction. This was rejected on the ground that recon- struction was a Congressional rather than an executive function; and on the 4th of July 1864 Congress passed a bill making Congress instead of the president the chief agent in the work of reconstruction. President Johnson adopted Lincoln's plan, and put it into operation with such vigour that when Congress met in December 1865 all the states that had seceded were quite or nearly ready to demand the readmission of their represen- tatives to the House and Senate. From the standpoint of party the situation was highly critical. The men whom the newly reconstructed states had sent to Washington represented the old South and would naturally join the opposition. Although the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment, which abolished slavery, was assured, and a fort- night later was officially proclaimed, nevertheless the recon- structed legislatures were busy enacting police regulations which, in the opinion of most Republicans, threatened to re- enslave the freedmen. With an earnestness like that which the party in earlier days had shown in opposing the extension of slavery, it now resolved to secure full civil rights to the freedmen. Another consideration of great weight in shaping party policy was the need of maintaining the rights of Congress against executive encroachment. Owing to the war and Lincoln's masterful personality, the presidency had gained in prestige at the expense of Congress. The tendency thus established would be strengthened to a dangerous degree, it was thought, if the President were to take the leading part in reconstructing as well as in saving the Union. There now took place within the party a change of great importance. Hitherto the conservatives, represented by such leaders as Lincoln and Seward, had always won in struggles with the radical elements; but now the tide changed, and the radicals who were more narrowly national and more strongly partisan gained control, and ruled the party to the end of the period. This revolution within the Republican party between the years 1865 and 1867 was fostered by a marked re- crudescence of sectional feeling in the North, and by the character of the successor of President Lincoln and of the party leaders in Congress. President Johnson while eminently patriotic and courageous, was tactless and imprudent to the last degree. Mr Sumner, the leader of the Senate, was not conciliatory in manner, and while incapable of revengeful feeling seemed more con- siderate of the freedman than of the Southern white. Thaddeus Stevens, whose influence over the House of Representatives was stronger than that of Sumner over the Senate, regarded the South as " a conquered province," and his personal feelings towards the ruling class of the South were harshly vindktive. The policy adopted by the Republican majority in each house of Congress was to refuse admission to the men chosen by the states that had been reconstructed under the presidential plan, until a joint- committee of both houses should investigate conditions in the South. In this rebuff there was distinct intimation of a purpose to set aside altogether the reconstructive work of the President. Congress proceeded at once to enact measures to continue and extend the earlier temporary provision for helpless freedmen whom emancipation had set adrift, and to give them full civil rights. By passing the Fourteenth Amendment in June 1866 Congress committed itself to the policy of securing the civil rights of the negro by constitutional guarantee. Each of these acts was vetoed by the President, between whom and REPUBLICAN PARTY Congress political disagreement ripened soon into bitter enmity. As the quarrel developed Congress ignored the recommendations of the President, repassed by the requisite majority and without due consideration of his objections each measure that he vetoed, took from him the power to remove subordinates which had been exercised by his predecessors, deprived him of his constitutional rights as commander-in-chief of the army, and finally in 1868 undertook to drive him from office by impeach- ment. In 1867 Congress, under the control of the radical wing of the Republican party, set aside nearly all reconstructive work that had been accomplished previously and put into execution a plan of its own, under which the Southern States were reconstructed anew and admitted to representation in Congress between the years 1867 and 1870. Inevitable consequences of the Con- gressional plan of reconstruction were: first, the erection of state governments that were inefficient, corrupt, ruinously wasteful and shamefully oppressive; second, the extreme demoralization of the freedmen suddenly transformed from slaves into rulers of their former masters; third, the demoraliza- tion, in many cases also extreme, of the great body of the Southern whites by the expedients to which they resorted in order to escape from the rule of the freedman, led by the " Carpet Bagger " his Northern, and the " Scalawag " his Southern, white ally; fourth, the alienation of the white and coloured races in the South, — an alienation which was to each a source of immeasurable evils; fifth, the speedy overthrow on the withdrawal of military support of the governments set up under the Congressional plan, and the creation of a South " solid " in resentful opposition to the North and the Republican party. And sixth, as the out- come of all these results, an unfortunate delay in reuniting North and South. The Republican party suffered during this period a moral decline, seen in the frequent efforts to gain party advantage by kindling anew the earlier sectional animosities, a growing arrogance, the increasing weight of the partisan and spoilsman in party management, and the widespread corruption that came to light in the " scandals " of the second administra- tion of General Grant. The mismanaged Liberal Republican movement of 1870-1872 was a reaction against this moral decline and a protest against the Southern policy of the party and its support of the " Spoils " system. The service of the Liberal Republicans consisted mainly in the aid they gave to the reform of the Republican party and in the influence they exerted to induce the Democratic party to accept the results of the war. But despite the warnings it received, the prestige it had gained during the war and the popularity of President Grant, the Republican party lost ground steadily during the second half of the period. In the election of 1874 the Democratic party gained control of the House of Representatives; and in the election of 1876 came within a hair's breadth of winning the presidency. Election of Mr Hayes to that of Mr McKinley, 1876-1896. — During these twenty years the subsidence of old and the rise of new issues led to a reconstruction of the party system, which, although less radical than that of 1840 to 1860, brought into existence several new parties and changed in important respects the character and policies of those already in the field. From the standpoint of party history the chief interest of these twenty years lies in the answer to the question, How did the discredited Republican party secure in 1896 a new and prolonged lease of power? The task was not easy. The reconstruction policy of the party had alienated many Northern supporters and had made the South solidly Democratic. The prevalence of the spoils system and the scandals of the second administration of General Grant had hurt the prestige of the party as a guardian of public morals and of the national honour. What gave the Republicans a fighting chance were: its record down to the close of the Civil War; its proven aptitude for the tasks of government; and the growth among the people of a more vital national feeling which turned instinctively to the party that had saved the nation. Despite these substantial advantages over their Democratic rivals the Republicans lost the presidential elections of 1884 and 1892, and the entire Democratic party — some Republicans agreeing — has always held that a just decision of the contested election of 1876 would have seated Samuel J. Tilden, the Democratic candi- date, instead of Mr Hayes. In the Senate the Republicans were in a majority during fourteen years. In the House, whose members are chosen by popular vote, these figures were reversed, the Democrats having control during fourteen years. In each of five successive presidential elections, those of 1876, 1880, 1884, 1888 and 1892, the Democratic popular vote was larger than the Republican. Marked features of the party situation were- the apparent similarity for a time of the principles of the two great parties, the influence on their policy exerted by the stronger minor parties, and the rise of the Mugwumps (not strictly a party), who claimed the right to vote for the best candidate independently of party and were in the main of Republican origin. Of the issues of the period one, the reform of the civil service, was served by both of the great parties with imperfect fidelity. Each of the Republican presidents, Hayes, Garfield, Arthur and Harrison gave it efficient and steadfast support; and so did Cleveland, the Democratic president, although under stronger pressure from party hunger. The same was true in the case of the more important questions of foreign policy and, to a degree in its early stage, of the question of silver coinage. It was not so with the treatment of the South. President Hayes_ withdrew the national troops from S. Carolina and Louisiana and thus brought to an end Federal military interference with state governments. For this course a considerable section of the Republican party gave him thereafter a support which was half-hearted and inconstant. Further disaffection resulted • from efforts to reform the civil service of New York which brought the President into conflict with the powerful Republican party machine in that state.1 The high character of the President and his firm, wise and upright course raised the reputation of the party. His veto of the Silver Bill and the resumption of specie payments tended to the same result. The failure in 1889 of the third term movement for General Grant worked for the health of the party. The struggle of President Garfield with New York spoilsmen and his assassina- tion by a disappointed office-seeker, gave a fresh impetus to the movement for the reform of the civil service. President Arthur maintained the high standard established by Presidents Hayes and Garfield. In the election of 1884 the old parties were competitors for the confidence of the conservative and reforming elements of the country. Mr Blaine, the Republican candidate, who in brilliancy, popularity, patriotism, and disappointing personal fortunes recalled the Whig leader, Henry Clay, lost the election by a narrow margin because, while meeting the requirements of the conservatives, he had lost in a measure the confidence of the reformers. In the election of 1888 Mr Cleveland, by making tariff reform •the issue, turned the manufacturing interests to the support of Mr Harrison, the candidate of the Republicans, who thereby won the election. Mr Harrison, while not personally popular, maintained the best traditions of his Republican predecessors. The highly protective McKinley tariff, frarhed in obedience to the people's mandate in 1888, proved somewhat disappointing, and in the election of 1892, Mr Cleveland, as the champion of lower tariff rates, was successful for the second time. Mr Cleveland, at the beginning of his second term, secured the repeal of the act for the purchase of silver, and thus strengthened himself with the con- servatives of both parties. Democratic defection in the Senate nullified largely the downward revision of the tariff urged by the President and supported by the House. The election of 1896 marked the close of the period of party 1 In the course of this conflict, which continued to disturb the harmony of the Republican party until the death of President Garfield, the term " Stalwarts was used to designate the supporters of Senator Conkling, who was in control of the Republican machine in New York state, and the term " Half-Breeds " to designate the supporters of the administration. i8o REQUENA— REQUEST, LETTERS OF readjustment. The leading issue was the free coinage of silver under conditions which would have made the monetary standard silver instead of gold, and would have lowered its value. The Democratic convention repudiated Mr Cleveland, accepted free coinage, and nominated W. J. Bryan. The Republicans, at the cost of a formidable party defection, endorsed the gold standard and a highly protective tariff, and nominated William McKinley, whose record and character made him an exceptionally strong candidate. In doing this the Democratic organization became the party of radicalism, the Republican, the party of conservat- ism. The committal of the Republican party to the mainten- ance of the gold standard far more than its continued support of high protection, established its position in the reconstructed party system. In doing this it allied its fortunes with those of all the property-holding classes of the country, while retaining in a high degree the confidence of the wage-earners. Period 1897-1910. — During this period there was first a rapid recovery from economic depression, and then ten years of almost unexampled prosperity, followed by two years of moderate depression. But the period is chiefly memorable for the war of 1898 with Spain; for the oversea territorial expansion that followed; for the rise of the so-called policy of imperialism; for the assumption of a far more prominent international role; for wide-reaching measures of internal reform; and, lastly, for the •establishment of the policy of conserving the natural resources of the nation. Throughout this period the Republican party had undis- puted control of the national government. One of the earliest acts in the administration of Mr McKinley was the enactment in 1897 of the highly protective Dingley Tariff. The provision for Reciprocity proved at first of little use. But the need of foreign markets for the rapidly growing output of manufactured products, the rising demand that the interests of the home consumer, as well as those of the producer, should be considered, and the conviction that high protection fostered monopolies, brought about a change of sentiment in the party. Mr McKin- ley, in his last speech, made at the Buffalo Exposition on the 5th of September 1901, gave voice to this change: " The period of exclusiveness is past. The expansion of our trade and com- merce is the pressing problem. Commercial wars are unpro- fitable. A policy of good will and friendly trade relations will prevent reprisals. Reciprocity treaties are in harmony with the spirit of the times. Measures of retaliation are not." These views gained headway against the strenuous opposition of the "stand-patters,"1 until revision of the tariff down- ward was demanded in the platform of 1908, and achieved to .a moderate degree in the Tariff Act of 1909. The party has also fulfilled its promise to establish the gold monetary standard •on a firm basis. During the war with Spain and in meeting the new problems of colonial empire, the Republican party has again justified its reputation for efficiency. Not less noteworthy has been the policy of the party, initiated and urged by President Theodore Roosevelt and developed by President W. H. Taft for the regulation of railways and all corporations and trusts engaged in interstate business. The latest important event in the history of the Republican party is the rise of the " Insurgents," a group of senators and •congressmen whose professed aims are to resist centralization in both party and national government, to lessen the influ- ence of the money power over public policy, to regulate tariff schedules largely in the interest of the consumer, and in brief to emphasize anew the subordination of party and government to the will and service of the people. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — See Francis Curtis, History of the Republican Party (2 vols., New York, 1904); J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850 (ibid., 1893-1904); J. W. Burgess, The Middle Period (New York, 1897), The Civil War and the Constitution (ibid., 1899), and Reconstruction and the Constitution (ibid., 1902); T. C. Smith, The Parties and Slavery, 1851-1859 (ibid., 1906) ; Henry Wilson, Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America (3 vols., Boston, 1872-77); J. G. Blaine, Twenty 1 Those members of the" Republican party who would maintain -as far as possible the high protective duties of the Dingley Tariff. Years of Congress (2 vols., Norwich, Conn., 1884-1886); Horace Greeley, The American Conflict (2 vols., Hartford, 1864-66); J. G. Nicolay and John Hay, Abraham Lincoln, A History (10 vols., New York, 1890); J. T. Morse, Life of Lincoln (2 vols., Boston, 1893); F. Bancroft, Life of W. H. Seward (New York, 1900); H. E. Von Hoist, Political and Constitutional History of the United States (Chicago, 1899); and E. Stanwood, History of the Presidency (Boston, 1898). (A. D. Mo.) REQUENA, a town of E. Spain, in the province of Valencia; on the left bank of the river Magro, and on the railway from Valencia to Utiel. Pop. (1900) 16,236. The town was formerly a Moorish fortress, occupying a strong position in the mountainous region of Las Cabrillas (3400 ft). It is dominated by the ancient citadel of the Moors, and still has traces of the original town walls. There are three ancient parish churches; San Nicolas, the oldest, dates from the I3th century, but was partly restored in 1727. Near the town are the sulphurous springs of Fuentepodrida. The chief industries are the cultiva- tion of grain, fruit and saffron, and the manufacture of wine and silk. REQUESENS, LUIS DE ZUNIGA Y (? -1576), Spanish governor of the Netherlands, had the misfortune to succeed the duke of Alva (q.v.) and to govern amid hopeless difficulties under the direction of Philip II. His early career was that of a government official and diplomatist. In 1563 he gained the king's confidence as his representative at Rome. In 1568 he was appointed lieutenant-general to Don John of Austria during the suppression of the Morisco revolt in Granada, and he also accompanied Don John during the Lepanto campaign, his function being to watch and control his nominal commander- in-chief, whose excitable temperament was distrusted by the king. Philip must have been satisfied with Requesens, for he named him viceroy in Milan, a post usually given to a great noble. Requesens was only " a gentleman of cloak and sword " (caballero de capa y espada), though by the king's favour he was " grand commander " of the military order of Santiago in Castile. He was credited with having shown moderation at Milan, but it is certain that he came into sharp collision with the archbishop, Saint Charles Borromeo, who took up the cause of his flock. His docility rather than his capacity marked him out to succeed Alva. The king wished to pursue a more conciliatory policy, without, however, yielding any one of the points in dispute between himself and the revolted Netherlanders. Requesens came to Brussels on the I7th of November 1573, and till his death on the 5th of March 1576 was plunged into insuperable difficulties. With an empty treasury and unpaid mutinous troops, no faculty could have helped Requesens to succeed; and he was only an honest official who was worn out in trying to do the impossible. AUTHORITIES. — Documentor InMitos para la historia de Espana (Madrid, 1892); and Nueva Coleccion de documentos, vols. iv. and v. (Madrid). REQUEST, LETTERS OF. The legal terms "letters rogatory," or " of request " (commission rogatoire), express a request made by one judge for the assistance of another in serving a citation, taking the deposition of a witness, executing a judgment, or the performance of any other judicial act. The later law of Rome imposed a duty of mutual assistance on the courts of the Empire, and this was extended to the courts of different states when, and so far as, Roman law came to rule the modern world. Consequently, outside ecclesiastical law (see below), the only trace of such a practice to be found in England or the United States, independent of statutory enact- ! ment, is in the admiralty doctrine that the sentence of a foreign court of admiralty may be executed on letters of request from the foreign judge or on a libel by a party for its execution. See the authorities collected by Sir R. Phillimore in The City of Mecca, 5 P.D. 28. The need of assistance in taking the deposi- tions of witnesses outside their jurisdiction was long in being felt by the British and United States courts, because they issued commissions for that purpose to private persons, some- times to foreign judges in their private capacities. But an increasing sensitiveness as to the rights of sovereignty led to REQUESTS, COURT OF— RESEARCH 181 objection being taken to the execution of such commissions by persons who in that employment were officers of courts foreign to the countries in which they acted, besides which those com- missions could give no power to compel the attendance of witnesses abroad. Consequently both in the mother country and in the United States acts have been passed empowering the courts to issue commissions for taking evidence to colonial or foreign courts, and to execute such commissions when received by them from the courts of the colonies or of foreign countries. The British statutes are 13 Geo. III. c. 63; i Will. IV. c. 22; 3 & 4 Viet. c. 105, 6 & 7 Viet. c. 82, 22 Viet. c. 20 and 49 & 49 Viet. c. 74. But neither in England nor in the United States have commissions of the old kind been entirely disused. In the practice under the Anglo-American statutes, the leading rules are that all the acts of the judge whose services are required, and all things done before him, are governed by the law of the country in which the execution takes place (locus regit actum), while the admissibility of the evidence and all else which concerns the conduct of the action is governed by the law of the country in which it is pending (lex fori). Details may be seen for England and the United States in the usual books of practice, and in Wharton's Conflict of Laws (and ed., 1881), §§ 722-31, and Sir R. Phillimore's International Law (3rd ed., 1889), v. 4, §§ 882-85; f°r other countries in von Bar's Private International Law, translated by Guthrie (2nd ed., 1892), §§ 391) 392) 409, 410. In ecclesiastical law, letters of request are issued for the purpose of sending causes from one court to another. Where a diocesan court within a province has juris- diction over the parties concerned, the plaintiff may apply to the judge of such court for letters of request, in order that the cause may be instituted either in the court of arches or the chancery court of York, as the case may be. When the judge of the diocesan court consents to sign such letters and they have been accepted by the judge of the higher court, a decree issues under his seal, calling upon the defendant to answer to the plaintiff in the suit instituted against him. Letters of request are also issued for other purposes, being sometimes sent from one judge to another to request him to examine witnesses who are out of the jurisdiction of the former, but in that of the latter; to enforce a monition, &c. REQUESTS, COURT OF, a minor court of the king's council in England, under the presidency of the lord keeper of the privy seal. Its possible origin has been assigned to an order in council of 1390 directing the lords of the council to form a committee to examine the petitions of the humble people. Its jurisdiction was chiefly equitable, and owing to the small expenses of procedure it grew in popularity, especially for cases not of sufficient importance to bring into the court of chancery itself. Under Wolsey the court was fixed permanently at Whitehall. The judges of the court were styled masters of requests. In the reign of Queen Elizabeth there were two masters ordinary and two masters extraordinary. In James I.'s reign there were four masters ordinary. In Henry VIII.'s reign the judges of the court had ceased to be privy councillors, and towards the end of Elizabeth's reign the court incurred the hostility of the common law courts, as having neither a statutory nor prescriptive title to jurisdiction. Notwithstanding a decision in 1598 as to the illegality of its jurisdiction, and subsequent decisions to the same effect in the reigns of James I. and Charles I., it continued to flourish until the suppression of the Star Chamber in 1640 virtually put an end to it. Although it sat until 1642, and masters of requests were appointed even after the Restora- tion, it ceased to exercise judicial functions. There were also courts of requests or, as they were sometimes called, courts of conscience, established in London in the reign of Henry VIII. with jurisdiction in matters of debt under forty shillings. These courts were extended in the reigns of George I. and George II. to various places in England, but they were abolished by an act of 1846 (County Courts Act), which established in their place the tribunal of the county court (q.v.). REQUIEM, the name of a solemn mass for the dead (Missa pro defunctis) in the Roman Church, appointed to be sung on All Souls' Day, in memory of all " faithful departed," at funeral services, and at the anniversaries of the death of particular persons. The name is taken from the first words of the Introit, Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine. The term is specially applied to the musical setting of the mass. The most celebrated Requiem Masses are those of Palestrina, Mozart and Cherubini. The word has been also used of memorial services held in honour of a deceased person in churches other than the Roman. REREDOS (Anglo-Fr. areredos, from arere, behind, and dos, back), an ornamental screen of stone or wood built up, or forming a facing to the wall behind an altar in a church. Reredoses are frequently decorated with representations of the Passion, niches containing statues of saints, and the like. In England these were for the most part destroyed at the Reforma- tion or by the Puritans later; a few medieval examples, however, survive, e.g. at Christchurch, Hants. In some large cathedrals e.g. Winchester, Durham, St Albans, the reredos is a mass of splendid tabernacle work, reaching nearly to the groining. In small churches the reredos is usually replaced by a hanging or parament behind the altar, known as a dossal or dorsal. (See also ALTAR.) For the legality of images on reredoses in the Church of England, see IMAGE. The use of the word reredos for the iron or brick back of an open fire-place is all but obsolete. RESCHEN SCHEIDECK. This Alpine pass is in some sort the pendant of the Brenner Pass, but leads from the upper valley of the Inn or Engadine to the upper valley of the Adige. It is but 4902 ft. in height. Near the summit is the hamlet of Reschen, while some way below is the former hospice of St Valentin auf der Haid, mentioned as early as 1140. Start- ing from Landeck, the carriage road runs up the Inn valley to Pfunds, whence it mounts above the gorge of Finstermunz to the village of Nauders (27^ m.) where the road from the Swiss Engadine falls in (53$ m. from St Moritz). Thence the road mounts gently to the pass, and then descends, with the infant Adige, to Mais (15$ m.), whence the pass is sometimes wrongly named Malserheide. The road now descends the upper Adige valley, or Vintschgau, past Meran (37$ m.) to Botzen (20 m. from Meran, or 100 m. from Landeck) where the Brenner route is joined. (W. A. B. C.) RESCUE (in Middle Eng. rescous, from O. Fr. recousse, Low Lat. rescussa, from reexcussa, reexcutere, to shake off again, re, again, ex, off, quatere, to shake), the forcible setting at liberty of a person or thing. To constitute the legal offence of rescue, the person rescued must be in the custody of a constable or private individual, but in the latter case the rescuer must know that the prisoner is in lawful custody. The punishment for the offence is fine and imprisonment, with or without hard labour, if the party rescued has not been convicted of the offence for which he was in custody. But if the prisoner has been imprisoned on a charge of, or under sentence for, high treason, felony or misdemeanour, the rescue is high treason, felony or misdemeanour. The punishment for a felonious rescue may be penal servitude for not more than seven or less than three years, or imprisonment for not more than two years, with or without hard labour. The forcible rescue of goods legally distrained or the rescuing of cattle by pound breach are misdemeanours indictable at common law, but the more usual procedure is a civil action under 2 W. & M. c. 5, s. 3 (1690), which makes an offender liable for treble damages. RESEARCH (O. Fr. recerche, from recercher, re- and cercer, mod. chercher, to search; Late Lat. circare, to go round in a circle, to explore), the act of searching into a matter closely and carefully, inquiry directed to the discovery of truth, and in particular the trained scientific investigation of the principles and facts of any subject, based on original and first-hand study of authorities or experiment. Investigations of every kind which have been based on original sources of knowledge may be styled " research," and it may be said that without " research " no authoritative works have been written, no scientific discoveries or inventions made, no theories of any value propounded; but the word also has a somewhat restricted i82 RESENDE, ANDRE DE— RESHT meaning attached to it in current usage. It is applied more particularly to the investigations of those who devote them- selves to the study of pure as opposed to applied science, to the investigation of causes rather than to practical experiment; thus while every surgeon or physician who treats an individual case of cancer may add to our sum of knowledge of the disease, the body of trained investigators which is endowed by the Cancer Research Fund are working on different lines. Again, the practical engineers who are building aeroplanes, and those who are making practical tests by actual flight in those machines, cannot be called "researchers"; that term should be con- fined to the members, for example, of the scientific committee appointed by the British Government in 1909 to make investiga- tions regarding aerial construction and navigation. Further, the term is particularly used of a course of post-graduate study at a university, for which many universities have provided special Research Studentships or Fellowships. These act as endowments for a specific period, and are conditional on the holder devoting his time to the investigation at first hand of some specified subject. RESENDE, ANDRE DE (1498-1573), the father of archae- ology in Portugal, began life as a Dominican friar, but about 1540 passed over to the ranks of the secular clergy. He spent many years travelling in Spain, France and Belgium, where he corresponded with Erasmus and other learned men. He was also intimate with King John III. and his sons, and acted as tutor to the Infante D. Duarte. Resende enjoyed considerable fame in his lifetime, but modern writers have shown that he is neither accurate nor scrupulous. In Portuguese he wrote: (1) Historia da antiguidade da cidade de Ewra (ibid. 1553); (2) Vida do Infante D. Duarte .(Lisbon, 1789). His chief Latin work is the De Antiquitatibus Lusilaniae (Evora, 1593). See the " Life " of Resende in Farinha's Collecfao das antiguidades de Evora (1785), and a biographical-critical article by Rivara in the Revista Litteraria (Oporto, 1839), iii. 340-62; also Cleynarts, Latin Letters. (E. PR.) RESENDE, GARCIA DE (1470-1536), Portuguese poet and editor, was born at Evora, and began to serve John II. as a page at the age of ten, becoming his private secretary in 1491. He was present at his death at Alvor on the 25th of October 1495. He continued to enjoy the same favour with King Manoel, whom he accompanied to Castile in 1498, and from whom he obtained a knighthood of the Order of Christ. In 1514 Resende went to Rome with Tristao da Cunha, as secretary and treasurer of the famous embassy sent by the king to offer the tribute of the East at the feet of Pope Leo X. In 1516 he was given the rank of a nobleman of the royal household, and became escrivao de fazenda to Prince John, afterwards King John III., from whom he received further pensions in 1525. Resende built a chapel in the monastery of Espinheiro near Evora, the pantheon of the Alemtejo nobility, where he was buried. He began to cultivate the making of verses in the palace of John II., and he tells us how one night when the king was in bed he caused him (Resende) to repeat some " trovas " of Jorge Manrique, saying it was as needful for a man to know them as to know the Pater Noster. Under these conditions, Resende grew up no mean poet, and moreover distinguished himself by his skill in drawing and music; while he collected into an album the best court verse of the time. The Cancioneiro Geral, probably begun in 1483 though not printed until 1516, includes the com- positions of some three hundred fidalgos of the reigns of kings Alphonso V., John II. and Manoel. The main subjects of its pieces are love, satire and epigram, and most of them are written in the national redondilha v.erse, but the metre is irregular and the rhyming careless. The Spanish language is largely employed, because the literary progenitors of the whole collection were Juan de Mena, Jorge Manrique, Boscan and Garcilasso. As a rule the compositions were improvised at palace entertainments, at which the poets present divided into two bands, attacking and defending a given theme throughout successive evenings. At other times these poetical soirees took the form of a mock trial at law, in which the queen of John II. acted as judge. Resende was much twitted by other rhymesters on his corpulence, but he repaid all their gibes with interest. The artistic value of the Cancioneiro Geral is slight. Con- ventional in tone, the greater part are imitations of Spanish poets and show no trace of inspiration in their authors. The Cancioneiro is redeemed from complete insipidity by Resende himself, and his fine verses on the death of D. Ignez de Castro inspired the great episode in the Lusiads of Camoens ( hence c'd' will be larger the larger the angle x. The case, however, is not so clear with reference to the anterior portions of the internal intercostals which lie between the cartilages; for it is evident that these fibres have the same direction with regard to the sternum as an axis as the external intercostals have with regard to the vertebral column as an axis; that is to say, the geometrical diagram in fig. 10 applies to the inter-cartilaginous internal intercostals as perfectly as it does to the inter-osseous parts of the external intercostals, the inference being that the inter-cartilaginous internal intercostals tend to elevate the pair of ribs between which they stretch. The geometrical argument is, however, overborne by physio- logical experiment: Martin and Hart well have observed in the dog and the cat that the internal intercostals throughout their whole extent contract (not synchronously) but alternately with the diaphragm; hence we must conclude that their function throughout is not inspiratory like that of the diaphragm, but expiratory. The Movements of the Diaphragm. — The muscular fibres of the diaphragm are arranged in a radial manner, or, more strictly speaking, in a manner like the lines of longitude on a terrestrial globe. The central tendon of the diaphragm corresponds to the pole of such a globe. The contraction of the fibres is ex- pended on straightening the longitudinal curves rather than on pulling down the central tendon to a lower level; in fact, the central tendon moves very little in ordinary respiration. How the Expiratory Movements are Produced.— The action of inspiration disturbs many organs from the position of rest into which gravity and their own physical properties have thrown them. The ribs and sternum are raised from the position of lowest level; the elastic costal cartilages are twisted; the elastic lungs are put upon the stretch; the abdominal organs, themselves elastic, are compressed and thrust against the elastic walls of the belly, causing these to bulge outwards. In short the very act of inspiration stores up, as it were, in sundry ways the forces which make for expiration. As soon as the inspiratory muscles cease to act these .forces come into play, and the position of rest or equilibrium is regained. It is very doubtful whether any special expiratory muscles are called into action during ordinary respiration. The internal intercostals may in man be exercised in ordinary expiration (although they are certainly not so exercised in the dog and the cat); but in laboured expiration many muscles assist in the expulsive effort. The muscles forming the belly-walls contract and force the abdominal contents against the relaxed diaphragm in such a manner as to drive it farther and farther into the thorax. At the same time by their attachment to the lower edge of the PATHOLOGY] RESPIRATORY SYSTEM thorax these same muscles pull down the ribs and sternum. The M. triangularis sterni, which arises from the back or thoracic aspect of the sternum and lower costal cartilages and is inserted into the costal cartilages higher up, can obviously depress the ribs. So also can the M. serratus posticus inferior, which arises from the thick fascia of the loins and is inserted into the last four ribs. So also can the M. quadratus lumborum, which springs from the pelvis and is attached to the last rib. Indeed there is hardly a muscle of the body but may be called into play during extremely laboured respiration, either because it acts on the chest, or because it serves to steady some part and give a better purchase for the action of direct respiratory muscles. Certain Abnormal Forms of Respiration. Coughing. — There is first a deep inspiration followed by closure of the glottis. Then follows a violent expiratory effort which bursts open the glottis and drives the air out of the lungs in a blast which carries away any light irritating matter it may meet with. The act is commonly involuntary, but may be imitated exactly by a voluntary effort. Hawking, or Clearing the Throat. — In this act a current of air is driven from the lungs and forced through the narrow space between the root of the tongue and the depressed soft palate. This action can only be caused voluntarily. Sneezing. — There is first an inspiration which is often un- usually rapid; then follows a sudden expiration, and the blast is directed through the nose. The glottis remains open all the time. The act is generally involuntary, but may be more or less successfully imitated by a voluntary effort. Snoring is caused by unusually steady and prolonged inspira- tions and expirations through the open mouth, — the soft palate and uvula being set vibrating by the currents of air. Crying consists of short deep inspirations and prolonged expirations with the glottis partially closed. Long-continued crying leads to sobbing, in which sudden spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm cause sudden inspirations and inspiratory sounds generated in larynx and pharynx. Sighing is a sudden and prolonged inspiration following an unusually long pause after the last expiration. Laughing is caused by a series of short expiratory blasts which provoke a clear sound from the vocal chords kept tense for the purpose, and at the same time other inarticulate but very characteristic sounds from the vibrating structures of the larynx and pharynx. The face has a characteristic expression. This act is essentially involuntary, and often is beyond control; it can only be imitated very imperfectly. Yawning is a long deep inspiration followed by a shorter expiration, the mouth, fauces and glottis being kept open in a characteristic fashion. It is involuntary, but may be imitated. Hiccough is really an inspiration suddenly checked by closure of the glottis; the inspiration is due to a spasmodic contraction of the diaphragm. The closure of the glottis generally leads to a characteristic sound. (A. G.*) . (4) PATHOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM In the following article we have to give an account of the more important pathological processes which affect the lungs, pleurae and bronchial tubes. In the aetiology of pulmonary affections, the relations between the lungs and the external air, and also between them and the circulatory system, are im- portant. The lungs are, so to speak, placed between the right and left cavities of the heart, and the only way for the blood to pass from the right ventricle to the left side of the heart, except in cases of a patent foramen ovale or other congenital defect forming a communication between the two sides of the organ, is by passing through them. The result is that not only may they become diseased by foreign material carried into them by the blood, but any obstruction to the flow of blood through the left side of the heart tends sooner or later to engorge or con- gest them, and lead to further changes. Through the nose and mouth they are in direct connexion with the external atmo- sphere. Hence the variable condition of the air as regards temperature, degree of moisture, and density, is liable to produce directly various changes in the lungs, or to predispose them to disease; and the contamination of the air with various patho- genic germs and irritating particles in the shape of dust, is a direct source of many lung affections. Bronchitis, or inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes, has been generally attributed to exposure to atmospheric changes. It occurs with great frequence in the extremes of life, and it is in early childhood and in old age that it is more liable to be fatal. Bronchitis may often follow exposure to cold, but that low temperature in itself is not sufficient to cause it is shown by the fact that the crews of arctic expeditions have been singularly free from diseases usually attributed to cold, but on their return to moist germ-laden atmospheres have at once been affected. Children reared in heated rooms with lack of ventilation are peculiarly susceptible to attacks on the slightest change of temperature. Bronchitis is also frequently caused by cardiac and renal diseases, and by the extension of inflammatory diseases of the upper air passages (as rhinitis, laryngitis or pharyngitis), while blockage of the nasal passages by adenoid or other growths may, by causing persistent mouth-breathing, lead to bronchial infection. Before the bacterial origin of disease was understood, bronchitis was attributed solely to what is termed " catching cold, " and the exact relation of the chill to the bacterial infection is still unknown. It is probable that the chilling of the surface of the body by exposure causes congestion of the mucous membrane, the presence of a virulent micro-organism being then all that is required to produce bronchitis. It is generally accepted that in persons living in the pure air of the country the small bronchi and air-cells are sterile (Barthel in the Zentralblatt ftir Bakterio- logie, vol. xxiv.). Bacteria are arrested on their way by the leucocytes of the nasal mucous membrane and by the vibration of the ciliated epithelium of the upper air passages. The mucous membrane of the upper bronchi is, however, tenanted by various micro-organisms such as the diplo-bacillus of Friedlander, bacillus coli communis, micrococcus tetragenus, &c., and it is considered by William Ewart that these organisms may in certain conditions of their host become virulent. " Specific " bronchitis occurs in the course of a specific infective disease (e.g. influenza, measles or whooping cough) and is due to the specific micro-organism gaining access by the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract. Cases have been known in which the diphtheria bacillus has been so localized. In glanders, small-pox, syphilis and pemphigus, the infective micro-organism is carried to the bronchi by the blood stream. In common or " non- specific" bronchitis, streptococci, pneumococci and staphylococci are found in the sputum together with Friedlander's bacillus and the bacillus coli communis. Microscopically the bronchi show hyperaemia of the mucous and submucous coats, and the whole wall becomes infiltrated with polymorphonuclear leucocytes and round cells. Many cells undergo mucoid de- generation, and there is abundant epithelial proliferation. A large quantity of mucus is secreted by the glands, and the lumen of the bronchi contains an exudate consisting of mucus, degenerated leucocytes and cast-off epithelial cells. In the rare form of bronchitis known as fibrinous or plastic bronchitis a membranous exudate is formed which forms casts of the bronchi, which may be coughed up. The casts vary from an inch to six or seven inches in length, with branches corre- sponding to the divisions of the bronchi from which they come. The cast consists of mucus and fibrin in varying proportions. The exact pathology of this variety is still undetermined. Bronchitis may affect the whole bronchial tract, or more especially the larger or the smaller tubes. It may occur as an acute or as a chronic affection. In the acute form the inflamma- tion may remain limited to the bronchial tubes and gradually subside, or it may lead to inflammation of the surrounding lung tissue, giving rise to disseminated foci of inflammation of greater or less extent throughout the lungs (catarrhal or broncho- pneumonia). This is a common complication of bronchitis, especially where the smaller tubes are affected, and is more 196 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM [PATHOLOGY frequently seen in children than adults. In cases of chronic bronchitis the affection, as a rule, begins as a slight ailment during the winter, and recurs in succeeding winters. The intervals of freedom from the trouble get shorter, and in the course of a few years it persists during the summer as well as the winter months. A condition of chronic bronchitis is thus established. The persistent cough which this occasions is one of the chief causes of the development of the condition of emphysema, where there is a permanent enlargement of the air-cells of the lungs with an atrophy of the walls of the air vesicles. The emphysema occasions an increase in the shortness of breath from which the person had previously suffered, and later, in consequence of the greater difficulty with which the blood circulates through the emphysematous lungs, the right side of the heart becomes dilated, and from that we have the development of a general dropsy of the subcutaneous tissues, and less and less perfect aeration of the blood. The death rate from bronchitis in England and Wales during 1908 was: males 1102, females 1083 per million living. The death rate for the five years 1901-1905 was 1237 per million for all sexes. The death rate for the twenty years 1888-1908 con- sistently showed a slight decline. Diseases of Occupations. — We all inhale a considerable amount of carbonaceous and other foreign particles, which in health are partly got rid of by the action of the ciliated cells lining the bronchial tubes, and are partly absorbed by cells in the wall of the tubes, and carried in the lymph channels to the bronchial lymphatic glands, where they are deposited, and cause a more or less marked pigmentation of the tissues. Part of such pig- ment is also deposited in the walls of the bronchial tubes and the interstitial tissue of the lungs, giving rise to the grey appearance presented by the lungs of all adults who live in large cities. In certain dusty occupations, such as those of stone masons, knife-grinders, colliers, &c., the foreign particles inhaled cause trouble. The most common affection so produced is chronic bronchitis, to which becomes added emphysema. In some cases not only is bronchitis developed, but the foreign particles lead to an increase of the fibrous tissue round the bronchi and in the interstitial tissue of the lungs, and so to a greater or lesser extent of fibroid consolidation. As this fibrous tissue may later under- go'softening and cavities be formed, a form of consumption is produced, which is named according to the particular occupation giving rise to it; e.g. stonemasons' phthisis, knife-grinders' phthisis, colliers' phthisis. It should, however, be pointed out that these dusty occupations are probably not so frequently the cause as was at one time taught of these simple inflammatory fibroid changes in the lungs with their subsequent cavity for- mation; individuals engaged in such occupations are apt to suffer from a chronic tuberculosis of the lung associated with the formation of much fibrous tissue, and the occupation simply predisposes the lung to the attacks of the tubercle bacillus. The term pneumonia is frequently used of different forms of inflammation of the lungs, and includes affections which run different clinical courses, present diverse appear- ances after death, and probably have different excit- ing causes. It would be better if the term acute pneumonia or pneumonic fever were reserved for that form of acute inflammation of the lungs which is usually characterized by sudden onset, and runs an acute, course, which terminates generally by crisis from the fifth to the tenth day, the inflam- mation leading to the consolidation by fibrinous effusion of the greater part or whole of one lobe of a lung. Acute pneu- monia usually occurs in a sporadic form, and is most prevalent in the United Kingdom from November to March. Occasion- ally it is epidemic, and there is evidence to show that sometimes it is an infective disease. There is great difficulty, however, in being quite certain that the occurrence of the disease in those who have been attending upon or brought into intimate connexion with sufferers from pneumonia is the result of infection, for such cases may be due to an epidemic of the disease, or to the various individuals attacked having been exposed to the same cause. Formerly acute croupous or lobar pneumonia was thought to be due to "catching cold"; we now know it to be an infectious disease resultant on the invasion of one or more specific micro-organisms. The chief micro-organisms which have been found to be present during an attack of acute pneu- monia are the micrococcus lanceolatus or pneumococcus of Frankel and Weichselbaum, which is found in the inflamed lung in a large majority of cases and is capable of produc- ing pneumonia when inoculated into guinea-pigs. Sternberg demonstrated the presence of the pneumococcus in the saliva of healthy individuals; it tends, however, in this case to vary in form. The micro-organism differs in virulence in given strains; thus one epidemic may be more severe than another; and it tends to increase in virulence in its passage through the human subject. The exact conditions necessary for the production of increased virulence in the organism causing an attack of lobar pneumonia are not yet determined, but are usually ascribed to lowered states of the health and to atmo- spheric conditions. The pneumococcus produces in the human organism an intracellular toxin, but the question as to whether it can also produce a soluble toxin in the living body is still debated. The difficulty of obtaining sufficient quantities of the toxins of this organism has prevented the production of antisera of high potency. In lower animals, less potent sera have proved successful in protecting against a fatal dose of pneumococci. The change effected by the administration of a serum is produced by causing a change in the pneumococci, which causes them to be more easily destroyed by the phagocytes. The element which brings about this change is termed an opsonin; see BLOOD and BACTERIOLOGY (ii). The bacillus pneumoniae of Friedlander is also said to be found in a certain percentage of cases, but a number of observers deny its presence in pure culture in primary croupous pneumonia. Unlike many acute diseases, pneumonia does not render a person less liable to future attacks; on the contrary, those who have been once attacked must be looked upon as more prone to be affected again. Acute pneumonia usually attacks the whole or greater part of one lobe of one lung, but more than one lobe may be affected, or both lungs may be involved. The disease produces a solid and airless condition of the affected part owing to a fibrinous exudation taking place into the air- cells and smaller bronchial passages. In favourable cases the exudation is partly absorbed and partly expectorated, and the lung returns to its normal healthy condition; in others, death may ensue from the extent of lung affected, or from the spread of the inflammation to other parts, as for instance the pericardium or meninges of the brain. In such cases it is interesting to note that the same micro-organism has been found in the inflammatory exudation in the pericardium or on the meninges as in the pneumonic lung; probably the organism had been absorbed from the lung, and was the cause of the secondary inflammations. In cases of death from uncom- plicated pneumonia a very variable extent of lung is involved. In some cases this result may be ascribed to the weakness of the individual and especially of the heart, but in others the virulence of the micro-organisms and the toxins which they have produced is probably the more correct explanation. The improvement in a patient suffering from pneumonia usually commences suddenly, with a rapid fall in the temperature. The day on which this " crisis" takes place varies, but most commonly it appears to be the seventh from the initial rigor (22 % of the cases, Jiirgensen). It may, however, occur a few days earlier or later, being observed in about 74% between the fifth and the ninth day of the disease (Jiirgensen).. The disease occasionally ends in the formation of an abscess, in gangrene, or in fibroid induration of the lung, but these ter- minations are rare. The death rate of acute pneumonia for England and Wales in 1908 was 1383 per million living of the population. Broncho-pneumonia. — It is usual to recognize a form of inflam- mation of the lungs which differs from the above lobar pneumonia. PATHOLOGY] RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 197 and in which small patches of consolidation are usually scattered throughout the lower lobes of both lungs. This broncho- or catarrhal1 pneumonia is usually preceded by an attack of bronchitis, to which it bears an intimate relation. In some cases the small foci of inflammation may run together so as to affect the greater part of a lobe of a lung, and the distinction between such a form of broncho-pneumonia and lobar pneumonia presents such diffi- culties in the view of some observers, that they have refused to recognize any essential difference between the two. Usually, however, it is not difficult to distinguish the two affections both clinically and anatomically. Broncho-pneumonia is especially seen as a complication of bronchitis, and while it more frequently attacks children than young adults, it is not uncommon in old people, especially secondary to bronchitis. It is frequent in children after acute infectious fevers, especially measles and diphtheria, and in cases of whooping-cough. It differs from the above-mentioned pneumonia in that it does not usually attack the whole of a lobe of a lung, but occurs in small disseminated patches more especially throughout the lower lobe of both lungs. The accompanying fever is more irregular than in the preceding form, and the disease usually runs a more prolonged course. It is an extremely fatal affection in both the very young and old. Young persons who have suffered from it are not unfrequently attacked by pulmonary tuberculosis subsequently. It must be admitted that we are even less certain of its bacteriology than we are of that of lobar pneu- monia. In some cases Frankel's pneumococcus is found, and in others various other micro-organisms. Many of the latter are doubtless saprophytic, and are not the essential cause of the disease, but it is not probable that any one particular form of organism accounts for all forms of broncho-pneumonia. The bacteriology of broncho-pneumonia presents no one micro-organism which can be definitely said to cause the disease. The micro-organism most frequently found, either alone or associated with other bacteria, is the pneumococcus, which occurred in 67% of a series investigated by Wollstein. Other organisms found are the streptococcus, particularly in broncho- pneumonia following infectious fevers, the staphylococcus aureus and albus, and Friedlander's bacillus. In some cases the bacillus influenzae alone has been found, and the Klebs- Loffler bacillus in cases following upon diphtheria. When the disease is associated with pulmonary tuberculosis the tubercle bacillus is found. The tuberculous virus, the tubercle bacilli, may gain entrance to the lungs through the inspired air or by means of the blood or lymph currents. Also in some cases it has been demonstrated that tubercle bacilli may infect the glands of the mesentery following the ingestion of the milk of tuberculous cattle. In this the Government Com- missions of Great Britain and Germany as well as the United States Bureau of Animal Industry confirm the findings of private investigators. It may be well here to summarize the views generally held as to infection. In the first place, the doctrine of inherited disease is discredited, and the doctrine of specific susceptibility is in doubt. Infants are known to be extremely susceptible, and this susceptibility lessens with increasing age, adults requiring prolonged exposure. As a mode of infection the sputum of diseased persons is of great importance. Infected food, especially milk, comes next, together with food infected by flies; and the mother's milk is a minor source. Infection is not often received through the skin, but most frequently through the mucous membrane of the mouth, air passages and intestine; occasionally the infection is alveolar. Pulmonary tuberculosis is often second- ary to a latent lymphatic form. The tubercle bacillus was discovered by Koch in 1882, and since then it has become generally accepted that the bacillus varies in type. The bacilli have been classified by A. G. Foullerton into (a) occur- ring in fishes and cold-blooded animals, (6) in birds, (c) in rats, (d) in cattle, (e) in man. Exactly how far they 1 The term catarrhal pneumonia has been usually regarded as synonymous with the term broncho-pneumonia, and this usual nomenclature has been maintained in the present article. We must, however, recognize that all simple acute broncho-pneumonias are not purely catarrhal in the strict pathological sense. For instance, a considerable amount of fibrinous exudation is not unfrequently present in the patches of broncho-pneumonia, and some of the cases of septic broncho-pneumonia can scarcely be accurately termed catarrhal. are interchangeable and can affect the human race is not definitely settled. They may be different varieties of the same species caused by differentiated strains of a common stock, or may be distinct but generically allied species. Von Behring considers that the bovine type may undergo modifica- tion in the human body, a theory which may lead to a complete change in our beb'efs in the mode of entry of the bacillus. Re- cent investigators have put forward the view that the tubercle bacillus is not a bacterium, but belongs to the higher group known as streptotricheae or mould fungi. The action of the tubercle bacillus upon the tissues, like most other infectious agents, gives rise to inflammatory pro- cesses and anatomical changes, varying with the mode of entry and virulence of the micro-organism. The most character- istic result is the formation throughout the lungs in the form of small scattered foci forming the so-called miliary tubercles. Such miliary tuberculosis of the lungs is frequently only a part of a general tuberculosis, a similar tuberculous affection being found in other organs of the body. In other cases the lungs may be the only or the principal seat of the affection. The source whence the tuberculous virus is derived varies in different cases. Old tubercular glands in the abdomen, neck and elsewhere, and tuberculous disease of bones or joints, are common sources whence tubercule bacilli may become ab- sorbed, and occasion a general dissemination of miliary tubercles in which the lungs participate. Where the source of infection is an old tuberculous bronchial gland or a focus' of old tubercle in the lung, the pulmonary organs may be the only seat of the development of miliary tuberculosis for a time; but even then, if life is sufficiently prolonged, other parts of the body become- involved. Acute miliary tuberculosis of the lungs is not infrequently a final stage in the more chronic tuberculous lesions of the different forms of pulmonary phthisis. In pulmonary phthisis, or consumption, the disease usually commences at the apex of one lung, but runs a very variable course. In a large majority of cases it remains confined to one small focus, and not only does not spread, but undergoes retrograde changes and becomes arrested. In such cases fibrous tissue develops round the focus of disease and the tuberculous patch dries up, often becoming the seat of the deposit of calcareous salts. This arrest of small tuberculous foci in the lung is doubtless of very frequent occurrence, and in post mortem examinations of persons who have died from injuries or various diseases other than tubercle it is common to find in the lungs arrested foci of tubercle, which in the majority of instances have never been suspected during life, and probably have occasioned few, if any, symptoms. It has been shown that in more than 37% of persons, over 21 years of age, dying in a general hospital of various diseases, there is evidence of arrested tubercle in the lungs. As such persons are chiefly drawn from the poorer classes, among whom tubercle is more common than among the well-to-do, this high percentage may not be an accurate indication of the frequency with which pulmonary tubercle does become arrested. It does, however, show that the arrest and the healing of tuberculosis of the lungs is by no means unfrequent, and that it occurs among those who are not only prone to become infected, but whose circumstances are least favourable to the arrest of the disease. These facts indicate that the human organism does offer a resistance to the growth of the tubercle bacilli. A focus of pulmonary tubercle may become arrested for a time and then resume activity. In many cases it is difficult to say why this is so, but often it is clearly associated with a lowering in the general health of the individual. It can- not be too strongly insisted that the arrest of a tuberculous focus in the lung is a slow process and requires a long time. Commonly a person in the early stage of phthisis goes away to a health resort, and in the course of a few weeks or months improves so much that he returns to a densely populated town and resumes his former employment. In a short time the disease shows renewed activity, because the improved 198 RESPIRATORY SYSTEM [PATHOLOGY conditions were not maintained long enough to ensure the com- plete arrest of the disease. Instead of the tuberculous focus becoming arrested, it may continue to spread. The original focus and the secondary ones are at first patches of consolidated lung. Later, their central parts soften and burst into a bronchus; then the softened portion is coughed up, and a small cavity is left, which tends gradually to increase in size by peripheric ex- tension and by merging with other cavities. This process is repeated again and again, and sooner or later the other lung becomes similarly affected. At any stage of the softening process the blood vessels may become involved and give rise by rupture to a large or a small haemorrhage (haemoptysis). It not unfrequently happens that such haemoptysis may be the first symptom that seriously attracts attention. At a later period haemorrhage frequently takes place in large or small amounts from the rupture of vessels, which frequently are dilated and form small aneurysms in the walls of cavities. A fatal termination may be hastened by the absorption by means of the blood vessels and lymphatics of the tuberculous virus from some of the foci of disease, and the occurrence therefrom of a local miliary tuberculosis of the lungs or a general tuberculosis of other organs. The rapidity with which the destructive process spreads throughout the lung varies con- siderably. We therefore recognize acute phthisis, or galloping consumption, and chronic phthisis. In the acute cases the soften- ing progresses rapidly and is associated with the development of very little fibrous tissue; probably various forms of micro- organisms other than the tubercle bacilli assist in the rapid softening. In the more chronic cases there is development of much fibroid tissue, and the disease is associated with periods of temporary arrest of the tubercular process. The expectoration from cases of pulmonary phthisis contains tubercle bacilli, and is a source of danger to healthy individuals, in whom it may produce the disease. Attendance on persons suffering from pulmonary phthisis involves very little risk of infection if proper care is taken to prevent the expectoration be- coming dry and disseminated as dust; perfect cleanliness is there- fore to be insisted upon in the rooms inhabited by a phthisical person. The tubercle bacilli soon lose their virulence in the presence of fresh air and sunshine, and therefore these agents are not only desirable for the direct benefit of the phthisical patient, but also are agents in preventing the development of fresh disease in healthy individuals. Although the tubercle bacilli are the essential agents in the development of pulmonary tuberculosis, there are other conditions which must be present before they will produce the disease. It is probable that large numbers of individuals are exposed to the action of tubercle bacilli which gain entrance to the pulmonary tract, and yet do not give rise to the disease, because the conditions of their growth and multiplication do not exist. In such cases we may consider that the seed is present, but that the soil is unsuit- able for its growth. Certain families appear more predisposed to tuberculosis than others. The most important circulatory disturbances met with in the lungs are those seen in cases of dilated heart, with or with- out disease of the mitral valve, when engorgement gesiioa. °f t'ie pulmonary vessels sets up a condition of venous engorgement of the lungs. This may lead to various changes. After it has lasted a variable time, and if it is very intense, serous transudation occurs into the substance of the lung and the alveoli, and thus a condition of pulmonary dropsy or oedema is established. The venous engorgement also pre- disposes the subjects of such heart affections to bronchitis and pneumonia. In disease of the mitral valve, in cardiac dilatation and in simple feebleness of the heart, such as is seen in old age and after debilitating fevers, especially typhoid, there is commonly developed a venous congestion of the bases of the lungs, forming the so-called hypostatic congestion of those organs, and to this is frequently added pneumonia. In long-standing cases of pulmonary congestion brought about by disease of the mitral valve and dilatation of the heart, a certain amount of fibrous tissue may be found in the inter- stitial tissue of the lungs, and from transudation of certain elements of the blood we get the formation in the newly formed fibrous tissue of blood pigment. In these cases blood pigment is found in the cells, in the pulmonary alveoli, and such cells also carry the pigment into the interstitial tissue. This con- dition constitutes the state known as brown induration of the lungs. Acute congestion of the lungs occurs as part of the first stage of pneumonia. It also probably exists during violent exertion, and may possibly be brought about by excitement. Another circulatory disturbance of great importance is that arising from blocking of the pulmonary artery or its branches by an embolus or a thrombus. Where the Embolita, obstruction takes place in the main vessel, death aaa rapidly ensues. Where, however, a small branch of Tbrom- the vessel is occluded, as frequently occurs from a bo*'*- coagulum forming in the right side of the heart, or in the pulmonary vessels in cases of disease of the mitral valve, or in dilatation of the heart, or from the detachment of a small vegetation from disease of the tricuspid or pulmonary valves, a haemorrhagic exudation takes place, forming a patch of consolidation in the lung (haemorrhagic infarcl). As this haemorrhagic exudation takes place not only into the substance of the lung, but also into the bronchial tubes, such lesions are usually associated with spitting of blood (haemop- tysis). The increased tension produced in the pulmonary vessels in cases of mitral disease may also probably lead to the formation of haemorrhagic exudations into the lungs, apart from the occurrence of embolism or thrombosis. Usually the occurrence of pulmonary embolism and the formation of haemorrhagic infarcts in the lungs mark an important epoch in the course of a case of heart disease. It usually occurs at a late stage of the affection, and not unfrequently contri- butes materially to a fatal termination. It is probable that many of the cases of pneumonia and pleuritic effusion, coming on in cases of valvular heart disease and of cardiac dilatation, owe their origin to an embolus and to the formation of a haemor- rhagic infarct. The term asthma is commonly applied to a paroxysmal dyspnoea of a special type which is associated with a variety of conditions. In true spasmodic asthma there may be no detectable organic disease, and the par- oxysms are generally believed to be due to a nervous influence which, acting upon the bronchial muscles, produces a spasm of the tubes, or, acting through the vaso-motor branches of the sympathetic, produces a congestion of the bronchial mucous membrane. The most probable theory is that lately advanced, that it is caused by a profound toxaemia. An organism has been isolated, which is said to be the cause of certain cases of asthma, and the fact that benefit has been said to follow treatment by a vaccine is in favour of this view. The exciting cause may not be at all apparent, even on the most careful obser- vation and examination of the sufferer, but in other cases the attacks may be brought about by some reflex irritation. Nasal polypi and other diseases of nasal mucous membrane have been shown in some cases to be a cause of asthma. Irritation of the bronchial mucous membrane appears to be one of the most common, but it is usually difficult to say exactly in what the irritation consists. The sputum in true asthma is typical, consisting of white translucent pellets like boiled tapioca. These pellets consist of mucus arranged in a twisted manner and known as Cursch- mann spirals; they also contain Charcot-Leyden crystals, degenerated epithelium and leucocytes, of which the majority are eosinophiles. The spirals consist of a central solid thread round which the mucus is arranged in spiral form. The twisting has been attributed to a rotatory motion of the cilia, helped by the spasm of the, bronchial muscles. Allied to true asthma is the bronchial asthma frequently met with in the subjects of bronchitis and emphysema. In such cases the irritation evi- dently proceeds from the inflamed bronchial mucous membrane. Hay asthma is the variety in which the pollen of certain plants, especially grasses, is the exciting cause of the paroxysms. In cardiac feebleness, in valvular disease of the heart, and in cardiac dilatation, we may get dyspnoeic attacks of a more or less SURGERY] RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 199 paroxysmal nature, to which the term cardiac asthma has been applied. Similarly, to a form of dyspnoea met with occasionally as a manifestation of uraemia in chronic Bright's disease the term of renal asthma has been given. Pleurisy, or inflammation of the pleura, is a very common affection, and is met with under different forms. In many _. rf instances we have simply the pouring out, over a greater or less area of the surface of the pleura, of a fibrinous exudation which may become absorbed or undergo organisation, a certain amount of thickening of the pleura, and adhesions of the two layers resulting. Such cases form the group known as cases of dry pleurisy. In other instances a greater or lesser amount of serous exudation takes place into one or other pleural cavity, forming the cases of serous pleuritic effusion. In others the exudation into the pleural cavity is purulent, giving rise to the condition known as empyema or purulent pleuritic effusion. The occurrence of dry pleurisy is probably very frequent, and leads to small pleural adhesions which cause little or no inconvenience. In post-mortem examinations of persons who have died from various diseases it is common to find such pleural adhesions present, although they have never been suspected during life. Pleurisy in one or other of the above forms may come on in a person apparently in good health (idiopathic pleurisy), or it may follow a fracture of the ribs or other injury to the chest. It is not uncommonly secondary to some other disease; thus it is almost a constant accompaniment of acute lobar pneumonia. In such cases the effusion is most commonly a simple fibrinous one, which with the subsidence of the primary disease is in great part absorbed. In other cases of pneumonia we get a certain amount of serous effusion into the pleura; and some- times, especially in children, the pneumonia is followed by the development of an empyema. Pleurisy with effusion is also frequently a complication of valvular heart disease and dilatation of the heart, and in such cases is often associated with the forma- tion of superficial pulmonary infarcts. It is also seen in many other diseases of the lungs. For instance, in chronic pulmonary phthisis pleuritic adhesions over various parts of the lungs are the rule; and we also frequently get serous effusion into the pleura as a complication of the various forms of pulmonary tuberculosis. Purulent effusion is less common in phthisis, but it is the rule where the pleura is perforated by the necrosis of a tuberculous focus in the lung and the establishment of a communication between the pleura and a tuberculous cavity and the bronchial tubes (pyopneumonothorax) , a combination in which there is both air and pus in the pleural cavity. Secondary pleurisy is also seen in an extension of the disease from neigh- bouring parts, as from peritonitis, sub-diaphragmatic abscess, and suppuration in the liver or spleen. As a secondary disease, pleurisy is also known in the course of various forms of nephritis, rheumatism, and the acute specific diseases. Cases formerly classed as idiopathic pleurisy are now known to be caused by certain micro-organisms. These vary in rela- tion to the character of the effusion. The most frequent is the tubercle bacillus, which is generally present in sero-fibrinous effusions. In this case the pleurisy is really secondary to a possibly unrecognized tuberculous infection either of the lung or pleura. In purulent effusions the pneumococcus may occur as a pure infection, or the streptococcus pyogenes or the staphy- lococcus may be present. Mixed infections occur in 21% of purulent effusions, and varieties of other organisms, such as the influenza bacillus, the typhoid bacillus, the Klebs-Loffler bacillus and the colon bacillus, have been occasionally found. There are at least five types of pulmonary emphysema; (1) hypertrophic, idiopathic or large-lunged emphysema; (2) senile or small-lunged emphysema; (3) compensatory emphysema; (4) acute vesicular emphysema; (5) interstitial or interlobular emphysema. Two points are usually admitted: that emphysema appears only in lungs that are congenitally weak, and that the exciting cause is increased intra vesicular tension. When one or more lobules are cut off from the working part of the lung the neighbouring vesicles become distended. Should the plugging of the lobule remain permanent, typical emphysema results. This happens in illnesses inducing violent respiratory efforts, such as chronic bronchitis, whooping cough and asthma. In large-lunged emphysema the lung is excessively large, and does not collapse on opening the chest wall. Micro- scopically two lesions are notable. The septa between the vesicles are atrophied, many have disappeared and the vesicles have coalesced; the loss in lung tissue diminishes the vascular field of the lung and tends to imperfect aeration, whence the dyspnoea. The elastic tissue of the lung is also lost. In small- lunged emphysema there is a condition of senile atrophy. The lung is smaller than normal, and the intravesicular septa are destroyed. In this case the primary cause is atrophy of the bronchi, and increased air pressure is not a factor. Com- pensatory emphysema is that which develops in a portion of a lung in which the other portion is the seat of a lesion, such as pneumonia. Occasionally it is merely physiological, but some- times here too the septa undergo atrophic changes. Acute vesicular emphysema is hardly a pathological variety, and is really rapid distension coming on during an attack of asthma or angina pectoris. The variety is temporary only. Interstitial emphysema is characterized by the presence of air in the inter- stitial connective tissue of the lung. It is usually due to rupture of the air vesicles during paroxysms of coughing. (T. H.*; H. L. H.) (5) SURGERY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM About the middle of the loth century, Manuel Garcia demon- strated the working of the vocal cords in the living subject, by placing a flat mirror of about the size of a shilling at the back of the mouth, and throwing strong light on to it from a concave mirror fixed upon the observer's forehead. By the use of a laryngoscope and a cocaine spray the most irritable throat can now be made tolerant of the presence of the small mirror, and thus the medical man is enabled to make a prolonged and thorough examination of the interior of the larynx and even to perform delicate operations upon it. Foreign bodies which have become caught in the larynx can thus be seen and extracted, and small growths can be satisfactorily removed even from the vocal cords themselves. A foreign body in the air-passages may be impacted above the vocal cords, and the prompt thrusting down of a finger may dislodge it and save the person from death by suffocation. If there is doubt as to the site of the impaction, and the symptoms are urgent (as is likely to be the case) immediate laryngotomy should be done. In this operation a tube is introduced through the crevice which can easily be felt in the middle line of the neck, between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. The procedure is easily and quickly accomplished. It is, moreover, of ten resorted to when the surgeon is about to perform some extensive opera- tion in the mouth which must needs be accompanied by free haemorrhage. Laryngotomy having been done, and the pharynx having been plugged with gauze, the air passages can be kept free of blood during the whole operation. If the foreign body be such a thing as a button, cherry-stone, sugar-plum or coin, it may at once set up alarming symptoms of spasmodic suffocation. But when the first alarm has quieted down, the attacks are likely to be only occasional, as when the article, drawn up with the expired air, comes in contact with the under aspect of the vocal cords. It may be that in a violent fit of coughing it will be expelled, but, if not, the surgeon must be at hand ready to perform tracheotomy when the urgency of the symptoms demands it. Tracheotomy is the making of an opening into the trachea, the air-tube below the larynx. It is unsafe to leave a child with a foreign body loose in its windpipe, on account of the risk of sudden and fatal asphyxia. Possibly the X-rays may show its exact position and give help in its removal. But, in any case, the safest thing will be to perform tracheotomy and to leave the edges of the opening into the windpipe wide asunder, so that the object may be coughed out — the nurse being on guard all the while. The operation of tracheotomy is sometimes urgently called for in the case in 200 RESPITE— RESTOUT which the air-way has become blocked by a child having sucked hot water from the spout of a kettle or teapot, or in the case of obstruction by the swelling of the acute inflammation of laryngitis or of diphtheria. Should the air-way through the larynx become narrowed by the presence of a growth which does not diminish under the influence of iodide of potassium, the question may arise as to whether it should be dealt with by splitting the thyroid cartilage and holding the wings apart, or by the removal of the whole larynx. For such growths are often malignant. If the wide infection of the lymphatic glands of the neck suggests that no radical operation should be undertaken, a bent silver tube may be introduced below the growth (trache- otomy) in order to provide for the entrance of air. This will get over the difficulty of breathing, but it cannot, of course, do more than that. Acute laryngitis is very often due to diphtheria. The symptoms are those of laryngeal obstruction, together with constitutional disturbances of various kinds. The old-fashioned nurse called the disease " croup " — a term devoid of scientific meaning (see DIPHTHERIA). In an ordinary catarrhal case, leeches and fomentations may suffice, though sometimes tracheotomy or intubation is called for. But if bacteriological examination shows the presence of diphtheritic bacilli, antitoxin must at once be injected. (See also LUNG.) (E.G.*) RESPITE (O. Fr. rcspit, modern repit, Lat. respectus, regard, consideration, respicere, to look back at), properly a delay, given for the further consideration of some matter, hence relief. In law the term is used of the postponement of the immediate execution of the law in criminal cases, e.g. by binding a con- victed prisoner over to come up for judgment when called upon, or when a case is "respited" from one quarter sessions to another. The word is loosely used in the sense of a " reprieve " (?.».). RESPOND, in architecture, the term given to the half-pier or semi-detached column at the end of a range of piers or columns carrying an architrave or arcade. In Greek temples the respond is known as the anta. The term is also given to the wall pilaster which in Roman and Renaissance work is frequently placed behind the detached columns forming the decoration of a wall. RESPONDENT (from Lat. respondere, to answer), strictly, one who answers; in law one called upon to answer a petition or other proceeding. In a matrimonial cause the defendant in the suit is called the respondent. The defendant to a quarter sessions appeal is called the respondent, and so generally in appeals is the party, whether plaintiff or defendant, against whom the appeal is brought. REST (O. Eng. rast, reste, bed, cognate with other Teutonic forms, e.g. Ger. Rast, Ruste, rest, and probably Gothic Rasta, league, i.e. resting or stopping place), a cessation from active or regular work, hence a time of relief from mental or manual labour. Specific meanings are for an interval of silence in music, marked by a sign indicating the length of the pause; for the forked support with iron-shod spike carried by the soldier till the end of the i7th century as a rest for the heavy musket; and for the support for the cue in billiards to be used when the striking ball is out of reach of the natural rest formed by the hand. In the medieval armour of the horsed man-at-arms, and later in the armour of the tournament, a contrivance was fixed to the side of the body-armour near the right arm-pit, in which the butt-end of the lance was placed to prevent the lance being driven back after striking the opponent at full charge; hence a knight, as a preliminary to the charge, " laid his lance in rest." This " rest" is a shortened form of " arrest," to check, stop, as is seen by the French equivalent, anil. Further, " rest," that which remains over and above, is derived from the' French rester, to remain over, Lat. restare, to remain, literally, to stay behind. The principal specific use of this word is in com- merce for the balance of undivided profit; it has thus always been the term used by the Bank of England for that which in other banks and companies is called the " reserve " (Hartley Withers, The Meaning of Money (1909), p. 298). The Bank of England " rest " is never allowed to fall below £3,000,000 (see BANKS AND BANKING). RESTIF, NICOLAS EDME (1734-1806), called RESTIF DE LA BRETONNE, French novelist, son of a farmer, was born at Sacy (Yonne) on the 23rd of October 1734. He was educated by the Jansenists at Bicetre, and on the expulsion of the Jansenists was received by one of his brothers, who was a cure. Owing to a scandal in which he was involved, he was apprenticed to a printer at Auxerre, and, having served his time, went to Paris. Here he worked as a journeyman printer, and in 1 760 he married Anne or Agnes Lebegue, a relation of his former master at Auxerre. It was not until five or six years after his marriage that Restif appeared as an author, and from that time to his death, on the 2nd of February 1806, he produced a bewildering multitude of books, amounting to something like two hundred volumes, many of them printed with his own hand, on almost every conceivable variety of subject. Restif suffered at one time or another the extremes of poverty and was acquainted with every kind of intrigue. He drew on the episodes of his own life for his books, which, in spite of their faded sentiment, contain truthful pictures of French society on the eve of the Revolution. The most noteworthy of his works are Le Pied de Fanchette, a novel (1769) ; Le Pornographe (1769), a plan for regulating prostitution which is said to have been actually carried out by the Emperor Joseph II., while not a few detached hints have been adopted by continental nations; Le Paysan peroerti (1775), a novel with a moral purpose, though sufficiently horrible in detail; La Vie de man pere (1779); Les Contemporaines (42 vols., 1 780-1 785) , a vast collection of short stories; Ingenue Saxancour, also a novel (1785); and, lastly, the extraordinary autobiography of Monsieur Nicolas (16 vols., 1794-1797; the last two are practically a separate and much less interesting work), in which at the age of sixty he has set down his remembrances, his notions on ethical and social points, his hatreds, and above all his numerous loves, real and fancied. The original editions of these, and indeed of all his books, have long been bibliographical curiosities owing to their rarity, the beautiful and curious illustrations which many of them contain, and the quaint typographic system in which most are composed. In 1795 he received a gratuity of 2000 francs from the government, and just before his death Napoleon gave him a place in the ministry of police, which he did not live to take up. Restif de la Bretonne undoubtedly holds a remarkable place in French literature. He was inordinately vain, of extremely relaxed morals, and perhaps not entirely sane. His books were written with haste, and their licence of subject and language renders them quite unfit for general perusal. The works of C. Monselet, Retif de la Bretonne (1853), and P. Lacroix, Bibliographie et iconographie (1875), J. Assezat's selection from the Contemporaines, with excellent introductions (3 vols., 1875), and the valuable reprint of Monsieur Nicolas (14 vols., 1883-1884), will be sufficient to enable even curious readers to form a judgment of him. His life, written by his contemporary Cubieres-Palmezeaux, was republished in 1875. See also Eugen Diihren, Retif de la Bretonne, der Mensch, der Schriftsteller, der Reformator (Berlin, 1906), and a bibliography, Retif-Bibliothek (Berlin, 1906), by the same author. RESTOUT, JEAN (1692-1768), French painter, born at Rouen on the 26th of March 1692, was the son of Jean Restout, the first of that name, and of Marie M. Jouvenet, sister and pupil of the well-known Jean Jouvenet. In 1717, the Royal Academy having elected him a member on his work for the Grand Prix, he remained in Paris, instead of proceeding to Italy, exhibited at all the salons, and filled successively every post of academical distinction. He died on the ist of January 1768. His works, chiefly altar-pieces (Louvre Museum), ceilings and designs for Gobelin tapestries, were engraved by Cochin, Brevet and others; his diploma picture may still be seen at St Cloud. His son, JEAN BERNARD RESTOUT (1732-1797), won the Grand Prix in 1758, and on his return from Italy was received into the Academy; but his refusal to comply with rules led to a quarrel with that body. Roland appointed him keeper of the Garde Meuble, but this piece of favour nearly cost him his life during the Terror. The St Bruno painted by him at Rome is in the Louvre. RESTRAINT— RETAINER 2OI RESTRAINT (from " to restrain," Lat. restringere, to hold back, prevent), in law, a restriction or limitation. The word is used particularly in three connexions: i. Restraint on Anticipa- tion. Although it is a principle of English law that there can be no restriction of the right of alienation of property vested in any person under an instrument, equity makes an exception in the case of a married woman, and has laid down the rule that property may be so settled to the separate use of a married woman that she cannot, during coverture, alienate it or anticipate the income. Restraint on anticipation attaches only during coverture and is therefore removed on widowhood, but it may attach again on remarriage. By the Conveyancing Act 1881, s. 39, a court may however, if it thinks fit, by judgment or order bind a married woman's interest in her property, with her consent, if it appears to be for her benefit, notwithstanding that she is restained from anticipating. 2. Restraint of Marriage. — A gift or bequest to a person may have a condition attached in restraint of marriage. This condition may be either general or partial. A condition in general restraint of marriage is void, as being contrary to public policy, although a condition in restraint of a second marriage is not void. A condition in partial restraint of marriage is valid, and may be either to restrain marriage with a particular class of persons, e.g. a papist, a domestic servant, or a Scotsman, or under a certain age. 3. Restraint of Trade. — A contract in general restraint of trade is void as being against public policy. In the leading caseof Mitchell v. Reynolds, 1711, i Smith L.C., it was laid down that " it is the privilege of a trader in a free country, in ah1 matters not contrary to law, to regulate his own mode of carry- ing it on according to his own discretion and choice. If the law has regulated or restrained his mode of doing this, the law must be obeyed. But no power short of the general law ought to restrain his free discretion." It has been suggested that the rule dates from a time when a covenant by a man not to exercise his own trade meant a covenant not to exercise any trade at all — every man being obliged to confine himself to the trade to which he had been apprenticed. However, contracts which are only in partial restraint of trade are good. A contract not to carry on the business of an ironmonger would be bad; but a contract made by the seller of an ironmonger's business not to compete with the buyer would be good. To make such a contract binding it must be founded on a valuable consideration and must not go beyond what is reasonably necessary for the protection of the other party. This is the tendency also of the law in the United States. See Matthew on Restraint of Trade (1907). RESZKE, JEAN DE (1850- ), operatic singer, was born at Warsaw on the i4th of January 1850. His parents were Poles; his father was a state official and his mother a capable amateur singer, their house being a recognized musical centre. After singing as a boy in the Cathedral of Warsaw, he studied law in the university there, but in a few years he abandoned this and went to Italy to study singing. He made his first public appearance, as a baritone, at Venice in January 1874, as Alfonso in La Favorita, and in the following April he sang for the first time in London, appearing at Drury Lane Theatre, and a little later in Paris. He was not entirely successful and retired for a further period of study, during which his voice gained remarkably in the upper register; so that when he made his first reappearance at Madrid in 1879 it was as a tenor, in the title-role of Robert le Diable. Jean de Reszke's great fame as a singer dates from this time. For several seasons he sang regularly in Paris, and he reappeared at Drury Lane in 1887 as Radames. In the next year he was again in London, this time at Covent Garden as Vasco da Gama; this appearance was mainly responsible for the revival of the opera as a fashionable amusement in London. He appeared in London nearly every year from this date until 1900. In 1891 he visited America, and from 1893 to 1899 he was welcomed each year at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York. Jean de Reszke's most successful parts were the title-r&le of Le Cid, which was written for him by Massenet, and those of Romeo, Lancelot in Elaine, and Lohengrin, Walther von Stolzing, Siegfried and Tristan in Wagner's operas. In 1904 illness compelled him to retire from the stage, and he subsequently divided his time between teaching singing in Paris and breeding race-horses in Poland. Jean de Reszke's younger brother, EDOUARD, born at Warsaw on the 23rd of December 1855, is also famous as an operatic singer. He appeared for the first time in Paris in April 1896, and has since sung with his brother for many seasons both in London and in New York. His magnificent bass voice and admirable technique earned him fame in such parts as those of Mephistopheles in Faust, Charles V. in Marchetti's Don Qiovanni d' A ustria, Walter in Tell, the Count in Sonnambula, Prince Gudal in Demonio, and Hans Sachs, King Mark, Hunding and Hagen in Wagner's operas. RETABLE (Fr. ritable, a shortened form derived from Med. Lat. retrotabidum) , a term of ecclesiastical art and architecture, applied in modern English usage to an altar-ledge or shelf, raised slightly above the back of the altar or communion table, on which are placed the cross, ceremonial candlesticks and other ornaments. Retables may be lawfully used in the church of England (Liddett &• Beale, 1860, 14 P.C.). Foreign usage of the term, as in French, is different, and where the word is kept with this foreign application, the distinction should be observed. The Med. Lat. retrotabulum (modernized re- tabulum) was applied to an architectural feature set up at the back of an altar, and generally taking the form of a screen framing a picture, carved or sculptured work in wood or stone, or mosaic, or of a movable feature such as the famous Pala d' Oro in St Mark's, Venice, of gold, jewels and enamels. The foreign " ratable " is, therefore, what should in English be called a " reredos " (g.».), though that is not in modern usage a movable feature. RETAIL, the sale of goods or commodities in small quantities to the immediate consumer, opposed to a sale wholesale or in gross. The O. Fr. retaille, from which the word is taken, meant a piece cut off, from tailler, to cut, Med. Lat. taleare, Lat. lalea, a rod, cutting for planting. The English meaning appears in Anglo-French and in the Italian retaglio, selling by the piece. The other meaning of " retail," to repeat a story, is a transferred sense of an early meaning, " to sell at second hand." The Latin source is also seen in the related words "entail," "tailor," "detail" and "tally." RETAINER (from " retain," Lat. retinere, to hold back, keep), properly the act of retaining or keeping for oneself, or a person or object which retains or keeps; historically, a follower of a house or family, and particularly used of armed followers attached to the barons of the middle ages. John Cowell, in The Interpreter (1607), defines " retainer " as a " servant not meniall nor familiar, that is, not continually dwelling in the house of his lord or master, but onely using or bearing his name or livery." Retainer of Counsel. — When it is considered desirable by a litigant that the services of any particular counsel (bar- rister) should be obtained for the conduct of his case, it is necessary to deposit with counsel a form of retainer together with the necessary fee in cash, from which time counsel is bound to give the party who has thus retained him the first call on his services in the matter in which he has been retained. Retainers are either general or special. A general retainer is one which retains counsel for all proceedings in which the person retaining is a party, and lasts for the joint lives of client and counsel. If any other person offers a special retainer or brief against the general retainer, counsel must give the general retainer notice of such offer — and if after a reasonable time the general retainer does not himself specially retain or brief counsel, the general retainer is forfeited. A special retainer is one which only applies to some particular cause or action. It can only be delivered after the action is begun, and gives the client a right to the services of counsel throughout the course of the action, and counsel is entitled to be briefed on all occasions to which the retainer applies. Retainer rules were drawn up in 1901 by the Bar Committee, read by the Bar Council and approved by the Attorney-General and the Council xxm. 7 a 202 RETALIATION— RETHEL of the Incorporated Law Society in 1902. They may be found in the Annual Practice. Retainer of Debt. — In connexion with the administration of an estate under a will, it is the right of the personal repre- sentative— whether executor or administrator — of a deceased person to retain legal assets which have come into his hands towards the payment of a debt due to himself as against creditors of an equal degree, and this even though his debt is barred by the Statutes of Limitation. The privilege arose in all probability from the inability of the representative to sue himself, though it has been suggested that it is merely a corollary to the right of the representative to prefer one creditor to another of equal degree.1 The principle of retainer is not looked upon with favour by courts of equity, and consequently it has long been the rule that there is no right to retain out of equitable assets. It was thought that the effect of the Land Transfer Act 1897 was to make all the assets of the deceased legal assets, and so extend the privilege to reality which had till then been exempt; this view, however, has been repudiated by the courts of equity, and it must now be taken that there is still no right to retain out of real estate.2 It is a rule of the probate division to require a creditor administrator, to whom letters of administration are granted, to enter into a bond with two sureties not to prefer himself. This course, however, is not followed where administration is granted to a person as next of kin who happens also to be a creditor. The privilege is not lost by judgment for an account being given in a suit by other creditors for the administration of assets, and the representative may retain out of assets which come to his hand subsequent to such judgment. On the other hand, the appointment of a receiver deprives the representative of his right except as regards assets which come to his hands prior to the appointment of the receiver. RETALIATION, repayment of like with like, especially the return of hostile action, injuries or wrongs by similar action or injury, as in the primitive theory of punishment, an " eye for an eye," " tooth for a tooth." The Late Lat. retaliare was formed from tails, such as, of the same quality as ; and this source also gave talio, talionis, the name of this type of punishment. (See PUNISHMENT, THEORY or, and ROMAN LAW, § The Twelve Tables.) A special form of retaliation is familiar in the imposition of differential import duties against the goods of a particular country (see TARIFFS and PROTECTION). RETENE (methyl isopropyl phenanthrene), Ci8Hi8, a hydro- carbon present in the coal-tar fraction, boiling above 360° C.; it also occurs in the tars obtained by the distillation of resinous woods. It crystallizes in large plates, which melt at 98-5° C. and boil at 390° C. It is readily soluble in warm ether and in hot glacial acetic acid. Sodium and boiling amyl alcohol reduce it to a tetrahydroretene, ^whilst if it be heated with phos- phorus and hydriodic acid to 260° C. a dodecahydride is formed. Chromic acid oxidizes it to retene quinone, phthalic acid and acetic acid. It forms a picrate which melts at 123-124° C. RETFORD (officially EAST RETFORD), a market town and municipal borough in the Bassetlaw parliamentary division of Nottinghamshire, England, 1385 m. N. by W. from London by the Great Northern railway, the station being a junction with the Great Central railway. Pop. (1901) 12,340. The church of St Swithin dates from the I3th century, but was rebuilt in 1658 by a brief granted by Richard Cromwell. Modern buildings are the town hall, the corn exchange, the court house, and the covered markets. There is a large trade in corn and cheese, and the town possesses iron foundries, paper and corn mills, and india-rubber works. The town is governed by a mayor, 6 aldermen, and 18 councillors. Area, 4656 acres. The situation of Retford (Redforde, Ratford), near one of the Roman roads and on the river Idle, where there was possibly a ford, may account for its origin. In 1086 the archbishop of York 1 Per Jessel, M.R. Talbot v. Frere (1879), L.R. 9. C.D. 568, 574. 2 In re Williams; Holder v. Williams (1904), I Ch. 52. owned a mill at Retford, and Roger de Rusli had rights here. Retford was a borough by prescription, and was in the hands of the crown when, in 1276, Edward I. granted it to the burgesses in fee-farm with the right of electing bailiffs. This charter was confirmed by Edward III., Henry VI. and Elizabeth. In 1607 James I. granted a charter of incorporation to the bailiffs and burgesses, under which the town was governed until 1835, when it was reincorporated under a mayor. East Retford returned two members to parliament in 1315, and again from 1572 till 1885, when it was disfranchised. Henry III. granted the burgesses an eight-days' fair at Holy Trinity, altered by Edward II. to St Gregory. Edward III. granted a six-days' fair at St Margaret, and Henry VI. a four-days' fair at St Matthew. Fairs are now held in March, June, July and December. The market held on Saturdays by prescription was sanctioned by Edward III. and still exists. RETHEL, ALFRED (1816-1859), German historical painter, was born at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1816. He very early showed an interest in art, and at the age of thirteen he executed a drawing which procured his admission to the academy of DUsseldorf. Here he studied for several years, and produced, among other works, a figure of St Boniface which attracted much attention. At the age of twenty he removed to Frankfort, and was selected to decorate the walls of the imperial hall in the Romer with figures of famous men. At the same period he produced a series of designs illustrative of Old Testament history. Four years later he was the successful competitor for the work of ornamenting the restored council house of his native city with frescoes depicting prominent events in the career of Charlemagne, but the execution of this work was delayed for some six years. Meanwhile Rethel occupied himself with the production of easel pictures and of drawings; and in 1842 he began a striking series of designs dealing with the " Crossing of the Alps by Hannibal," in which the weird power which animates his later art becomes first apparent. In 1844 Rethel visited Rome, executing, along with other subjects, an altar-piece for one of the churches of his native land. In 1846 he returned to Aix, and commenced his Charlemagne frescoes. But mental derangement, remotely attributable, it is believed, to an accident from which he suffered in childhood, began to manifest itself. While he hovered between madness and sanity, Rethel produced some of the most striking, individual and impressive of his works. Strange legends are told of the effect produced by some of his weird subjects. He painted " Nemesis pursuing a Murderer " — a flat stretch of land- scape, with a slaughtered body, while in front is the assassin speed- ing away into the darkness, and above an angel of vengeance. The picture, so the story goes, was won in a lottery at Frankfort by a personage of high rank, who had been guilty of an undis- covered crime, and the contemplation of his prize drove him mad. Another design which Rethel executed was " Death the Avenger," a skeleton appearing at a masked ball, scraping daintily, like a violinist, upon two human bones. The drawing haunted the memory of his artist friends and disturbed their dreams; and, in expiation, he produced his pathetic design of " Death the Friend." Rethel also executed a powerful series of drawings — " The Dance of Death " — suggested by the Belgian insurrections of 1848. It is by such designs as these, executed in a technique founded upon that of Durer, and animated by an imagination akin to that of the elder master, that Rethel is most widely known. He died at DUsseldorf on the ist of December 1859. His picture of " Peter and John at the Beautiful Gate of the Temple," is preserved in the Leipzig Museum, and his " St Boni- face " and several of his cartoons for the frescoes at Aix in the Berlin National Gallery. His Life, by Wolfgang Muller von Konigswinter, was published in 1861. See also Art Journal, November 1865. RETHEL, a towvn of N. France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Ardennes, on the right bank of the Aisne and the Ardennes canal, 31 m. S.W. of Mezieres by rail. Pop. (1906) 5254. The church of St Nicholas was formed by the amalgamation of two churches, the oldest of which dates from the 1 3th century. Rethel has a subprefecture, a tribunal of first instance, a board of trade arbitration, a chamber of arts and manufactures and a school of agriculture, and carries on REUNITE— RETZ, CARDINAL DE wool-spinning, the weaving of light woollen fabrics, and the manufacture of millboard and farm implements. Rethel (Castrum Retectum), of Roman origin, was from the end of the loth century the seat of a countship which passed successively to the families of Flanders, Burgundy, Cleves, Foix and Gonzaga. In 1581 it was erected into a duchy in favour of the latter. In 1663 it was sold by Charles VI. de Gonzaga to Mazarin, whose family held it till the Revolution. REUNITE (Gr. far'ani, resin), a general name applied to various resins, particularly those from beds of brown coal, which are near amber in appearance, but contain little or no succinic acid. It may conveniently serve as a generic name, since no two independent occurrences prove to be alike, and the indefinite multiplication of names, no one of them properly specific, is not to be desired. RETINUE (O. Fr. retenue, from retenir, Lat. retenere, hold back, retain), a body of persons " retained " in the service of a noble or royal personage, a suite of " retainers." Such retainers were not in the domestic service of their lord, but were his " livery " and claimed his protection. They were a source of trouble and abuse in the I5th and early i6th century (see LIVERY and MAINTENANCE). RETORT (Lat. retorquere, to twist or turn back), a word used in two distinct meanings: (i) a sharp reply, answer to an argument, statement or charge; (2) a vessel used in chemistry and manufacture. The chemical retort is a flask-shaped or bulbous vessel made of glass, earthenware or metal, with a neck, bent downwards, which leads to a receiver; such vessels are particularly used for distillation (q.v.). The name is also given to the apparatus, varying in size and shape, used in the dis- tinctive distillation of various substances, such as coal, in the manufacture of gas (q.v.). RETREAT (O. Fr. retrete, mod. retraite, from Lat. retrahere, to draw back), a withdrawal, especially of a body of troops after a defeat or in face of a superior enemy. In military usage " retreat " is also the term for a signal, given by bugle and drum at or about sunset. It is the last general signal before " tattoo." In religious usage, a " retreat " is a period and place set apart for prayer, self-examination and other spiritual exercises. Such " retreats " conducted by a director have long been the practice in the Roman Church. They were introduced into the English Church by Pusey. The word is also used of an institution or home where insane persons or habitual inebriates may be treated. For the law relating to " licensed retreats " for inebriates, see INEBRIETY, LAW OF. RETRENCHMENT (Fr. retrenchement, an old form of retranchement, from retrancher, to cut down, cut short), an act of cutting down or reduction, particularly of expenditure; the word is familiar in this, its most general sense, from the motto of the Gladstonian Liberal party in British politics, " Peace, Retrenchment and Reform." A special technical use of the term is in fortification, where it is applied to a work or series of works constructed in rear of existing defences in order to bar the further progress of the enemy should he succeed in breach- ing or storming these. A modern example may be found in the siege of Port Arthur in 1904. When early in the siege Fort Panlung fell into the hands of the Japanese, the Russians connected up the two adjacent first-line forts to a fort in the rear by means of new works, the whole forming a rough semicircle facing the lost fort. This retrenchment prevented the Japanese from advancing, and remained in the hands of the defenders up to the fall of the whole line of forts. RETRO-COGNITION (from Lat. retro, back, cognitio, the acquiring of knowledge), a word invented by F. W. H. Myers to denote a supposed faculty of acquiring direct knowledge of the past beyond the reach of the subject's ordinary memory. The alleged manifestations of the faculty are of several kinds, of which the most important are as follows: (i) There are many recorded cases in which an impression has been received in dream or vision representing some recent event — shipwreck, death-bed scene, railway accident — outside the knowledge of the percipient. (2) Analogous to the transmission of habits 203 and physical peculiarities in particular families, it is alleged that there are also cases of the transmission of definite memories of scenes and events in the life of some ancestor. (3) It is asserted that pictures of past scenes may be called up in certain cases by the presence of a material object associated with those scenes — e.g. a vision of the destruction of Pompeii by a piece of cinder from the buried city, or the scene of a martyrdom by a charred fragment of bone — the percipient being unaware at the time of the nature of the object. For this supposed faculty the American geologist, Professor Denton, has suggested the name " psychometry." There are also cases recorded in which pictures of historical scenes unknown to the seer have been described in the crystal. (4) Some spirit mediums profess to realise incidents belonging to their previous incarnation. Thus Flournoy's medium, H61ene Smith, represented herself as having been successively incarnated as a Hindoo Princess, Simandini, and as Marie Antoinette, and gave vivid descriptions of scenes in which she had figured in these capacities. It will be gathered that the facts afford little warrant for the assumption of a faculty of retro-cognition. The cases described in the first class, though apparently exhibiting knowledge not within the range of the percipient's ordinary faculties, hardly call for such an extreme hypothesis. In the other cases the result recorded may plausibly be attributed to the imagination of the percipient, working upon hints given by bystanders, or aided by the emergence of forgotten knowledge. BIBLIOGRAPHY.— See W. Denton, The Soul of Things (Wellesley, Mass., U.S.A., 1863) ; F. W. H. Myers, article' " The Subliminal Self " in Proc. S. P. R. vol. xi.; Human Personality (London, 1903); Th. Flournoy, Des Indes a la planete Mars (Geneva, 1900). (F. P.) RETROGRADE (from the Lat. retro, backwards, gradiri, to go), in astronomy, the direction of the apparent motion of a planet from E. to W. ; the opposite of its regular motion around the sun, and due to the motion of the earth. RETZ, SEIGNEURS AND DUKES OF. The district of Retz or Rais, in S. Brittany, belonged in early times to a house which bore its name, and of which the eldest branch became extinct in the i3th century in the Chabot family. From the Chabot family the lordship passed to the Lavals. Gilles de Laval, sire de Retz (1404-1440), the comrade-in-arms of Joan of Arc and marshal of France, gave himself over to the most revolting debauchery, and was strangled and burned at Nantes. The barony of Retz passed successively to the families of Tournemine, Annebaut and Gondi. In 1581 it was erected into a duchy in the peerage of France (duchi-pairie) for Albert de Gondi, marshal of France and general of the galleys. Pierre de Gondi, brother of the first due de Retz, became bishop of Paris in 1570 and cardinal in 1587. He was succeeded by his nephews, Henri (d. 1622) and Jean Francois de Gondi (d. 1654), for whom the episcopal see of Paris was erected into an arch- bishopric in 1622, and by his great-nephew, Jean Francois Paul de Gondi, the famous cardinal de Retz. With the death of the last male of the house of Gondi in 1676 the duche'-pairie became extinct ; the lordship passed to the house of Neuville-Villeroy. (M. P.*) RETZ, JEAN FRANCOIS PAUL DE GONDI, CARDINAL DE (1614-1679), French churchman and agitator, was born at Montmirail in 1614. The family was one of those which had been introduced into France by Catherine de' Medici, but it acquired great estates in Brittany and became connected with the noblest houses of the kingdom. It may be added that Retz himself always spelt his designation " Rais." He was the third son, and according to Tallemant des Reaux was made a knight of Malta on the very day of his birth. The death of his second brother, however, destined him for a closer connexion with the church. The family of Retz had military traditions, but it had also much church influence, and, despite the very unclerical leanings of the future cardinal, which were not corrected by the teachings of his tutor St Vincent de Paul, the intentions of his family never varied respecting him. By unanimous consent his physical appearance was not that of a soldier. He was 204 REUBEN— REUCHLIN short, near-sighted, ugly and exceptionally awkward. Retz, however, despite the little inclination which he felt towards clerical life, entered into the disputes of the Sorbonne with vigour, and when he was scarcely eighteen wrote the remarkable Conjuration de Fiesque, a little historical essay, of which he drew the material from the Italian of Augustine Mascardi, but which is all his own in the negligent vigour of the style and the audacious insinuation, if nothing more, of revolutionary principles. Retz received no preferment of importance during Richelieu's life, and even after the minister's death, though he was presented to Louis XIII. and well received, he found a difficulty in attaining the coadjutorship with reversion of the archbishopric of Paris. But almost immediately after the king's death Anne of Austria appointed him to the coveted post on All Saints' Eve, 1643. Retz, who had, according to some accounts, already plotted against Richelieu, set himself to work to make the utmost political capital out of his position. His uncle, who was old, indolent and absurdly proud, had lived in great seclusion; Retz, on the contrary, gradually acquired a very great influence with the populace of the city. This influence he gradually turned against Mazarin. No one had more to do than Retz with the outbreak of the Fronde in October 1648, and his history for the next four years is the history of that confused and, as a rule, much misunderstood movement. Of the two parties who joined in it Retz could only depend on the bourgeoisie of Paris. The fact, moreover, that although he had some speculative tendencies in favour of popular liberties, and even perhaps of republicanism, he represented no real political principle, in- evitably weakened his position, and when the break up of the Fronde came he was left in the lurch, having more than once in the meanwhile been in no small danger from his own party. One stroke of luck, however, fell to him before his downfall. He was made cardinal almost by accident, and under a mis- apprehension on the pope's part. Then, in 1652, he was arrested and imprisoned, first at Vincennes, then at Nantes; he escaped, however, after two years' captivity, and for some time wandered about in various countries. He made his appearance at Rome more than once, and had no small influence in the election of Alexander VII. He was at last, in 1662, received back again into favour by Louis XIV. and on more than one occasion formally served as envoy to Rome. Retz, however, was glad in making his peace to resign his claims to the archbishopric of Paris. The terms were, among other things, his appointment to the rich abbacy of St Denis and his restoration to his other benefices with the payment of arrears. The last seventeen years of Retz's life were passed partly in his diplomatic duties (he was again in Rome at the papal election of 1668), partly at Paris, partly at his estate of Com- mercy, but latterly at St Mihiel in Lorraine. His debts were enormous, and in 1675 he resolved to make over to his creditors all his income except twenty thousand livres, and, as he said, to " live for " them. This plan he carried out, though he did not succeed in living very long, for he died at Paris on the 24th August 1679. One of the chief authorities for the last years of Retz is Madame de Sevigne, whose connexion he was by marriage. Retz and La Rochefoucauld, the greatest of the Frondeurs in literary genius, were personal and political enemies, and each has left a portrait of the other. La Rochefoucauld's character of the cardinal is on the whole harsh but scarcely unjust, and one of its sentences formulates, though in a manner which has a certain recoil upon the writer, the great defect of Retz's conduct : " II a suscite les plus grands desordres dans 1'etat sans avoir un dessein forme de s'en prevaloir." He would have been less, and certainly less favourably, remembered if it had not been for his Memoirs. They were certainly not written till the last ten years of his life, and they do not go further than the year 1655. They are addressed in the form of narrative to a lady who is not known, though guesses have been made at her identity, some even suggesting Madame de Sevigne herself. In the be- ginning there are some gaps. They display, in a rather irregular style and with some oddities of dialect and phrase, extraordinary narrative skill and a high degree of ability in that special art of the 1 7th century — the drawing of verbal portraits or characters. Few things of the kind are superior to the sketch of the early barricade of the Fronde in which the writer had so great a share, the hesitations of the court, the bold adventure of the coadjutor himself into the palace and the final triumph of the insurgents. Dumas, who has drawn from this passage one of his very best scenes in Vingt ans apres, has done little but throw Retz into dialogue and amplify his language and incidents. Besides these memoirs and the very striking youthful essay of the Conjuration de Fiesque, Retz has left diplomatic papers, sermons, Mazarinades and correspondence in some considerable quantity. The Memoirs of the cardinal de Retz were first published in a very imperfect condition in 1717 at Nancy. The first satisfactory edition was that which appeared in the twenty-fourth volume of the collection of Michaud and Poujoulat (Paris, 1836). They were then re-edited from the autograph manuscript by Ge'ruzez (Paris, 1844), and by Champollion-Figeac with the Mazannades, &c. (Paris, 1859). In 1870 a complete edition of the works of Retz was begun by M. A. Feillet in the collection of Grands £crivains. The editor dying, this passed into the hands of M. Gourdault and then into those of M. Chantelauze, who had already published studies on the connexion of St Vincent de Paul with the Condi family, &c. (1882). (G. SA.) REUBEN, a tribe of Israel named after the eldest " son " of Jacob and of Leah. Both the meaning of the name (see Gen. xxix. 32) and the history of the tribe are extremely obscure. In one version of the story of Joseph, Reuben appears in a some- what favourable light (Gen. xxxvii. 22, 29, xlii. 37), but in Gen. xxxv. 22 he is charged with a grave offence, which in Gen. xlix. 4 is given as a reason why the tribe which called him father did not take in Hebrew history the place proper to its seniority (cp. i Chron. v. i). Dathan and Abiram were Reubenites (Num. xvi.; Deut. xi. 6), and in Deut. xxxiii. 6 the tribe appears as threatened with extinction. In Judg. v. 1 5 seq. it is described as a pastoral tribe which took no share in the patriotic movement under Barak and Deborah. The district allotted to Reuben (Josh. xiii. 15-23; Num. xxxii. 37 seq.) is detailed in late passages which have little historical value for the age to which they are attributed. The tribe is represented as settled E. of the Jordan on the Moabite border, but no mention is made of it in the inscription of the Moabite king Mesha (see GAD; MOAB). The references to the tribe's wars against Arabians (i Chron. v. 10, 18 sqq.) in the time of Saul have caused much fruitless speculation. For mythological elements in the tribe's history, see especially E. Stucken, Mittheil. d. vorderasiat. Gesell. (1902), pt. iv. pp. 46 sqq. ; and for a full discussion of the biblical data, see H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib. s.v., also E. Meyer, Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstdmme, pp. 530 sqq. REUCHLIN, JOHANN (1455-1522), German humanist and Hebraist, was born on the 22nd of February 1455 at Pforzheim in the Black Forest, where his father was an official of the Dominican monastery. In, the pedantic taste of his time the name was graecicized by his Italian friends into Capnion, a form which Reuchlin himself uses as a sort of transparent mask when he introduces himself as an interlocutor in the De Verbo Mirifico. For his native place Reuchlin always retained an affection; he constantly writes himself Phorcensis, and in the De Verbo he does not forget to ascribe to Pforzheim his first disposition to letters. Here he began his Latin studies in the monastery school, and, though in 1470 he was a short time in Freiburg, that university seems to have taught him little. Reuchlin's career as a scholar ^appears to have turned almost on an accident; his fine voice gained him a place in the house- hold of Charles I., margrave of Baden, and by-and-by, having already some reputation as a Latinist, he was chosen to accom- pany to the university of Paris Frederick, the third son of the prince, a lad some years his junior, who was destined for an ecclesiastical career. This new connexion lasted but a year or so, but it determined the course of Reuchlin's life. He now began to learn Greek, which had been taught in the French capital since 1470, and he also attached himself to the leader of the Paris realists, Jean Heynlin, or a Lapide (d. 1496), a REUCHLIN 205 worthy and learned man, whom he followed to the vigorous young university of Basel in 1474. At Basel Reuchlin took his master's degree (1477), and began to lecture with success, teaching a more classical Latin than was then common in German schools, and also explaining Aristotle in Greek. His studies in this language had been continued at Basel under Andronicus Contoblacas, and here too he formed the acquaint- ance of the bookseller, Johann Amorbach, for whom he prepared a Latin lexicon (Vocabularius Breviloquus, ist ed., 1475-76), which did good service in its time and ran through many editions. This first publication and Reuchlin's account of his teaching at Basel in a letter to Cardinal Adrian (Adriano Castellesi) in February 1518 show that he had already found the work which in a larger sphere occupied his whole life. He was no original genius, but a born teacher. But this work of teaching was not to be done mainly from the professor's chair. Reuchlin soon left Basel to seek further Greek training with George Hieronymus at Paris, and to learn to write a fair Greek hand that he might support himself by copying MSS. And now he felt that he must choose a profession. His choice fell on law, and he was thus led to the great school of Orleans (1478), and finally to Poitiers, where he became licentiate in July 1481. From Poitiers Reuchlin went in December 1481 to Tubingen, with the inten- tion of becoming a teacher in the university, but his friends recommended him to Count Eberhard of Wurttemberg, who was about to journey to Italy and required an interpreter. Reuchlin was selected for this post, and in February 1482 left Stuttgart for Florence and Rome. The journey lasted but a few months, but it brought the German scholar into contact with several learned Italians, especially at the Medicean Academy in Florence; his connexion with the count became permanent, and after his return to Stuttgart he received important posts at Eberhard's court. About this time he appears to have married, but little is known of his married life. He left no children; but in later years his sister's grandson Melanchthon was almost as a son to him till the Reformation estranged them. In 1490 he was again in Italy. Here he saw Pico della Mirandola, to whose Cabbalistic doctrines he afterwards became heir, and also made the friendship of the pope's secretary, Jakob Questen- berg, which was of service to him in his later troubles. Again in 1492 he was employed on an embassy to the emperor Frederick at Linz, and here he began to read Hebrew with the emperor's Jewish physician Jakob ben Jehiel Loans. He knew something of this language before, but Loans's instruction laid the basis of that thorough knowledge which he afterwards improved on his third visit to Rome in 1498 by the instruction of Obadja Sforno of Cesena. In 1494 his rising reputation had been greatly enhanced by the publication of De Verbo Mirifico. In 1496 Eberhard of Wurttemberg died, and enemies of Reuchlin had the ear of his successor, Duke Eberhard. He was glad, therefore, hastily to follow the invitation of Johann von Dalberg (1445-1503), the scholarly bishop of Worms, and flee to Heidelberg, which was then the seat of the " Rhenish Society." In this court of letters Reuchlin's appointed function was to make translations from the Greek authors, in which his reading was already extremely wide. Though Reuchlin had no public office as teacher, and even at Heidelberg was prevented from lecturing, he was during a great part of his life the real centre of all Greek teaching as well as of all Hebrew teaching in Germany. To carry out this work he found it necessary to provide a series of helps for beginners and others. He never published a Greek grammar, though he had one in MS. for use with his pupils, but he put out several little elementary Greek books. Reuchlin, it may be noted, pronounced Greek as his native teachers had taught him to do, i.e. in the modern Greek fashion. This pronunciation, which he defends in Dialogus de Recta Lai. Graecique Serm. Pron. (1519), came to be known, in contrast to that used by Erasmus, as the Reuchlinian. At Heidelberg Reuchlin had many private pupils, among whom Franz von Sickingen is the best known name. With the monks he had never been liked; at Stuttgart also his great enemy was the Augustinian Conrad Holzinger. On this man he took a scholar's revenge in his first Latin comedy Sergius, a satire on worthless monks and false relics. Through Dalberg, Reuchlin came into contact with Philip, elector palatine of the Rhine, who employed him to direct the studies of his sons, and in 1498 gave him the mission to Rome which has been already noticed as fruitful for Reuchlin's pro- gress in Hebrew. He came back laden with Hebrew books, and found when he reached Heidelberg that a change of govern- ment had opened the way for his return to Stuttgart, where his wife had remained all along. His friends had now again the upper hand, and knew Reuchlin's value. In 1500, or perhaps in 1502, he was given a very high judicial office in the Swabian League, which he held till 1512, when he" retired to a small estate near Stuttgart. For many years Reuchlin had been increasingly absorbed in Hebrew studies, which had for him more than a mere philological interest. Though he was always a good Catholic, and even took the habit of an Augustinian monk when he felt that his death was near, he was too thorough a humanist to be a blind follower of the church. He knew the abuses of monkish religion, and was interested in the reform of preaching as shown in his De Arte Predicandi (1503) — a book which became a sort of preacher's manual; but above all as a scholar he was eager that the Bible should be better known, and could not tie himself to the authority of the Vulgate. The key to the Hebraea veritas was the grammatical and exegetical tradition of the medieval rabbins, especially of David Kimhi, and when_ he had mastered this himself he was resolved to open it to others. In 1506 appeared his epoch-making De Rudimentis Hebraicis — grammar and lexicon — mainly after Kimhi, yet not a mere copy of one man's teaching. The edition was costly and sold slowly. One great difficulty was that the wars of Maximilian I. in Italy prevented Hebrew Bibles coming into Germany. But for this also Reuchlin found help by printing the Penitential Psalms with grammatical explanations (1512), and other helps followed from time to time. But his Greek studies had interested him in those fantastical and mystical systems of later times with which the Cabbala has no small affinity. Following Pico, he seemed to find in the Cabbala a profound theosophy which might be of the greatest service for the defence of Christianity and the reconciliation of science with the mysteries of faith — an unhappy delusion indeed, but one not surprising in that strange time of ferment. Reuchlin's mystico-cabbalistic ideas and objects were expounded in the De Verbo Mirifico, and finally in the De Arte Cabbalistica (1517). Unhappily many of his contemporaries thought that the first step to the conversion of the Jews was to take from them their books. This view had for its chief advocate the bigoted Johann Pfefferkorn (1460-1521), himself a baptized Hebrew. Pfeffer- korn's plans were backed by the Dominicans of Cologne; and in 1509 he got from the emperor authority to confiscate all Jewish books directed against the Christian faith. Armed with this mandate, he visited Stuttgart and asked Reuchlin's help as a jurist and expert in putting it into execution. Reuchlin evaded the demand, mainly because the mandate lacked certain formalities, but he could not long remain neutral. The execu- tion of Pfefferkorn's schemes led to difficulties and to a new appeal to Maximilian. In 1510 Reuchlin was summoned in the name of the emperor to give his opinion on the suppression of the Jewish books. His answer is dated from Stuttgart, October 6, 1510; in it he divides the books into six classes — apart from the Bible which no one proposed to destroy — and, going through each class, he shows that the books openly insulting to Chris- tianity are very few and viewed as worthless by most Jews themselves, while the others are either works necessary to the Jewish worship, which was licensed by papal as well as imperial law, or contain matter of value and scholarly interest which ought not to be sacrificed because they are connected with another faith than that of the Christians. He proposed that the emperor should decree that for ten years there be two Hebrew chairs at every German university for which the Jews should furnish books. The other experts proposed that all books 2O6 REUMONT— REUNION should be taken from the Jews; and, as the emperor still hesi- tated, the bigots threw on Reuchlin the whole blame of their ill success. Pfefferkorn circulated at the Frankfort fair of 1511 a gross libel (Handspiegel wider und gegen die Juden) declaring that Reuchlin had been bribed; and Reuchlin retorted as warmly in the Augenspiegel (1511)' His adversary's next move was to declare the Augenspiegel a dangerous book; the Cologne theological faculty, with the inquisitor Jakob von Hochstraten (d. 1527) took up this cry, and on the yth of October 1512 they obtained an imperial order confiscating the Augenspiegel. Reuchlin was timid, but he was honesty itself. He was willing to receive corrections in theology, which was not his subject, but he could riot unsay what he had said; and as his enemies tried to press him into a corner he met them with open defiance in a Defensio contra Calumniator es (1513). The uni- versities were now appealed to for opinions, and were all against Reuchlin. Even Paris (August 1514) condemned the Augen- spiegel, and called on Reuchlin to recant. Meantime a formal process had begun at Mainz before the grand inquisitor, but Reuchlin by an appeal succeeded in transferring the question to Rome. Judgment was not finally given till July 1516; and then, though the decision was really for Reuchlin, the trial was simply quashed. The result had cost Reuchlin years of trouble and no small part of his modest fortune, but it was worth the sacrifice. For far above the direct, importance of the issue was the great stirring of public opinion which had gone forward. And if the obscurantists escaped easily at Rome, with only a half condemnation, they received a crushing blow in Germany. No party could survive the ridicule that was poured on them in the Epistolae Obscurorum Virorum, the first volume of which written chiefly by Crotus Rubeanus appeared in 1514, and the second by Ulrich von Hutten in 1517. Hutten and Franz von Sickingen did all they could to force Reuchlin's enemies to a restitution of his material damages; they even threatened a feud against the Dominicans of Cologne and Spires. In 1520 a commission met in Frankfort to investigate the case. It condemned Hochstraten. But the final decision of Rome did not indemnify him. The contest ended, however; public interest had grown cold, absorbed entirely by the Lutheran question, and Reuchlin had no reason to fear new attacks. Reuchlin did not long enjoy his victory in peace. In 1519 Stuttgart was visited by famine, civil war and pestilence. From November of this year to the spring of 1321 the veteran statesman sought refuge in Ingolstadt and taught there for a year as professor of Greek and Hebrew. It was forty-one years since at Poitiers he had last spoken from a public chair; but the old man of sixty-five had not lost his gift of teaching, and hundreds of scholars crowded round him. This gleam of autumn sunshine was again broken by the plague; but now he was called to Tubingen and again spent the winter of 1521-22 teaching in his own systematic way. But in the spring he found it necessary to visit the baths of Liebenzell, and here he was seized with jaundice, of which he died on the 3oth of June 1522, leaving in the history of the new learning a name only second to that of his younger contemporary Erasmus. The authorities for Reuchlin's life are enumerated in L. Geiger, Johann Reuchlin (1871), which is the standard biography. The controversy about the books of the Jews is well sketched by D. F. Strauss, Ulrich von Hutten. See also S. A. Hirsch, " John Reuchlin, the Father of the Study of Hebrew among the Christians," and his " John Pfefferkorn and the Battle of Books," in his Essays (London, 1905). Some interesting details about Reuchlin are given in the autobiography of Conrad Pellicanus (q.v.), which was not published when Geiger's book appeared. See also the article on Reuchlin in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and literature there cited. (W. R. S.) REUMONT, ALFRED VON (1808-1887), German scholar and diplomatist, the son of Gerhard Reumont (1765-1829), was born on the 1 5th of August 1808 and was named Alfred after the English king, Alfred the Great. Educated at the universities of Bonn and Heidelberg, he obtained a position in Florence through the influence of an Englishman, William Craufurd, but soon he entered the Prussian diplomatic service and was employed in Florence, in Constantinople and in Rome. He also spent some time in the Foreign Office in Berlin. From 1851 to 1860 he represented his country in Florence. Reumont was the friend and adviser of Frederick William IV. In 1879 he founded the Aachener Geschichtsverein, and having spent his concluding years at Bonn and at Aix-la-Chapelle, he died in the hitter city on the 27th of April 1887. f Reumont's numerous writings deal mainly with Italy, in which country he passed many years of his life. On the history of Florence and of Tuscany he wrote Tavole cronologiche e sincrone delta storia fiorentina (1841; Supplement, 1875); Geschichte Toscanas seit dent Ende des florentinischen Freistaats (Gotha, 1876-77); and Lorenzo de' Medici (Leipzig, 1874, and again 1883). This last book has been translated into English by R. Harrison (1876). He remembered his connexion with Florence when he wrote Romische Briefe von einem Florentiner (Leipzig, 1840-44), and his residence in Rome was also responsible for his Geschichte der Stadt Rom (3 vols., 1867-70). Turning his attention to the history of Naples, he wrote Die Carafa von Maddaloni: Neapel unter spanischer Herrschaft (1851; Eng. trans., 1854), and more general works on Italian history are: Beit- rage zur italienischen Geschichte (6 vols., Berlin, 1853-57), and Charakterbilder aus der neueren Geschichte Italiens (1886). More strictly biographical in their nature are: Die Jugend Caterinas de' Medici (1854), which has been translated into French by A. Baschet (1866); '-Die Grafin von Albany (1860) and a life of his close friend Capponi, Gino Capponi, ein Zcit- und Lebensbild (Gotha, 1880). His Ganganelli: Papst Clemens XIV., seine Briefe und seine Zeit (Berlin, 1847) is valuable for the relations between this pope and the Jesuits. Other works which may be mentioned are Zeitgenossen, Biografien und Charakteristiken (Berlin, 1862); Bibliografia dei lavori pubblicati in Germania sulla storia d' Italia (Berlin, 1863); Biographische Denkblatter nach personlichen Erinnerungen (Leipzig, 1878); and Saggi di storia e letteratura (Florence, 1880). Reumont s other important work, one which he was peculiarly fitted to write, was his Aus Friedrich Wilhelms IV. gesunden und kranken Tagen (Leipzig, 1885). See H. Htiffer, Alfred von Reumont (Cologne, 1904) ; and the same writer's article in the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic, Band xxviii. (1880). REUNION, known also by its former name BOURBON, an island and French colony in the Indian Ocean, 400 m. S.E. of Tamatave, Madagascar, and 130 S.W. of Port Louis, Mauritius. It is elliptic in form; its greatest length is 45 m. and its greatest breadth 32 m., and it has an area of 965 sq. m. It lies between 20° 51' and 21° 22' S. and 55° 15' and 55° 54' E. The coast-line (about 130 m.) is little indented, there are no natural harbours and no small islets round the shore. The narrow coast-lands are succeeded by hilly ground which in turn gives place to mountain masses and tableland, which occupy the greater part of the island. The main axis runs N.W. and S.E., and divides the island into a windward (E.) district and a leeward (W.) district, the dividing line being practically that of the watershed. The form of the mountains is the result of double volcanic action. First there arose from the sea a mountain whose summit is approximately represented by Piton des Neiges (10,069 ft.), a denuded crater of immense proportions, and at a later date another crater opened towards the E., which, piling up the mountain mass of Le Volcan, turned what was till then a circle into an ellipse. The oldest erupted rocks belong to the type of the andesites; the newest are varieties of basalt. The two massifs are united by high table- lands. In the older massif the most striking features are now three areas of subsidence — the cirques of Salazie, Riviere des Galets and Cilaos — which lie N.W. and S. of the Piton des Neiges. The first, which may be taken as typical, is surrounded by high almost perpendicular walls of basaltic lava, and its surface is rendered irregular by hills and hillocks of debris fallen from the heights. Towards the S. lies the vast stratum of rocks (150 to 200 ft. deep) which, on the 26th of November 1875, suddenly sweeping down from the Piton des Neiges and the Gros Morne (a " shoulder " of the piton), buried the little village of Grand Sable and nearly a hundred of its inhabitants. Besides the Piton des Neiges and the Gros Morne the chief heights in this part of the island are the pyramidical Cimandef (7300 ft.), another shoulder of the piton, and the Grand Bernard (9490 ft.), separating the cirques of Mafate and Cilaos. The second massif, Le Volcan, is cut off from the rest of the island by two " enclosures," each about 500 or 600 ft. deep. REUNION 207 The outer enclosure runs across the island in a N. and S. direc- tion; the inner forms a kind of parabola with its arms (Rempart du Tremblet on the S. and Rempart du Bois Blanc on the N.) stretching E. to the sea and embracing not only the volcano proper but also the great eastward slope known as the Grand Brflle. The 30 m. of mountain wall round the volcano is per- haps unique in its astonishing regularity. It encloses an area of about 40 sq. m. known as the Grand Enclos. There are two principal craters, each on an elevated cone, — the more westerly, now extinct, known as the Bory Crater (8612 ft.), after Bory de St Vincent, the geologist, and the more easterly called the Burning Crater or Fournaise (8294 ft.). The latter is partially surrounded by an " enclosure " on a small scale with precipices 200 ft. high. Eruptions, though not infrequent (thirty were registered between 1735 and 1860), are seldom serious; the more noteworthy are those of 1745, 1778, 1791, 1812, 1860, 1870, 1881. Hot mineral springs are found on the flanks of the Piton des Neiges; the Source de Salazie (discovered in 1831) lies 2860 ft. above sea-level, has a temperature of 90°, and discharges 200 to 220 gallons per hour of water impregnated with bicarbonate of soda, and carbonates of magnesium and lime, iron, &c.; that of Cilaos (discovered in 1826) is 3650 ft. above the sea with a temperature of 100°; and that of Mafate 2238 ft. and 87°. Vertically Reunion may be divided into five zones. The first or maritime zone contains all the towns and most of the villages, built on the limited areas of level alluvium occurring at intervals round the coast. In the second, which lies between 2600 and 4000 ft., the sugar plantations made a green belt round the island and country houses abound. The third zone is that of the forests; the fourth that of the plateaus, where European vegetables can be cultivated; and above this extends the region of the mountains. Climate. — The year divides into two seasons — that of heat and rain from November to April, that of dry and more bracing weather from May to October. The prevailing winds are from the S.E., sometimes veering round to the S., and more frequently to the N.E.; the W. winds are not so steady (three hundred and seven days of E. to fifty-eight of W. wind in the course of the year). It is seldom calm during the day, but there is usually a period of complete repose before the land wind begins in the evening. Several years sometimes pass without a cyclone visiting the island; at other times they occur more than once in a single " winter." The raz de maree occasionally does great damage. On the leeward side of the island the winds are generally from the W. and S.W., and bring little rain. Mist hangs almost all day on the tops of the mountains, but usually clears off at night. On the coast and lower zones on the windward side the mean temperature is about 73° F. in the " winter " and 78° F. in the " summer." On the leeward side the heat is somewhat greater. In the Salazie cirque the mean annual average is 66° F.; at the Plaine des Palmistes 62" F. The rainfall is very heavy on the windward side, some stations registering 160 in. a year, while on the " dry " side of the island not more than 50 in. are registered. On the mountain heights snow falls every year, and ice is occasionally seen. In general the island is healthy, but fever is prevalent on the coast. Fauna and Flora. — The fauna of Reunion is not very rich in variety of species. The mammals are a brown maki (Lemur mongoz, Linn.) from Madagascar, Pteropus edwardsii now nearly extinct, several bats, a wild cat, the tang or tamec (Centetes setosus, Denn.), several rats, the hare, and the goat. Among the more familiar birds are the " oiseau de la vierge " (Muscipeta borbonica), the tec- tec (Pratincola sybilla), Certhia borbonica, the cardinal (Fpudia madagascariensis), various swallows, ducks, &c. The visitants from Madagascar, Mauritius and even India, are very numerous. Lizards and frogs of more than one species are common, but there is only one snake (Lycodon aulicum) known in the island. Various species of Gobius, a native species of mullet, Nestis cyprinoides, Osphronamus olfax and Doules rupestris are among the freshwater fishes. Turtles, formerly common, are now very rare. In the forest region of the island there is a belt, 4500-5000 ft. above the sea, characterized by the prevalence of dwarf bamboo (Bambusa alpina) ; and above that is a similar belt of Acacia heterophylla. Besides this last the best timber-trees are Casuarina laterifolia, Foetida mauritiana, Imbricaria petiolaris, Elaeodendron orientale, Calophyllum spurium (red tacamahac), Term.ina.lia bor- bonica, Parkin speciosa. The gardens of the coast districts display a marvellous wealth of flowers and shrubs, partly indigenous and partly gathered from all parts of the world. Among the indigenous varieties may be noted the vacoa (Pandanus utilis) and the aloe. A species of coffee plant is also indigenous. Fruits grown in the island are: the banana, the coco-nut, bread-fruit and jack-fruit, the bilimbi, the carambola, the guava, the litchi, the Japanese medlar, the mango-steen, the tamarind, the Abelmoschus esculentus, the chirimoya, the papaya, &c. Forests originally covered nearly the whole island ; the majority of the land has been cleared by the inhabitants, but there are still some 200 sq. m. of forest land and the administration has in part replanted the higher districts, such as Salazie, with eucalyptus and caoutchouc trees. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are divided into various classes, the Creoles, the mulattoes, the negroes, and Indians and other Asiatics. The Creole population is descended from the first French settlers, chiefly Normans and Bretons, who married Malagasy women. Later settlers included European women, but the presence of non-European blood is so commo_n among the Creoles that the phrase " Bourbon white " was given in Mauritius to linen of doubt- ful cleanness. Three kinds of Creoles are recognized — those of the towns and coasts, those of the mountains, and the petits Creoles, originally a class of small farmers living in the uplands, now reduced to a condition of poverty and dependence on the planters. The Creoles blancs de miles, the typical inhabitants of the island, are in general of a somewhat weak physique, quick-witted and of charming manners, brave and very proud of their island, but not of strong character. The mixed races tend to approximate to a single type, one in which the European strain predominates. The Creole patois is French mixed with a considerable number of Malagasy and Indian words, and containing many local idioms. The popu- lation, about 35,000 towards the close of the 1 8th century, was in 1849, at the period of the liberation of the slaves, 120,000, of whom 60,800 were newly freed negroes. Thereafter coolies were intro- duced from India, and in 1870 the population had increased to 212,000. In 1882 the government of India ceased to authorize the emigration of coolies to Reunion, and in consequence of that and other economic causes the population decreased. In 1902 the inhabitants numbered 173,315. Of these 13,492 were British Indians, 4496 Malagasy, 9457 foreign-born negroes, and 1378 Chinese. Of the native born the Creoles numbered about 3000, the remainder being negroes or of mixed race. Among the Indian Copulation the males are as three to one to the females, and the irth-rate is lower than the death-rate. Towns and Communication. — St Denis, the capital of the island, lies on _the N. coast. It had in 1902 a population of 27,392. It is built in the form of an amphitheatre, and has several fine public buildings and centrally, situated botanic gardens. It is the seat of a bishopric, a court of first instance and an appeal court. It has an abundant supply of pure water. The only anchorage for vessels is an open roadstead. St Pierre (pop. 28,885), the chief town on the leeward side of the island, has a small artificial harbour. Between St Pierre and St Denis, and both on the leeward shore, are the towns of St Louis (pop. 12,541) and St Paul (pop. 19,617). A few miles N. of St Paul on the S. side of Cape Pointe des Galets is the port of the same name, the only considerable harbour in the island. It_ was completed in 1886 at a cost of £2,700,000, covers 40 acres, is well protected, and has 28 ft. of water. A railway serving the port goes round the coast from St Pierre, by St Paul, St Denis, &c., to St Benoit (a town on the E. side of the island with a pop. of 12,523), a distance of 83! m. This line is carried through a tunnel nearly 6| m. long between La Possession and St Denis. Besides the railway the lower parts of the island are well provided with roads. There is regular steamship communication between Pointe des Galets, Marseilles, Havre and Madagascar. Telegraphic communication with all parts of the world was established in 1906 when a cable connecting Reunion with Tamatave and Mauritius was laid. Industries. — The Sugar Plantations. — The area of the cultivated lands is estimated at 148,200 acres (or 230 scj. m.), of which 86,450 acres are under sugar-cane, the remainder being under either maize, manioc, potatoes, haricots, or coffee, vanilla and cocoa. The sugar-cane, introduced in 1711 by Pierre Parat, is now the staple crop. In the l8th century the first place belonged to coffee (intro- duced from Arabia in 1715) and to the clove tree, brought from the Dutch Indies by Poivre at the risk of his life. Both are now culti- vated on a very limited scale. Vanilla, introduced in 1818, was not extensively cultivated till about 1850. Bourbon vanilla, as it is called, is of high character, and next to sugar is the most important article of cultivation in the island. There are small plantations of cocoa and cinchona; cotton-growing was tried, but proved un- successful. The sugar industry has suffered greatly from the competition with beet sugar and the effects of bounties, also from the scarcity of labour, from the ravages of the phylloxera (which made its appearance in 1878) and from extravagant methods of manu- facture. It was not until 1906 that steps were taken for the creation of central sugar mills and refineries, in consequence of the com- pulsory shutting down of many small mills. Rum is largely dis- tilled and forms an important article of export. There are also manufactories for the making of geranium essence, St Pierre being the centre of this industry. Other articles exported are aloe fibre and vacoa casks. The mineral wealth of the island has not been 208 REUS— REUSCH, F. H. exploited, except for the mineral springs which yield waters highly esteemed. Almost all the products of the island are exported, so that the import trade is very varied. Cattle are imported from Madagascar; rice, the chief article of food, from Saigon and India; petroleum, largely used in manufactories, from America and Russia; almost everything else comes from France, to which country go the great majority of the exports. Over 75 % of the shipping is under the French flag. Commerce. — The total trade amounted in 1860 to the value of £4,464,000 (the highest during thecentury); in 1900, to £1,533,240. In 1905 the imports were valued at £727,000 and the exports at £428,000. Of the imports £500,000 were from France or French colonies; of the exports £388,000 went to France or French colonies. The currency consists of notes of the Banquede la Reunion (guaran- teed by the government) and nickel token money. Neither the notes nor the nickel money have any currency outside Reunion; the rate of exchange varies from 5 to 20 %. Administration and Revenue. — Reunion is regarded practically as a department of France. It sends two deputies and one senator to the French legislature, and is governed by laws passed by that body. All inhabitants, not being aliens, enjoy the franchise, no distinction being made between whites, negroes or mulattoes, all of whom are citizens. At the head of the local administration is a governor who is assisted by a secretary-general, a procureur general, a privy council and a council-general elected by the suffrages of all citizens. The governor has the right of direct communication and negotiation with the government of South Africa and all states east of the Cape. The council-general has wide powers, including the fixing of the budget. For administrative purposes the island is divided into two arrondissements, the Wind- ward, with five cantons and nine communes, and the Leeward, with four cantons and seven communes. The towns are subject to the French municipal law. The revenue, largely dependent on the prosperity of the sugar trade, declined from an average of £163,765 in the five years 1895-99 to an average of £147 ,225 in the five years 1900—4. For the same periods the average colonial expenditure, which includes the loss incurred in maintaining the harbour and railway, increased from £224,508 to £225,088. De- ficits are made good by grants from France. History. — Reunion is usually said to have been first discovered in April 1513 by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Mascarenhas, and his name, or that of Mascarene Islands, is still applied to the archi- pelago of which it forms a part; but it seems probable that it must be identified with the island of Santa Apollonia discovered by Diego Fernandes Pereira on the 9th of February 1507. It was visited by the Dutch towards the close of the i6th century, and by the English early in the 1 7th century. When in 1638 the island was taken possession of by Captain Gaubert, or Gobert, of Dieppe, it was still uninhabited; a more formal annexation in the name of Louis XIII. was effected in 1643 by Jacques Pronis, agent of the Compagnie des Indes in Madagascar; and in 1649 Etienne de Flacourt, Pronis's more eminent successor, repeated the ceremony at a spot which he named La Possession. He also changed the name of the island from Mascarenhas to Bourbon. By decree of the Convention in 1793, Bourbon in turn gave place to Reunion, and, though during the empire this was discarded in favour of lie Bonaparte, and at the Restoration people naturally went back to Bourbon, Reunion has been the official designation since 1848. The first inhabitants were a dozen mutineers deported from Madagascar by Pronis, but they remained only three years (1646—49). Other colonists went thither of their own will in 1654 and 1662. In 1664 the Compagnie des Indes orientates de Madagascar, to whom a concession of the island was granted, initiated a regular colonization scheme. Their first commandant was Etienne Regnault, who in 1689 received from the French crown the title of governor. The growth of the colony was very slow, and in 1717 there were only some 2000 inhabitants. It is recorded that they lived on excellent terms with the pirates, who from 1684 onward infested the neigh- bouring seas for many years. In 1735 Bourbon was placed under the governor of the tie de France (Mauritius), at that time the illus- trious Mah6 de Labourdonnais. The Compagnie des Indes orien- tates gave up its concession in 1767, and under direct administration of the crown liberty of trade was granted. The French Revolution effected little change in the island and occasioned no bloodshed; the colonists successfully resisted the attempts of the Convention to abolish slavery, which continued until 1848 (when over 60,000 negroes were freed), the slave trade being, however, abolished in 1817. During the Napoleonic wars Reunion, like Mauritius, served the French corsairs as a rallying place from which attacks on Indian merchantmen could be directed. In 1809 the British attacked the island, and the French were forced to capitulate on the 8th of July iSip; the island remained in the possession of Great Britain until April 1815, when it was restored to France. From that period the island has had no exterior troubles. The negro population, upon whom in 1870 the Third Republic conferred the full rights of French citizenship including the vote, being unwilling to labour in the plantations, the immigration of coolies began in 1860, but in 1882 the government of India prohibited the further emigration of labourers from that country, in consequence of the inconsiderate treatment of the coolies by the colonists. Reunion has also suffered from the disastrous effects of cyclones. A particularly destructive storm swept over the island in March 1879, and in 1904 another cyclone destroyed fully half of the sugar crop and 75% of the vanilla crop. See A. G. Garsault, Notice sur la Reunion (Paris, 1900), a mono- graph prepared for the Paris exhibition of that year; E. Jacob de Cordemoy, Etude sur Vile de la Reunion, geographic, richesses natur- elles, &c. (Marseilles, 1905); W. D. Oliver, Crags and Craters; Rambles in the island of Reunion (London, 1896); C. Keller, Natur und Volksleben der Insel Reunion (Basel, 1888); J. D. Brunei, Histoire de f association generate des francs Creoles de file Bourbon (St Denis, Reunion, 1885); Trouette, L'lle Bourbon pendant la periode revolutionnaire (Paris, 1888). Of earlier works consult Demanet, Nouv. Hist, de I'Afrique fran^aise (1767); P. U. Thomas, Essai de statistique de file Bourbon (1828); Dejean de la Batie, Notice sur file Bourbon (1847); J. Mauran, Impressions dans un voy. de Paris a Bourbon (1850); Maillard, Notes sur file de la Re- union (1862); Azema, Hist, de file Bourbon (1862). The geology and volcanoes of Reunion were the object of elaborate study by Bory de St Vincent in 1801 and 1802 (Voyages dans les quatre prin- cipales ties des mers d'Afrique, Paris, 1804), and have since been examined by R. yon Drasche (see Die Insel Reunion, &c., Vienna, 1878, and C. Velain, Descriptions geologique de . . . file de la Reunion . . ., Paris, 1878). The best map is Pau Lepervanche's Carte de la Reunion 1-100,000 (Paris, 1906). REUS, a city of N.E. Spain, in the province of Tarragona, on the Saragossa-Tarragona railway, 4 m. N. of Salou, its port on the Mediterranean. Pop. (1900) 26,681. Reus consists of two parts, the old and the new, separated by the Calle Arrabal, which occupies the site of the old city wall. The old town centres in the Plaza del Mercado, from which narrow and tortuous lanes radiate in various directions; the new one dates from about the middle of the i8th century, and its streets are wide and straight. There is an active trade in the agricultural products of the fertile region around the city. The local industries developed considerably between 1875 and 1905, and the city has important flour, wine and fruit export houses. There is a model farm belonging to the municipality in the suburbs. Reus has excellent primary, normal and higher- grade state schools, many private schools, an academy of fine arts and a public library. The hospitals and foundling refuge, the institute and the town hall are handsome modern buildings. The earliest records of Reus date from about the middle of the i3th century. Its modern prosperity is traced to about the year 1750, when a colony of English settled here and estab- lished a trade in woollens, leather, wine and spirits. The principal incidents in its political history arose out of the occurrences of 1843 (see SPAIN, History), in connexion with which the town received the title of city, and Generals Zurbano and Prim were made counts of Reus. The city was the birth- place of General Prim (1814-1870) and of the painter Mariano Fortuny (1830-1874). REUSCH, FRANZ HEINRICH (1823-1900), Old Catholic theologian, was born at Brilon, in Westphalia, on 4th December 1823. He studied general literature at Paderborn, and theology at Bonn, Tubingen and Munich. The friend and pupil of Dollinger, he took his degree of Doctor in Theology at Munich, the university of which Dollinger was so long an ornament. He was ordained priest in 1849, a"d was immediately after- wards made chaplain at Cologne. In 1854 he became Privat- dozent in the exegesis of the Old Testament in the Catholic Theological Faculty at Bonn; in 1858 he was made extra- ordinary, and in 1861 ordinary, professor of theology in the same university. From 1866 to 1877 he was editor of the Banner Theologisches Literaturblatt. In the controversies on the Infallibility of the Pope, Reusch attached himself to Dollinger's party, and he and his colleagues Hilgers, Knoodt and Langen were interdicted by the archbishop of Cologne in 1871 from pursuing their courses of lectures. In 1872 he was excommunicated. For many years after this he held the post of Old Catholic cure of Bonn, as well as the position of vicar- general to the Old Catholic Bishop Reinkens, but resigned both in 1878, when, with Dollinger, he disapproved of the permission to marry granted by the Old Catholic Church in Germany to its clergy. From that time he retired into lay communion. REUSCH, H. H.— REUSS 209 but continued to give lectures as usual in the Old Catholic Faculty of Theology in the university of Bonn, and to write on theological subjects. He was made rector of that university in 1873. In 1874 and 1875 he was the official reporter of the memorable Reunion Conferences held at Bonn in those years and attended by many distinguished theologians of the Oriental and Anglican communions. Reusch was a profound scholar, an untiring worker and a man of lovable character. Among his voluminous works were contributions to the Revue Internationale de theologie, a review started at Bern at the instance of the Old Catholic Congress at Lucerne. He wrote also works on the Old Testament; a pamphlet on Die Deutschen Bischofe und der Aberglaube; and another on the falsifications to be found in the treatise of Aquinas against the Greeks; as well as essays on the history of the Jesuit Order, and a book of prayers. But his fame will mainly rest on the works which he and Dollinger published jointly. These consisted of a work on the Autobiography of Cardinal Bellarmine, the Geschichte der M oralstreitigen in der Romisch-Katholischen Kirche sell dem XVI. Jahrhundert, and the Erorterungen uber Leben und Schriften des hi. Liguori. During the last few years of his life he was smitten with paralysis. He died on the 3rd of March 1900, leaving behind him in manu- script a collection of letters to Bunsen about Roman cardinals and prelates, which has since been published. (J. J. L. *) REUSCH, HANS HENRIK (1852- ), Norwegian geologist, was born at Bergen on the sth of September 1852. He was educated at Christiania, Leipzig and Heidelberg, and graduated Ph.D. at Christiania in 1883. He joined the Geological Survey of Norway in 1875, and became Director in 1888. He is dis- tinguished for his researches on the crystalline schists and the Palaeozoic rocks of Norway. He discovered Silurian fossils in the highly altered rocks of the Bergen region; and in 1891 he called attention to a palaeozoic conglomerate of glacial origin in the Varanger Fiord, a view confirmed by Mr A. Strahan in 1896, who found glacial striae on the rocks beneath the ancient boulder-bed. Reusch has likewise thrown light on the later geological periods, on the Pleistocene glacial pheno- mena and on the sculpturing of the scenery of Norway. Among his separate publications are Silur fossiler og pressede Kon- glomeraler (1882); Del nordlige Norges Geologi (1891). REUSS, AUGUST EMANUEL VON (1811-1873), Austrian geologist and palaeontologist, the son of Franz Ambrosius Reuss (1761-1830), was born at Bilin in Bohemia on the Sth of July 1811. He was educated for the medical profession, graduating in 1834 at the university of Prague, and afterwards practising for fifteen years at Bilin. His leisure was devoted to mineralogy and geology, and the results of his researches were published in Geognostische Skizzen aus Bohmen (1840-44) and Die Versteinerungen der Bohmischen Kreideformation (1845-46). In 1849 he gave up his medical practice, and became professor of mineralogy at the university of Prague. There he estab- lished a fine mineralogical collection, and he became the first lecturer on geology. In 1863 he was appointed professor of mineralogy in the university of Vienna. He investigated the Cretaceous fauna of Gosau, and studied the Crustacea, including entomostraca, the corals, bryozoa, and especially the foraminifera of various geological formations and countries. He died at Vienna on the 26th of November 1873. REUSS, EDOUARD GUILLAUME EUGENE (1804-1891), Protestant theologian, was born at Strassburg on the i8th of July 1804. He studied philology in his native town (1819-22), theology at Gottingen under J. G. Eichhorn; and Oriental languages at Halle under Wilhelm Gesenius, and afterwards at Paris under Silvestre de Sacy (1827-28). In 1828 he became Privatdozent at Strassburg. From 1829 to 1834 he taught Biblical criticism and Oriental languages at the Strassburg Theological School; he then became assistant, and afterwards, in 1836, regular professor of theology at that university. The sympathies of Reuss were German rather than French, and after the annexation of Alsace to Germany he remained at Strassburg, and retained his professorship till, in 1888, he retired on a pension. Amongst his earliest works were: De libris veteris Testamenli dpocryphis plebi non negandis (1829), Ideen zur Einleitung in das Evangelium Johannis (1840) and Die J ohanneische Theologie (1847). In 1852 he published his Hisloire de la theologie chrttienne au siecle apostolique, which was followed in 1863 by L'Histoire du canon des sainles (critures dans I'iglise chrttienne. In 1874 he began to publish his translation of the Bible, La Bible, nouvelle traditction avec commenlaire. It was the criticism and exegesis of the New Testament which formed the subject of Reuss's earlier labours — in 1842, indeed, he had published in German a history of the books of the New Testament, Geschichte der heiligen Schriften N. Test. ; and though his own views were liberal, he opposed the results of the Tubingen school. After a time he turned his attention also to Old Testa- ment criticism, for which he was especially fitted by his sound knowledge of Hebrew. In 1881 he published in German his Geschichte der heiligen Schriften A. Test., a veritable encyclopaedia of the history of Israel from its earliest beginning till the taking of Jerusalem by Titus. He died at Strassburg on the isth of April 1891. Reuss belonged to the more modern section of the Liberal party in the Lutheran Church. His critical position was to some extent that of K. H. Graf and J. Wellhausen, allowing for the circumstances that he was in a sense their forerunner, and was actually for a time Graf's teacher. Indeed, he was really the originator of the new movement, but hesitated to publish the results of his studies. For many years Reuss edited with A. H. Cunitz (b. 1812) the Beitriige zu den theologischen Wissen- schaften. With A. H. Cunitz and J. W. Baum (1809-1878), and after their death alone, he edited the monumental edition of Calvin's works (38 vols., 1863 ff.). His critical edition of the Old Testament appeared a year after his death. His son, ERNST RUDOLF (b. 1841), was in 1873 appointed city librarian at Strassburg. See the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and cf. Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology in Germany since Kant (1890). REUSS, the name of two small principalities of the German empire, called Reuss, elder line, or Reuss-Greiz, and Reuss, younger line, or Reuss-Schleiz-Gera. With a joint area of 441 sq. m. they form part of the complex of Thuringian states, and consist, roughly speaking, of two main blocks of territory, separated by the Neustadt district of the duchy of Saxe- Weimar. The more southerly, which is much the larger of the two portions, belongs to the bleak, mountainous region of the Frankenwald and the Vogtland, while the northern portion is hilly, but fertile. The chief rivers are the Weisse Elster and the Saale. About 35% of the total surface is occupied by forests, while about 40% is under tillage and about 19% under meadow and pasture. Wheat, rye and barley are the principal crops grown, and the breeding of cattle is an important industry. Reuss-Greiz, with an area of 122 sq. m., belongs to the larger of the two divisions mentioned above, and consists of three large and several small parcels of land. On the whole, the soil is not favourable for agriculture, but the rearing of cattle is carried on with much success. About 63% of the inhabitants maintain themselves by industrial pursuits, the chief products of which are the making of woollen fabrics at Greiz, the capital, and of stockings at Zeulenroda. Other industries are machine- building, printing and the making of paper and porcelain. In 1905 the population of the principality was 70,603 . The constitution of Reuss-Greiz dates from 1867, and provides for a representative chamber of twelve members, of whom three are appointed by the prince, while two are chosen by the landed proprietors, three by the towns and four by the rural districts. The revenue and expenditure amount to about £76,000 a year, and there is no public debt. The reigning prince is Henry XXIV. (b. 1878), but as he is incapable of discharging his duties, these are now undertaken by a regent. Reuss-Schleiz-Gera, with an area of 319 sq. m., includes part of the southern and the whole of the northern of the two main divisions mentioned above; it touches Bavaria on the south 210 REUTER, F. and Prussian Saxony on the north. The former portion is known as the Oberland and the latter as the Unterland. Owing to the fertility of the Unterland, quite one-quarter of the people are supported by agricultural pursuits, although there is also much industrial activity. The chief industrial product consists of woollen goods, and the manufacture centres in the capital Gera, the largest of the six towns of the principality. Other industries are jute-spinning, dyeing and brewing, and the manufacture of musical instruments, chemicals, tobacco, cigars, porcelain and machinery. A considerable trade is carried on in these goods and also in timber, cattle and slate. Iron is mined in the Oberland, and large quantities of salt are yielded by the brine springs of Heinrichshall. In 1905 Reuss- Schleiz contained 144,584 inhabitants. Its annual revenue and expenditure amount to about £129,000, and in 1908 it had a public debt of £52,027. The constitution, which rests on laws of 1852 and 1856, provides for a representative assembly of 1 6 members which possesses limited legislative powers, the administrative duties being discharged by a cabinet of three members. The reigning prince is Henry XIV. (b. 1832), but since 1892 his duties have been undertaken by a regent. The states of Reuss return one member each to the Bundesrat, and one each to the Reichstag of the German empire. History. — The history of Reuss stretches back to the times when the German kings appointed vogts, or bailiffs (advocati imperil), to administer their lands. One of these vogts was a certain Henry, who died about 1120, after having been entrusted by the emperor Henry IV. with the vogtship of Gera and of Weida, and he is generally recognized as the ancestor of the princes of Reuss. His descendants called themselves lords of Weida, and some of them were men of note in their day, serving the emperors and German kings and distinguishing themselves in the ranks of the Teutonic order. The land under their rule gradually increased in size, and it is said that the name of Reuss was applied to it owing to the fact that one of its princes married a Russian princess, their son being called " der Russe," or the Russian. Another version is that the prince received this sobriquet because he passed many years in Russia. The district thus called Reuss was at one time much more extensive than it is at present, and for some years its rulers were margraves of Meissen. In 1564 the family was divided into three branches by the sons of Henry XVI. (d. 1535). One of these became ex- tinct in 1616, but the remaining ones are those of Reuss-Greiz and Reuss-Schleiz-Gera, which are flourishing to-day. Although there have been further divisions these have not been lasting, and the lands of the former family have been undivided since 1768 and those of the latter since 1848. The lords of Reuss took the title of count in 1673 ; and the head of the elder line became a prince of the Empire in 1778, and the head of the younger line in 1806. In 1807 the two princes joined the Confederation of the Rhine and in 1815 the German confederation. In 1866 Reuss-Greiz was compelled to atone for its active sympathy with Austria by the payment of a fine. In 1871 both princi- palities became members of the new German empire. The princes of Reuss are very wealthy, their private domain including a great part of the territory over which they rule. In the event of either line becoming extinct, its possessions will fall to the other. A curious custom prevails in the house of Reuss. The male members of both branches of the family all bear the name of Henry (Heinrich), the individuals being distinguished by numbers. In the elder line, according to an arrangement made in 1701, the enumeration continues until the number one hundred is reached when it begins again. In the younger line the first prince born in a new century is numbered I., and the numbers follow on until the end of the century when they begin again. Thus Henry XIV. of Reuss younger line, who was born in 1832, was the son of Henry LXVII. (1789-1867), the former being the i4th prince born in the igth century, and the latter the 67th prince born in the i8th. See B. Schmidt, Die Reussen, Genealogie des Gesamthattses Reuss (Schletz, 1903); H. von Voss, Die Ahnen des reussischen Hauses (Lobenstein, 1882); C. F. Collmann, Reussische Geschichte. Das Vogtland im Mittelalter (Greiz, 1892), and O. Liebmann, Das Staats- recht des Furstenthums Reuss (1884). REUTER, FRITZ (1810-1874), German novelist, was born on the 7th of November 1810, at Stavenhagen, in Mecklenburg- Schwerin, a small country town where his father was burgo- master and sheriff (Stadtrichter), and in addition to his official duties carried on the work of a fanner. He was educated at home by private tutors and subsequently at the gymnasiums of Friedland in Mecklenburg-Strelitz, and of Parchim. In 1831 he began to attend lectures on jurisprudence at the uni- versity of Rostock, and in the following year went to the university of Jena. Here he was a member of the political students' club, or German Burschenschaft, and in 1833 was arrested in Berlin by the Prussian government; although the only charge which could be proved against him was that he had been seen wearing its colours, he was condemned to death for high treason. This monstrous sentence was commuted by King Frederick William III. of Prussia to imprisonment for thirty years in a Prussian fortress. In 1838, through the personal intervention of the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, he was delivered over to the authorities of his native state, and the next two years he spent in the fortress of Domitz, but in 1840 was set free, an amnesty having been proclaimed after the accession of Frederick William IV. to the Prussian throne. Although Reuter was now thirty years of age, he went to Heidelberg to resume his legal studies; but he soon found it necessary to return to Stavenhagen, where he aided in the management of his father's farm. After his father's death, however, he abandoned farming, and in 1850 settled as a private tutor at the little town of Treptow in Pomerania. Here he married Luise Kunze, the daughter of a Mecklenburg pastor. Reuter's first publication was a collection of miscellanies, written in Plattdeutsch, and entitled Lauschen un Riemels ("anecdotes and rhymes," 1853; a second collection followed in 1858). The book, which was received with encouraging favour, was followed by Polterabendgedichte (1855), and De Reis' nah Belligen (1855), the latter a humorous poem describing the adventures of some Mecklenburg peasants who resolve to go to Belgium (which they never reach) to learn the secrets of an advanced civilization. In 1856 Reuter left Treptow and established himself at Neubrandenburg, resolving to devote his whole time to literary work. His next book (published in 1858) was Kein Husung, an epic in which he presents with great force and vividness some of the least attractive aspects of village life in Mecklenburg. This was followed, in 1860, by Hanne Niite un de liitte Pudel, the best of the works written by Reuter in verse. In 1861 Reuter's popularity was largely increased by Schurr-Murr, a collection of tales, some of which are in High German, but this work is of slight importance in comparison with the series of stories, entitled Olle Kamellen (" old stories of bygone days "). The first volume, published in 1860, con- tained Woans ick tau'ne Fru kam and Ut de Franzosentid. Ut mine Festungstid (1861) formed the second volume; Ut mine Stromtid (1864) the third, fourth and fifth volumes; and Dorch- Iduchting (1866) the sixth volume — all written in the Plattdeutsch dialect of the author's home. Woans ick tau 'ne Fru kam is a bright little tale, in which Reuter tells, in a half serious half bantering tone, how he wooed the lady who became his wife. In Ut de Franzosenlid the scene is laid in and neai Stavenhagen in the year 1813, and the characters of the story are associated with the great events which then stirred the heart of Germany to its depths. Ut mine Festungstid is of less general interest than Ut de Franzosenlid, a narrative of Reuter's hardships during the term of his imprisonment, but it is not less vigorous either in conception or in style. Ut mine Stromtid is by far the greatest of Reuter's writings. The men and women he describes are the men and women he knew in the villages and farmhouses of Mecklenburg, and the circumstances in which he places them are the circumstances by which they were surrounded in actual life. As in Ut de Franzosentid he describes the deep national impulse in obedience to which Germany rose against REUTER, BARON DE— REVAL 211 Napoleon, so in Ut mine Slromtid he presents many aspects of the revolutionary movement of 1848. In 1863 Reuter transferred his residence from Neubranden- burg to Eisenach; and here he died on the I2th of July 1874. In the works produced at Eisenach he did not maintain the high level of his earlier writings. Reuter's Samtliche Werke, in 13 vols., were first published in 1863- 68. To these were added in 1875 two volumes of Nachgelassene Schriften, with a biography by A. Wilbrandt; and in 1878 two supplementary volumes to the works appeared. A popular edition in 7 vols. was published in 1877—78 (last edition, 1902); there are also editions by K. F. Miiller (18 vols., 1905), and W. Seelmann(7 vols., 1905-6). See O. Glagau, F. Reuter und seine Dichtuneen (1866; 2nd ed., 1875); H. Ebert, F. Reuter und seine Werke (1874); F. Latendorf, Zur Erinnerung an F. Reuter (1879); K. T. Gadertz, Reuter- Studien (1890); by the same, A us Reuters alien und jungen Tagen (3 vols., 1894-1900); Briefe F. Reuters an seinen Vater, edited by F. Engel (2 vols., 1895); A. Romer, F. Reuter in seinem Leben und Schaffen (1895); G. Raatz, Wahrheit und Dichtung in Reuters Werken (1895); E. Brandes, Aus F. Reuters Leben (1899); K. F. Miiller, Der Mecklenburger Volksmund und F. Reuters Schriften (1902). A complete bibliography of F. Reuter will be found in the Niederdeutsche Jahrbuch for 1896 and 1902. REUTER, PAUL JULIUS, BARON DE (1821-1899), founder of Reuter's News Agency, was born at Cassel, Germany. At the age of thirteen he became a clerk in his uncle's bank at Gottingen, where he chanced to make the acquaintance of Professor Gauss, whose experiments in telegraphy were then attracting some attention. Reuter's mind was thus directed to the value of the speedy transmission of information, and in 1849, on the completion of the first telegraph lines in Germany and France, he found an opportunity of turning his ideas to account. There was a gap between the termination of the German line at Aix- la-Chapelle and that of the French and Belgian lines at Verviers. Reuter organized a news-collecting agency at each of these places, his wife being in charge of one, himself at the other, and bridged the interval by a pigeon-post. On the establishment of through telegraphic communication, Reuter endeavoured to start a news agency in Paris, but finding that the French govern- ment's restrictions would render the scheme unworkable, removed in 1851 to England and became a naturalized British subject. The first submarine cable — between Dover and Calais — had just been laid, and Reuter opened an office in London for the transmission of intelligence between England and the continent. At first, however, his business was practi- cally confined to the transmission of private commercial telegrams to places not connected with the new telegraph system. He appointed agents at the various telegraph termini on the con- tinent to take these despatches off the wires and forward them by rail or pigeon-post to the addresses. Simultaneously he endeavoured to induce the English papers to publish the foreign news telegrams supplied by his various agents. These efforts were for some years unsuccessful, until in 1858 The Times published the report of an important speech by Napoleon III. forwarded by Reuter's Paris agent. Reuter now extended his sphere of operations all over the world, and in 1859 obtained leave for the presence of representatives at the headquarters of the Austrian and French armies during the war. In 1866 he laid down a special cable from Cork to Crookhaven, which enabled him to circulate news of the American Civil War several hours before the steamer could reach Liverpool. A concession for a cable beneath the North Sea to Cuxhaven was granted him by the king of Hanover in 1863, and in the same year a concession was granted him for a cable between France and the United States, the line being worked jointly by Reuter (whose business had just been converted into a limited liability company) and the Anglo-American Telegraph Company. In 1872 he obtained from the shah of Persia an exclusive concession to develop the internal resources of that country, but the con- cession was annulled and its privileges transferred to the Im- perial Bank of Persia. Reuter was in 1871 given the title of baron by the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, and by a special grant of Queen Victoria he and his heirs were authorized to have the privileges of this rank in England. Baron Reuter died at Nice on the 25th of February 1899. REUTERHOLM. GUSTAF ADOLF, BARON (1756-1813), Swedish statesman. After a brief military career he was ap- pointed Kammerherr to Sophia Magdalena, queen consort of Gustavus III., and subsequently became intimately connected with the king's brother, Charles, then duke of Sudermania. He remained in the background throughout the reign of Gustavus III., whom he constantly opposed and by whom he was im- prisoned along with the other malcontents in 1789. He was abroad at the time of the king's death, but a summons from his friend, now duke regent, speedily recalled him, and in 1793 he was made a member of the council of state and one of the " lords of the realm." At first he seemed inclined to adopt a liberal system, and reintroduced the freedom of the press. He did this solely, however, to reverse the Gustavian system, and persecuted the stalwarts of the late king (e.g. G. M. Armfelt, J. K. Toll) with a petty vindictiveness which excited general disgust. Towards the end of the regency, Reuterholm inclined towards an alliance with Russia on the basis of a marriage between the young king, Gustavus IV., and the empress Catherine's granddaughter, Alexandra Pavlovna, an alliance frustrated by the bigotry of the intended groom. At home the Swedish government ended as ultra-reactionary, owing to an insignificant riot in Stockholm which so alarmed Reuterholm that he threatened all printers who printed anything relating to the constitutions of the French republic or the United States of America with the loss of their privileges. In March 1795 he closed the Swedish Academy because A. G. Silfverstolpe in his inaugural address had ventured to disapprove of the coup d'etat of 1789. On the accession of Gustavus IV. (November ist, 1796) Reuterholm was expelled from Stockholm. For the next twelve years he lived abroad under the name of Tempelcrentz. After the revolution of 1809 he returned to Sweden, but was denied all access to Charles XIII., and quitted his country for good. He died in Schleswig on the 27th of December 1813. See Sv'eriges'Historia (Stockholm, 1877-1881), vol. v. (R. N. B.) REUTLIN6EN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttemberg, situated on the Echatz, an affluent of the Neckar, near the base of the Achalm and 36 m. by rail S. of Stuttgart. Pop. (1905) 23,850. It is a quaintly built town, with many picturesque houses and a fine Gothic church of the i3th and i4th centuries dedicated to St Mary, which was restored in 1893-1901; it contains in the choir a replica of the Holy Sepulchre and a sculptured stone font, and has a tower 240 ft. high. Reutlingen has three other Evangelical churches, a Roman Catholic church, a town hall, and several monuments, including one to the emperor William I. and another to Friedrich List. The industries of the town are numerous, and include the spinning and weaving of cotton, dyeing and bleaching; also the manufacture of leather, machinery, furniture, shoes, paper, clothing, hardware, bricks, beer and woollen goods. Hops, vines and fruit are grown in the neighbourhood. Reutlingen has several schools and educational establishments, including a celebrated pomological institute. It is also famous as the place where Pastor Gustav Werner (1800-1887) founded his Christian Socialist refuge, which has become widely known in philanthropic circles. Reutlingen, which is first mentioned in 1213, became a free im- perial town in the 1 3th century and was fortified by the emperor Frederick II., remaining loyal to him and to his son, Conrad IV. A member of the league of Swabian towns, its citizens defeated Count Ulrich of Wurttemberg on the I4th of May 1377. Later it joined the Swabian League and was favoured by the emperor Maxi- milian I. It came into the possession of Wurttemberg in 1802. An explosion which took place on the J7th of December 1852 destroyed many houses in the town. See Rupp, Aus der Vorzeit Reutlingens und seiner Umgegend (Stuttgart, 1869); Hochstetter, Fuhrer durch Reutlingen und Umgebung (Reutlingen, 1901); and Zwiesele, Geognostischer Fuhrer in der Umgegend von Reutlingen (Stuttgart, 1897). REVAL, or REVEL (Russ. Revel, formerly Kolyvan; Esthonian, Tallina and Tannilin), a fortified seaport town of Russia, capital of Esthonia, situated on a bay on the S. coast of the gulf of Finland, 230 m. W. of St Petersburg by rail. Pop. (1900) 66,292, of whom half were Esthonians and 30% 212 REVEILLE— REVELATION, BOOK OF Germans. The city consists of two parts — the Domberg or Dom, which occupies a hill, and the lower town on the beach. The Dom contains the castle (first built in the I3th century, rebuilt in 1772), where the provincial administration has its seat, and a cathedral (1894-1900) with five gilded domes. It has its own administration, separate from that of the lower town. The church of St Nicholas, built in 1317, contains many antiquities of the former Roman Catholic times and old German paintings. The Dom church contains many interesting shields, as also the graves of the circumnavigator Baron A. J. von Krusenstern (1770-1846), of the Swedish soldiers Pontus de la Gardie (d. 1585) and Carl Horn (d. 1601), and of the Bohemian Protestant leader Count Matthias von Thum (1580- 1640). The church of St Olai, first erected in 1240, and often rebuilt, was completed in 1840 in Gothic style; it has a bell tower 456 ft. high. The oldest church is the Esthonian, built in 1219. The public institutions ' include a good provincial museum of antiquities; an imperial palace, Katharinenthal, built by Peter the Great in 1719; and very valuable archives, preserved in the town hall (i4th century). The pleasant situation of the town attracts thousands of people for sea- bathing. It is the seat of a branch board of the Russian admiralty and of the administration of the Baltic lighthouses. Its port has a depth of 4 to 6 fathoms, and a roadstead 35 m. wide, which freezes nearly every winter. The exports consist chiefly of grain, timber, flax, hides, wool, a species of anchovy, and hemp, and the imports of manufactured goods and machinery. The value of the aggregate trade amounts to an average of seven to nine millions sterling annually. Ther£ is considerable trade with Finland. Baltic Port, 30 m. W., is a sort of annex to the port of Reval. The high Silurian crag now known as Domberg was early occupied by an Esthonian fort, Lindanissa. In 1219 the Danish king Valdemar II. erected here a strong castle and founded the first church. In 1228 the castle was taken by the Livonian Knights, but nine years later it returned to the Danes. About the same time Lubeck and Bremen merchants settled there, and their settlement became an important seaport of the Hanseatic League. It was fortified early in the i4th century, and in 1343 sustained a siege by the revolted Esthonians. Valdemar III. sold Reval and Esthonia to the Teutonic Knights in 1346, but on the dissolution of the order, in 1561, Esthonia and Reval surrendered to the Swedish king Erik XIV. A great conflagra- tion in 1433, the pestilence of 1532, the bombardment by the Danes in 1569, and the Russo-Livonian War, destroyed its trade. The Russians besieged Reval twice, in 1570 and 1577. It was still an important fortress, having been enlarged and fortified by the Swedes. In 1710 it was surrendered to Peter the Great, who immediately began the erection of a military port for his Baltic fleet. His successors continued to fortify the access to Reval from the sea, large works being undertaken, especially in the early years of the igth century. REVEILLfi (Fr. reveilles, imperative of reveiller, to awaken, Lat. re- and vigilare, to watch), the signal by call of bugle or beat of drum to announce to soldiers the time to awake and begin duty. REVELATION, BOOK OF, in the Bible, the last book of the New Testament. Title. — According to the best authorities K CA (in the sub- scription) 2, 8, 82, 93, the title of this book is airoKa^v^Ls 'Iwavvov. Some cursives (i, 14, 17, 25, 28, 31, 38, 51, 90, 91, 94, 97) read dir. (+ TOV ayiov i, 25, 28, 31, 38, 51, 90, 94) 'luavvov TOV 0€oX6yoir, Q and 12, (or. T. TOV 0eo\. Kal tva-yfiKiarov; P and 42,^ ? and adding together the sums denoted by the Hebrew letters we obtain the number 666. This solution is confirmed by the fact that it is possible to explain by it an ancient (Western?) variant for the number 666, i.e. 616. This latter, which is attested by Irenaeus (v. 30. i), the commentary of Ticonius, and the uncial C, can be explained from the Latin form of the name Nero, which by its omission of the final n makes the sum total 616 instead of 666. The above solution may be regarded as established, though several scholars, as Oscar Holtzmann (Stade's Geschichte des Volkes Israel, ii. 661), Spitta and Erbes, have contended that 616 was the original reading (Yaios Kourap=6i6) and that 'On the possibility of other points of contact between the Apocalypse and Egyptian mythology, see Mrs Grenfell's article, " Egyptian Mythology and the Bible," in the Monist (1906), pp. 169-200. z In xiii. 2 the description of the beast unites the features of the four beasts in Daniel's vision (vii.). It is clear that our author identified the fourth beast (vii. 23) with Rome, as did also the author of 4 Ezra xii. 10. But this was not the original significance of the fourth beast, for the author of Daniel referred thereby to the Greek empire; but, since the prophecy was not realized, it was subsequently reinterpreted, and applied, as we have observed, to Rome. chapter xiii. was part of a Jewish apocalypse written under Caligula between the years 39 and 41. But this Caligula hypothesis cannot be carried out unless by a vigorous use of the critical knife, in the course of which more than a third of the chapter is excised. Moreover the number 616 is too weakly supported to admit of its being recognized as the original. The figure of the first beast presents many difficulties, owing to the fact that it is not freely invented but largely derived from traditional elements and is by the writer identified with the seventh wounded head. The second beast, signifying the pagan priesthood of the imperial cult, called " the false prophet " in xvi. 13, appears to be an independent development of the Antichrist legend. xiv -xvi. — These chapters contain a vision of Christ on Mount Zion and the 144,000 of the undefiled that follow Him, xiv. 1-5, the last warnings relating to the harvest and vintage of the world, xiv. 6-20: the vision of the wrath of God in the out- pouring of the seven bowls containing the seven last plagues, xv.-xvi. In the above section most critics are agreed that xiv. 14-20 originally represented the final judgment and was removed from its rightful place at the close of an apocalypse to its present position. In its original setting " the one like unto a Son of Man, having on his head a golden crown " (xiv. 14), undoubtedly designated the Messiah, but the transformation of the final judgment into a preliminary act of judgment by a redactor, necessarily brought with it the degradation of the Son of Man to the level of a mere angel. Some critics hold that this apocalypse was the apocalyptic groundwork, but Bousset is of opinion that it stood originally in connexion with xi. 1-13. As regards xvi. the views of critics take different directions, but that of Bousset followed by Porter seems the most reason- able. This is that this chapter forms an introduction to xvii., which was an independent fragment. The writer throws this introduction into his favourite scheme of seven acts, in this case symbolized by seven bowls. The earlier verses, 2-11, do not amount to much beyond a repetition of what is found in viii.-ix., save that as a preparation for xvii. references are inserted to the beast and his worshippers (ver. 2) and to Rome (ver. 10). In xvi. 12-16 is a revised form of an older tradition. xvii. — This chapter presents great difficulties, especially if with the older and some of the recent exegetes we regard it as written at the same time and by the same author. Even so strong an upholder of the unity of the book as Swete is ready to admit that portions of xvii., as well as of xiii., show signs of an earlier date than the rest of the book. He writes: " The unity of the Book . . . cannot be pressed so far as to exclude the possibility that the extant book is a second edition of an earlier work, or that it incorporates earlier materials, and either hypothesis would sufficiently account for the few indica- tions of a Neronic or Vespasianic date that have been found in it " (Apoc. of St John"1, p. civ.). This chapter cannot be interpreted apart from the Neronic myth. Of this there appear to be two stages attested here. Of the earlier we have traces in xvii. 16-17 and xvi. 12, where there are allusions to Nero's confederacy with the Parthian kings with a view to the destruc- tion of Rome. Of the later stage, when the myth of Nero redivivus was fused with that of the Antichrist, we have at- testation in xvii. 8, 12-14, where Nero is regarded as a demon coming up from the abyss to war not with Rome but with Christ and the elect. This development of the Neronic myth belongs to the last years of the ist century, and is decidedly against a Vespasianic date. To meet this difficulty a recent interpreter — Anderson Scott — though he assigns the book to the year A.D. 77, is yet willing to admit that the book though composed in the reign of Vespasian was " reissued with additions by the same hand after the death of Domitian" (Revelation, p. 56). Our author represents himself as writing under the sixth emperor. Five have already died, the seventh is yet to come, to be followed by yet an eighth, who is one of the seven (i.e. Nero). In order to arrive at the date here implied, we can REVELATION, BOOK OF 219 begin the reckoning from Julius Caesar or Augustus, we can include or exclude Galba, Otho and Vitellius, and, finally, when we have drawn our conclusions from these data, there remains the possibility that the book was after all not written under the sixth emperor, but was really a vaticinium ex eventu. Ac- cording to the different methods pursued, some have concluded that Nero was the sixth emperor, and thus dated the Apocalypse before A.D. 70; others Vespasian, and yet others Domitian. No solution of the difficulties of the chapter is wholly satis- factory, but the best yet offered seems to be that of Bousset (0/enbarung2, 410-18). He holds that 1-7, o-n, 15-18, belong to an original source, which was written in the reign of Vespasian and represents the earlier stage of the Neronic myth. To a reviser in Domitian's reign we owe 8, 12-14 and 6b, a clause in 9, ima. 8pij . . . airrZv, and another in 1 1, 8 fy K.a.1 OVK tara>. If the clause t{>na.Ta.(Memoirs) appeared posthumously in 1894-1895. RHAPSODIST (Gk. Rhapsodos), originally an epic poet who recited his own poetry; then, one who recited the poems of others (see HOMER). RHATANY or KRAMERIA ROOT, in medicine, the dried root either of Para rhatany or of Peruvian rhatany. The action of rhatany is due to the rhatania-tannic acid, and re- sembles that of tannic acid, being a powerful astringent. An infusion is used as a gargle for relaxed throats; and lozenges, particularly those containing rhatany and cocaine, are useful 231 in similar cases. Like tannic acid, the powdered extract may be applied as a local haemostatic. Ah1 preparations of rhatany taken internally are powerful astringents in diarrhoea and intestinal haemorrhage. RHAYADER (Rhaiadr-Gwy) , a market town of Radnorshire, Wales, situated amid wild and beautiful scenery on the left bank of the Wye, about ij m. above its confluence with the Elan. Pop. (1901) 1215. Rhayader is a station on the Cambrian railway. A stone bridge over the Wye connects the town with the village and parish church of Cwmdauddwr. Rhayader has for some centuries been an important centre for Welsh mutton and wool, and its sheep fairs are largely attended by drovers and buyers from all parts. Near Rhayader are the large reservoirs constructed (1895) by the corporation of Birmingham in the Elan and Claerwen valleys. Rhayader, built close to the Falls of the Wye (whence its name), owes its early importance to the castle erected here by Prince Rhys 'ap Griffith oi South Wales, c. 1178, in order to check the English advance up the Wye Valley. Seized by the invaders, castle and town were later retaken in 1231 by Prince Llewelyn ap lorwerth, who burned the fortress and slew its garrison. Scarcely a trace of the castle exists, although its site near St Clement's church is locally known as Tower Hill. With the erection of Maesyfed into the shire of Radnor in 1536 Rhayader was named as assize-town for the newly formed county in conjunction with New Radnor; but in 1542, on account of a local riot, the town was deprived of this privilege in favour of Presteign. Rhayader constituted one of the group of boroughs comprising the Radnor parliamentary district until the Redistribution Act of 1885. RHEA, a goddess of the Greeks known in mythology as the daughter of Uranus and Gaia, the sister and consort of Kronos, and the mother of Zeus. In Homer she is the mother of the gods, though not a universal mother like Cybele, the Phrygian Great Mother, with whom she was later identified. The original seat of her worship was in Crete. There, according to legend, she saved the new-born Zeus, her sixth child, from being devoured by Kronos by substituting a stone for him and entrusting the infant god to the care of her attendants the Curetes (q.v.). These attendants afterwards ' became the bodyguard of Zeus and the priests of Rhea, and performed ceremonies in her honour. In historic times the resemblances between Rhea and the Asiatic Great Mother, Phrygian Cybele, were so notice- able that the Greeks accounted for them by regarding the latter as only their own Rhea, who had deserted her original home in Crete and fled to the mountain wilds of Asia Minor to escape the persecution of Kronos (Strabo 469, 12). The reverse view was also held (Virgil, Aen. iii. in), and it is probably true that a stock of Asiatic origin formed part of the primitive population of Crete and brought with them the worship of the Asiatic Great Mother, who became the Cretan Rhea. (See GREAT MOTHER OF THE GODS.) (G. SN.) RHEA, the name given in 1752 by P. H. G. Mohring1 to a South American bird which, though long before known and described by the earlier writers — Nieremberg, Marcgrav and Piso (the last of whom has a recognizable but rude figure of it) — had been without any distinctive scientific appellation. Adopted a few years later by M. J. Brisson, the name has since passed into general use, especially among English authors, for what their predecessors had called the American ostrich; but on the European continent the bird is commonly called Nandu* a word corrupted from a name it is said to have borne among the aboriginal inhabitants of Brazil, where the Portuguese settlers called it ema (see EMEU). The resemblance of the rhea to the ostrich (q.v.) was at once perceived, but the differences between them are also very evident. The former, for instance, has three instead of two toes on each foot, it has no apparent tail, its wings are far better developed, and when folded cover the body, and its head and neck are clothed with feathers, while internal distinctions of still deeper significance have since been 1 What prompted his bestowal of this name, so well known in classical mythology, is not apparent. 2 The name Touyou, also of South American origin, was applied to it by Brisson and others, but erroneously, as Cuvier shows, since by that name, or something like it, the jabiru (q.v.) is properly meant. 232 RHEINBERGER dwelt upon by T. H. Huxley (Proc. Zool. Society, 1867, pp. 420- 422) and W. A. Forbes (op. cit., 1881, pp. 784-87). There can be little doubt that they should be regarded as types of as many orders — Strulhiones and Rheae — of the subclass Ratitae. Struc- tural characters no less important separate the rheas from the emeus; the former can be readily recognized by the rounded form of their contour-feathers, which want the hyporrhachis or after-shaft that in the emeus and cassowaries is so long as to equal the main shaft, and contributes to give these latter groups the appearance of being covered with shaggy hair. The feathers of the rhea have a considerable market value, and for the purpose of trade in them it is annually killed by thousands, so that1 its total extinction as a wild animal is probably only a question of time. It is polygamous, and the male performs the duty of incubation, brooding more than a score of eggs, the produce of several females— facts known to Nieremberg Rhea. more than two hundred and fifty years since, but hardly accepted by naturalists until recently. No examples of this bird seem to have been brought to Europe before the beginning of the present century, and accordingly the descriptions previously given of it by systematic writers were taken at second hand and were mostly defective if not misleading. In 1803 J. Latham issued a wretched figure of the species from a half-grown speci- men in the Leverian Museum, and twenty years later said he had seen only one other, and that still younger, in Bullock's collection (Gen. Hist. Birds, viii. p. 379) ? A bird living in con- finement at Strassburg in 1806 was, however, described and figured by Hammer in 1808 (Ann. du Museum, xii. pp. 427- 1 J. E. Harting, in his and De Mosenthal's Ostriches and Ostrich Farming, from which the woodcut here introduced is by permission copied, gives (pp. 67-72) some portentous statistics of the destruc- tion of rheas for the sake of their feathers, which, he says, are known in the trade as " Vautour " to distinguish them from those of the African bird. 'The ninth edition of the Companion to this collection (1810, p. 121) states that the specimen " was brought alive " [?to England]. 433, pi. 39). In England the Report of the Zoological Society for 1833 announced the rhea as having been exhibited for the first time in its gardens during the preceding twelvemonth. Since then many other living examples have been introduced, and it has bred both there and in many private parks in Britain. Though considerably smaller than the ostrich, and wanting its fine plumes, the rhea in general aspect far more resembles that bird than the other Ratitae. The feathers of the head and neck, except on the crown and nape, where they are dark brown, are dingy white, and those of the body ash-coloured tinged with brown, while on the breast they are brownish-black, and on the belly and thighs white. In the course of the memorable voyage of the " Beagle," C. Darwin came to hear of another kind of rhea, called by his informants Aveslruz petise, and at Port Desire on the east coast of Patagonia he obtained an example of it, the imperfect skin of which enabled J. Gould to describe it (Proc. Zool. Society, 183.7, p. 35) as a second species of the genus, naming it after its discoverer. Rhea darwini differs in several well-marked characters from the earlier known R. americana. Its bill is shorter than its head; its tarsi are reticulated instead of scutellated in front, with the upper part feathered instead of being bare; and the plumage of its body and wings is very different, each feather being tipped with a distinct whitish band, while that of the head and neck is greyish- brown. A further distinction is also asserted to be shown by the eggs — those of R. americana being of a yellowish-white, while those of R. darwini have a bluish tinge. Some years afterwards P. L. Sclater described (op. cit., 1860, p. 207) a third and smaller species, closely resembling the R. americana, but having apparently a longer bill, whence he named it R. tnacro- rhyncha, more slender tarsi, and shorter toes, while its general colour is very much darker, the body and wings being of a brownish-grey mixed with black. The precise geographical range of these three species is still undetermined. While R. americana is known to extend from Paraguay and southern Brazil through the La Plata region to an uncertain distance in Patagonia, R. darwini seems to be the proper inhabitant of the country last named, though M. Claraz asserts (op. cit., 1885, p. 324) that it is occasionally found to the northward of the Rio Negro, which had formerly been regarded as its limit, and, moreover, that flocks of the two species commingled may be very frequently seen in the district between that river and the Rio Colorado. On the " pampas " R. americana is said to associate with herds of deer (Cariacus campestris), and R. darwini to be the constant companion of guanacos (Lama huanaco) — just as in Africa the ostrich seeks the society of zebras and antelopes. As for R. macrorhyncha, it was found by W. A. Forbes (Ibis, 1881, pp. 360, 361) to inhabit the dry and open " sertoes " of north-eastern Brazil, a discovery the more interesting since it was in that part of the country that Marcgrav and Piso became acquainted with a bird of this kind, though the existence of any species of rhea in the district had been long overlooked by or unknown to succeeding travellers. Besides the works above named and those of other recognized authorities on the ornithology of South America such as Azara, Prince Max of Wied, Professor Burmeister and others, more cr less valuable information on the subject is to be found in Darwin's Voyage, Dr Backing's " Monographic des Nandu " in (Wieg- mann's) Archil) fur Naturgeschichte (1863, i. pp. 213-41); R. O. Cunningham's Natural History of the Strait of Magellan and paper in the Zoological Society's Proceedings for 1871 (pp. 105-110), as well as H. F. Gadow's still more important anatomical contributions in the same journal for 1885 (pp. 308 seq.). (A. N.) RHEINBERGER, JOSEPH GABRIEL (1830-1001), German composer, was born at Vaduz, Liechtenstein, on the I7th of March 1839. His musical abilities were manifested so early that he was appointed organist of the parish church when he was but seven years old. A three-part Mass composed by him was performed in the following year. He was taught at first by Philipp Schmutzer, choir director at Feldkirch; he entered the Munich Conservatorium in 1851, and remained there till 1854 RHEINE— RHETORIC 233 as a pupil of Professor E. Leonhard for piano, Professor Herzog for organ and J. J. Maier for counterpoint. After leaving the school he had private lessons from Franz Lachner, and was appointed a professor in the conservatorium in succession to Leonhard in 1859. In 1860 he became professor of composition, and was appointed organist of the Michelskirche, a post he held till 1866. In 1877 he succeeded Wiillner as Hof kapellmeister, and from that time his attention was largely devoted to sacred music. His compositions include works of importance in every form, from the operas Die sieben Raben (Munich, 1869) and Tiirmers Tochterlein (Munich, 1873) and the oratorio Christo- forus, op. 1 20, to the well-known quartet for piano and strings in E flat, op. 38, the nonet for wind and strings, op. 139, and the seventeen organ sonatas, which form notable additions to the literature of the instrument. He died in November 1901. RHEINE, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Westphalia, situated on the Ems, at the point where it becomes navigable, 29 m. W. by rail of Osnabruck, and at the junction of main lines to Miinster, Rotterdam and Emden. Pop. (1905) 12,801. It is an old-fashioned town with a pronounced Dutch aspect, and has pretty gardens and promenades. Rheine is the seat of cotton industries, has manufactures of jute, machinery, tobacco and flour, and a considerable river trade in agricultural produce. It received municipal rights in 1327. About a mile north of Rheine is the castle of Bentlage, the family seat of the princes of Rheina-Wolbeck. RHENANUS, BEATUS (1485-1547), German humanist, was born in 1485 at Schlettstadt in Alsace, where his father, named Bild, a native of Rheinau (hence the surname Rhenanus), was a prosperous butcher. He received his early education at the famous Latin school of Schlettstadt, and afterwards (1503) went to Paris, where he came under the influence of Jacobus Faber Stapulensis, an eminent Aristotelian. In 1511 he removed to Basel, where he became intimate with Desiderius Erasmus, and took an active share in the publishing enterprises of Joannes Froben (q.v.). In 1526 he returned to Schlettstadt, and devoted himself to a life of learned leisure, enlivened with epistolary and personal intercourse with Erasmus (the printing of whose more important works he personally superintended) and many other scholars of his time. He died at Strassburg on the 2oth of July 1547. His earliest publication was a biography of Geiler of Kaisers- berg (1510). Of his subsequent works the principal are Rerum Gennanicarum Libri III. (1531), and editions of Velleius Pater- culus (ed. princeps, from a MS. discovered by himself, 1522); Tacitus (1519, exclusive of the Histories); Livius (1535); and Erasmus (with a life, 9 vols. fol., 1540-41). See A. Horawitz, Beatus Rhenanus (1872), and by the same, Des Beatus Rhenanus literarische Tdtigkeit (2 vols., 1872) ; also the notice by R. Hartfelder in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographic. RHETICUS, or RHAETICUS (1514-1576), a surname given to GEORGE JOACHIM, German astronomer and mathematician, from his birth at Feldkirch in that part of Tirol which was anciently the territory of the Rhaeti. Born on the isth of February 1514, he studied at Tiguri with Oswald Mycone, and afterwards went to Wittenberg where he was appointed pro- fessor of mathematics in 1537. Being greatly attracted by the new Copernican theory, he resigned the professorship in 1539, and went to Frauenberg to associate himself with Copernicus (q.v.), and superintended the printing of the De Orbium Revolu- tione which he had persuaded Copernicus to complete. Rheticus now began his great treatise, Opus Palatinum de Triangulis, and continued to work at it while he occupied his old chair at Wittenberg, and indeed up to his death at Cassovia in Hungary, on the 4th of December 1576. The Opus Palatinum of Rheticus was published by Valentine Otho, mathematician to the electoral prince palatine, in 1596. It gives tables of sines and cosines, tangents, &c., for every 10 seconds, calculated to ten places. He had projected a table of the same kind to fifteen places, but did not live to complete it. The sine table, however, was afterwards published on this scale under the name of Thesaurus M ' athematicus (Frankfort, 1613) by B. Pitiscus (1561-1613), who himself carried the calculation of a few of the earlier sines to twenty-two places. He also published Narratio de Libris Revolutionum Copernici (Gedenum, 1540), which was subse- quently added to editions of Copernicus's works; and Ephemer- ides until 1551, which were founded on the Copernican doctrines. He projected numerous other works, as is shown by a letter to Peter Ramus in 1568, which Adrian Romanus inserted in the preface to his Idea of Mathematics. RHETORIC (Gr. /Vopi«j) Tt\v^l, the art of the orator), the art of using language in such a way as to produce a desired impression upon the hearer or reader. The object is strictly persuasion rather than intellectual approval or conviction; hence the term, with its adjective " rhetorical," is commonly used for a speech or writing in which matter is subservient to form or display. So in grammar, a " rhetorical question " is one which is asked not for the purpose of obtaining an answer, but simply for dramatic effect. The power of eloquent speech is recognized in the earliest extant writings. Homer describes Achilles as a " speaker of words, as well as a doer of deeds ": Nestor, Menelaus and Odysseus are all orators as well as states- men and soldiers. Again the brilliant eloquence of Pericles is the theme of Aristophanes and Eupolis. Naturally the influ- ence wielded by the great orators led to an investigation of the characteristics of successful rhetoric, and especially from the time of Aristotle the technique of the art ranked among the recognized branches of learning. A lost work of Aristotle is quoted by Diogenes Laertius (viii. 57) as saying that Empedocles " invented " (tvpeiv) rhetoric; Zeno, dialectic (i.e. logic, the art of making a logical argument, apart from the style). This is certainly not to be understood as meaning that Empedocles composed the first " art " of rhetoric. It is rather to be explained by Aristotle's own remark, cited by Laertius from another lost treatise, that Empedocles was " a master of expression and skilled in the use of metaphor " — qualities which may have found scope in his political oratory, when, after the fall of^Thrasydaeus in 472 B.C., he opposed the restoration of a tyranny at Agrigentum. The founder of rhetoric as an art was Corax of Syracuse Barfy (c. 466 B.C.). In 466 a democracy was established Greet in Syracuse. One of the immediate consequences rhetoric was a mass of litigation on claims to property, urged Corax. by democratic exiles who had been dispossessed by Thrasybulus, Hiero or Gelo. Such claims, going many years back, would often require that a complicated series of details should be stated and arranged. It would also, in many instances, lack documentary support, and rely chiefly on inferential reasoning. Hence the need of professional advice. The facts known as to the " art " of Corax perfectly agree with these conditions. He gave rules for arrangement, dividing the speech into five parts,— proem, narrative, arguments (ay&ves), subsidiary remarks (irapeK/Saaw) and peroration. Next he illustrated the topic of general probability (e«6s), The showing its two-edged use: e.g., if a puny man is topic accused of assaulting a stronger, he can say, " Is it o/ «*<«<. likely that I should have attacked him?" If vice versa, the strong man can argue, " Is it likely that I should have committed an assault where the presumption was sure to be against me ? " This topic of «6c6s, in its manifold forms, was in fact the great weapon of the earliest Greek rhetoric. It was further developed by Tisias, the pupil of Corax, as we see from Plato's Phaedrus, in an " art " of rhetoric which antiquity possessed, but of which we know little else. Aristotle gives the e«6j a place among the topics of the fallacious enthymeme which he enumerates in Rhet. ii. 24, remarking that it was the very essence of the treatise of Corax; he points out the fallacy of omitting to distinguish between abstract and particular probability, quoting the verses of Agatho, — " Perhaps one might call this very thing a probability, that many im- probable things will happen to men." Gorgias (q.v.) of Leontini captivated the Athenians in 427 B.C. by his oratory (Diod. xii. 53), which, so far as we can judge, was xxm. 8 a Tisias. 234 RHETORIC characterized by florid antithesis, expressed in short jerky sentences. But he has no definite place in the development of rhetoric as a system. It is doubtful whether he left a written "art"; and his mode of teaching was based on learning prepared passages by heart, — diction (Xe£«), not invention or arrangement, being his great object. The first extant Greek author who combined the theory with the practice of rhetoric is the Athenian Antiphon (q.v.), the first of the Attic orators, and the earliest representative at Athens of a new profession created by the new art of rhetoric — that of the \o707pA0oj, the writer of forensic speeches for other men to speak in court. His speeches show the art of rhetoric in its transition from the technical to the practical stage, from the school to the law court and the assembly. The organic lines of the rhetorical pleader's thought stand out in bold relief, and we are enabled to form a clear notion of the logographer's method. We find a striking illustra- tion of the fact that the topic of " probability " is the staple of this early forensic rhetoric. Viewed generally, the works of Antiphon are of great interest for the history of Attic prose, as marking how far it had then been influenced by a theory of style. The movement of Antiphon's prose has a certain grave dignity, " impressing by its weight and grandeur," as a Greek critic in the Augustan age says, " not charming by its life and flow. " Verbal antithesis is used, not in a diffuse or florid way, but with a certain sledge-hammer force, as sometimes in the speeches of Thucydides. The imagery, too, though bold, is not florid. The structure of the periods is still crude; and the general effect of the whole, though often powerful and impressive, is somewhat rigid. Antiphon represents what was afterwards named the " austere " or " rugged " style (avo-rripa appavia), Lysias was the model of an artistic and versatile simplicity. But while Antiphon has a place in the history of rhetoric as an art, Lysias, with his more attractive gifts, belongs only to the history of oratory. Ancient writers quote an " art " of rhetoric by Isocrates, but its authenticity was questioned. It is certain, however, that Isocrates taught the art as such. He is said to have defined rhetoric " as the science of persuasion " (Sext. Empir. Adv. Mathem.ii. § 62, p. 301 seq.). Many of his particular precepts, both on arrangement and on diction, are cited, but they do not give a complete view of his method. The <£iXo£a (" theory of culture ") which Isocrates expounds in his discourses Against the Sophists and on the Anlidosis, was in fact rhetoric applied to politics. First came technical expositions: the pupil was introduced to all the artificial resources which prose composition employs (rds Ideas airaaas cus 6 Xayos rvyx&vti XPCO/WPOS, Anlid. § 183). The same term (Ideai) is also used by Isocrates in a narrower sense, with reference to the " figures " of rhetoric, properly called (Txh^a-ra (Panath. § 2) ; sometimes, again, in a sense still more general, to the several branches or styles of literary composition (Anlid. § n). When the technical elements of the subject had been learned, the pupil was required to apply abstract rules in actual composition, and his essay was revised by the master. Isocrates was unquestionably successful in forming speakers and writers. His school was famous during ' a period of some fifty years (390 to 340 B.C.). Among the statesmen whom it trained were Timotheus, Leodamas of Acharnae, Lycurgus and Hyperides; among the philosophers or rhetoricians were Speusippus, Plato's successor in the Academy, and Isaeus; among the historians, Ephorus and Theopompus. Cicero and through him all subsequent oratory owed much to the ample prose of the Isocratean school. In the person of Isocrates the art of rhetoric is thus thoroughly established, not merely as a technical method, but also as a practical discipline of life. If Plato's mildly ironical reference in the Euthydemus to a critic "on the borderland between philosophy and statesmanship " was meant, as is probable, for Isocrates, at least there was a wide difference between the measure of acceptance accorded to the earlier Sophists, such as Protagoras, and the influence which the school of Isocrates exerted through the men whom it had trained. Rhetoric had won its place in Arts- totie't "Rhe- toiic." education. It kept that place through varying fortunes to the fall of the Roman empire, and resumed it, for a while, at the revival of learning. Plato in the Gorgias and the Phaedrus satirized the ordinary textbooks of rhetoric, and himself gave directions for a higher standard of work; but the detailed study of the art begins with Aristotle. Aristotle's Rhetoric belongs to the generation after Isocrates, having been composed (but see ARISTOTLE) between 330 and 322 B.C. As controversial allusions sometimes hint it holds Isocrates for one of the foremost exponents of the subject. From a purely literary point of view Aristotle's Rhetoric (with the partial exception of book iii.) is one of the driest works in the world. From the historical or scientific point of view it is one of the most interesting. If we would seize the true significance of the treatise it is better to compare rhetoric with grammar than with its obvious analogue, logic. A method of grammar was the conception of the Alexandrian age, which had lying before it the standard masterpieces of Greek literature, and deduced the " rules " of grammar from the actual practice of the best writers. Aristotle in the latter years of the 4th century B.C. held the same position relatively to the monuments of Greek oratory which the Alexandrian methodizers of grammar held relatively to Greek literature at large. Abundant material lay before him, illustrating how speakers had been 'able to persuade the reason or to move the feelings. He therefore sought thence to deduce rules and so construct a true art. Aristotle's practical purpose was undoubtedly real. If we are to make persuasive speakers, he believed, this is the only sound way to set about it. But the enduring interest of his Rhetoric is mainly retrospective. It attracts us as a feat in analysis by an acute mind — a feat highly characteristic of that mind itself, and at the same time strikingly illustrative of the field over which the materials have been gathered. The Rhetoric is divided into three books. It deals in great detail with the minutiae of the rhetorical craft. Book i. discusses the nature and object of rhetoric. The means of persuasion (-flareis) are classified into " inartificial " (aTexcoi), i.e. the facts of the case external to the art, documents, laws, depositions, — and " arti- ficial " (itvTrxvoC), the latter subdivided into logical (the popular syllogism or " enthymeme," the " example," &c.), ethical, and emotional. Aristotle next deals with the " topics " (T&TOI), i.e. the commonplaces of rhetoric, general or particular arguments which the rhetorician must have ready for immediate use. Rhetoric is then broadly divided into : — (l) deliberative (yvitffovKtvriK-ii), concerned with exhortation or dissuasion, and with future time, its end (T£\OS) being the advantage or detriment of the persons addressed; (2) forensic (Stxawc??), concerned with accusation and defence, and with time past, its standard being justice; (3) epi- deictic, the ornamental rhetoric of display, concerned with praise and blame, usually with the present time, its standard being honour and shame. Each of these kinds is discussed, and the book ends with a brief analysis of the " inartificial proofs." In book ii. Aristotle returns to the " artificial " proofs — those which rhetoric itself provides. The " logical " proof having been discussed in book i., he turns to the ethical." He shows how the speaker may so indicate his own character and the goodness of his motive as to prepossess the audience in his favour, and proceeds to furnish materials to this end. The " emotional " proof is then discussed, and an analysis is given of the emotions on which the speaker may play. A consideration follows of the " universal commonplaces ' . (Koivol rbvoi) which are suitable to all subjects. The book ends with an appendix dealing with the "example" (irapd&ryAta), the general moral sentiments (yv&ncu) and the enthymeme. In book iii. Aristotle considers expression (Xf£is), including the art of delivery (iiTrixpuris), and arrangement (rd^s). Composition, the use of prose rhythm, the periodic style (the "periodic" style, KaTtarpanntvii, being contrasted with the running (tlpoiitini)) are all analysed, and the types of style literary (ypatpiKii) and oral (&ywvurTiKTi) are differentiated. Under " arrangement " he concludes with the parts of a speech, proem, narrative, proofs and epilogue. It is necessary briefly to consider Aristotle s general view of rhetoric as set forth in book i. Rhetoric is properly an art. This is the proposition from which Aristotle sets out. It is so because when a speaker persuades, it is possible to find out why he succeeds in doing so. Rhetoric is, in fact, the popular branch of logic. Hitherto, Aristotle says, the essence of rhetoric has been neglected for the accidents. Writers on rhetoric have hitherto concerned themselves mainly with " the exciting of prejudice, of pity, of anger, and such-like emotions of the soul." All this is very well, but " it has nothing to do with the matter in hand; it has regard RHETORIC 235 to the judge." The true aim should be to prove your point, or seem to prove it. Here we may interpolate a comment which has a general bearing on Aristotle's Rhetoric. It is quite true that, if we start from the conception of rhetoric as a branch of logic, the phantom of logic in rhetoric claims precedence over appeals to passion. But Aristotle does not sufficiently regard the question — -What, as a matter of experience, is most persuasive? Logic may be more persuasive with the more select hearers of rhetoric; but rhetoric is for the many, and with the many appeals to passion will sometimes, perhaps usually, be more effective than syllogism. No formulation of rhetoric can correspond with fact which does not leave it abso- lutely to the genius of the speaker whether reasoning (or its phantom) is to be what Aristotle calls it, the " body of proof " (aSi^a riorfGos), or whether the stress of persuading effort should not be rather addressed to the emotions of the hearers. But we can entirely agree with Aristotle in his next remark, which is historical in its nature. The deliberative branch of rhetoric had hitherto been postponed, he observes, to the forensic. We have, in fact, already seen that the very origin of rhetoric in Hellas was forensic. The relative subordination of deliberative rhetoric, however unscientific, had thus been human. Aristotle's next statement, that the master of logic will be the master of rhetoric, is a truism if we concede the essential primacy of the logical element in rhetoric. Otherwise it is a paradox; and it is not in accord with experience, which teaches that speakers incapable of showing even the ghost of an argument have sometimes been the most completely successful in carrying great audiences along with them. Aristotle never assumes that the hearers of his rhetorician are as oi \a.pltvTes, the culti- vated few; on the other hand, he is apt to assume tacitly — and here his individual bent comes out — that these hearers are not the great surging crowd, the #x^°s, but a body of persons with a decided, though imperfectly developed, preference for sound logic. What is the use of an art of rhetoric? It is fourfold, Aristotle replies. Rhetoric is useful, first of all, because truth and justice are naturally stronger than their opposites. When rhetoric, awards are not duly given, truth and justice must have been worsted by their own fault. This is worth correct- ing. Rhetoric is then (i) corrective. Next, it is (2) instructive, as a popular vehicle of persuasion for persons who could not be reached by the severer methods of strict logic. Then it is (2) suggestive. Logic and rhetoric are the two impartial arts; that is to say, it is a matter of indifference to them, as arts, whether the conclusion which they draw in any given case is affirmative or negative. Suppose that I am going to plead a cause, and have a sincere conviction that I am on the right side. The art of rhetoric will suggest to me what might be urged on the other side; and this will give me a stronger grasp of the whole situation. Lastly, rhetoric is (4) defensive. Mental effort is more distinctive of man than bodily effort; and " it would be absurd that, while incapacity for physical self-defence is . a reproach, incapacity for mental defence should be no reproach." Rhetoric, then, is corrective, instructive, sug- gestive, defensive. But what if it be urged that this art may be abused? The objection, Aristotle answers, applies to all good things, except virtue, and especially to the most useful things. Men may abuse strength, health, wealth, generalship. The function of the medical art is not necessarily to cure, but to make such progress towards a cure as each case may admit. Similarly it would be inaccurate to say that denned l^e functi°n °f rhetoric was to persuade. Rather must rhetoric be defined as " the faculty of discerning in every case the available means of persuasion." Suppose that among these means of persuasion is some process of reasoning which the rhetorician himself knows to be un- sound. That belongs to the province of rhetoric all the same. In relation to logic, a man is called a " sophist " with regard to his moral purpose (irpocupeoij), i.e. if he knowingly used a fallacious syllogism. But rhetoric takes no account of the moral purpose. It takes account simply of the faculty (Swa/uts)- — the faculty of discovering any means qf persuasion. Aristotle's Rhetoric is incomparably the most scientific work which exists on the subject. It may also be regarded as having determined the main lines on which the subject was j^ treated by nearly all subsequent writers. The extant nhei- treatise on rhetoric (also by Aristotle?) entitled 'Pirropu^ orle"to Trpds 'A\t^avSpov, formerly ascribed to Anaximenes of x/ex- Lampsacus, was written at latest by 340 B.C. The /j. ,, introductory letter prefixed to it is probably a late forgery. Its relation towards Aristotle's Rhetoric is discussed in the article on ARISTOTLE. During the three centuries from the age of Alexander to that of Augustus the fortunes of rhetoric were governed by the new conditions of Hellenism. Aristotle's scientific The method lived on in the Peripatetic school. Meanwhile the fashion of florid declamation or strained conceits prevailed in the rhetorical schools of Asia, where, amid anderto mixed populations, the pure traditions of the best Aupts- Greek taste had been dissociated from the use of the *"*• Greek language. The " Asianism " of style which thus came to be constrasted with " Atticism " found imitators at Rome, among whom must be reckoned the orator Hortensius (c. 95 B.C.). Hermagorasof Temnos in Aeolis (c. no Wenns. B.C.) claims mention as having done much to revive gons. a higher conception. Using both the practical rhetoric of the time before Aristotle and Aristotle's philosophical rhetoric, he worked up the results of both in a new system, — following the philosophers so far as to give the chief prominence to " inven- tion." He thus became the founder of a rhetoric which may be distinguished as the scholastic. Through the influence of his school, Hermagoras did for Roman eloquence very much what Isocrates had done for Athens. Above all, he counter- acted the view of " Asianism," that oratory is a mere knack founded on practice, and recalled attention to the study of it as an art.1 Cicero's rhetorical works are to some extent based on the technical system to which he had been introduced by Molon at Rhodes. But Cicero further made an independent ckero. use of the best among the earlier Greek writers, Isocrates, Aristotle and Theophrastus. Lastly, he could draw, at least in the later of his treatises, on a vast fund of reflection and experience. Indeed, the distinctive interest of his con- tributions to the theory of rhetoric consists in the fact that his theory can be compared with his practice. The result of such a comparison is certainly to suggest how much less he owed to his art than to his genius. Some consciousness of this is perhaps implied in the idea which pervades much of his writing on oratory, that the perfect orator is the perfect man. The same thought is present to Quintilian, in whose great work, De Institutione Oratorio, the scholastic rhetoric re- ceives its most complete expression (c. A.D. 90). Quintilian treats oratory as the end to which the entire mental and moral development of the student is to be directed. Thus he devotes his first book to an early discipline which should precede the orator's first studies, and his last book to a discipline of the whole man which lies beyond them. Some notion of his comprehensive method may be derived from the circumstance that he introduces a succinct estimate of the chief Greek and Roman authors, of every kind, from Homer to Seneca (bk. x. §§ 46-131). After Quintilian, the next important name is that of Hermogenes of Tarsus, who under Marcus Aurelius made a complete digest of the scholastic rhetoric from the time of Hermagoras of Temnos (no B.C.). It is contained in five extant treatises, which are remarkable for clearness and acuteness, and still more remarkable as having been" completed before the age of twenty-five. Hermogenes continued for nearly a century and a half to be one of the chief authorities in the schools. Longinus (c. A.D. 260) published an Art of Rhetoric which is still extant; and the more celebrated treatise On Sublimity (irtpi ityous), if not wrifcn his work, is at least of the same period. In the later half of the 4th century Aphthonius (q.v.) composed the " exercises " (irfxr/viJiv6.o fiara) which superseded the work of 1 See Jebb's Attic Orators, ii. 445. ' 236 RHETORIC under the Empire. Hermogenes. At the revival of letters the treatise of Aphthonius once more became a standard text-book. Much popularity was enjoyed also by the exercises of Aelius Theon (of uncertain date ; see THEON). (See further the editions of the Rhetores Graeci by L. Spengel and by Ch. Walz.) During the first four centuries of the empire the practice of the art was in greater vogue than ever before or since. First, Practice there was a general dearth of the higher intellectual ofRhet' interests: politics gave no scope to energy; philosophy oric was stagnant, and literature, as a rule, either arid or frivolous. Then the Greek schools had poured their rhetoricians into Rome, where the same tastes which revelled in coarse luxury welcomed tawdry declamation. The law-courts of the Roman provinces further created a continual demand for forensic speaking. The public teacher (< of rhetoric was called " sophist," which was now an phLts "" academic title, similar to " professor " or " doctor." In the 4th century B.C. Isocrates had taken pride in the name of crcx^itrnfc, which, indeed, had at no time wholly lost th; good, or neutral, sense which originally belonged to it. The academic meaning which it acquired under the early empire lasted into the middle ages (see Du Cange, s.v., who quotes from Baldricus, " Egregius Doctor magnusque Sophista Geraldus "). While the word rhetor still denoted the faculty, the word sophistes denoted the office or rank to which the rhetor might hope to rise. So Lucian (" Teacher of Rhe- toricians," § i) says: " You ask, young man, how you are to become a rhetor, and attain in your turn to the repute of that 'most impressive and illustrious title, sophist." Lucian also satirizes the discussions of the nature of rhetoric in his parody the Parasite (cf. also his Bis Accusatus). Vespasian (70-79 A.D.), according to Suetonius, was the first emperor who gave a public endowment to the teaching of rhetoric. Under Hadrian and the Antonines (A.D. 117-180) the public chairs of rhetoric became objects of the highest ambition. The complete constitution of the schools at Athens was due to Marcus Aurelius. The Philosophical school had four chairs (dpovoi) — Platonic, Stoic, Peripatetic, Epicurean. The Rhetorical school had two chairs, one for " sophistic," the other for " political " rhetoric. By " sophistic " was meant the academic teaching of rhetoric as an art, in distinction from its " political " application to the law-courts. The " sophistical " chair was superior to the "political" indignity as in emolument, and its occupant was invested with a jurisdiction over the youth of Athens similar to that of the vice-chancellor in a modern university. The Antonines further encouraged rhetoric by granting immunities to its teachers. Three " sophists " in each of the smaller towns, and five in the larger, were exempted from taxation (Dig. xxvii. i, 6, § 2). The wealthier sophists affected much personal splendour. Polemon (c. A.D. 130) and Adrian of Tyre (c. A.D. 170) are famous examples of extravagant display. The aim of the sophist was to impress the multitude. His whole stock- in-trade was style, and this was directed to astonishing by tours Dedama- ^e force- The scholastic declamations were chiefly of tioas. two classes- (i) The suasoriae were usually on historical or legendary subjects, in which some course of action was commended or censured (cf. Juv. Sat.}. These suasoriae belonged to deliberative rhetoric (the ftovktvTiKov Tftvos, deliberativum genus). (2) The contr overside turned especially on legal issues, and represented the forensic rhetoric (dLKaviitdv "ftvos, judiciale genus). But it was the general characteristic of this period that all subjects, though formally " deliberative " or " forensic," were treated in the style and spirit of that third branch which Aristotle distinguished, the rhetoric of kiridd&s or " display." The oratory produced by the age of the academic sophists can be estimated from a large extant literature. It is shown under various aspects, and pre- sumably at its best, by such writers as Dio Chrysostom at the end of the ist century, Aelius Aristides (see ARISTIDES, AELIUS) in the 2nd, the chief rhetorician under the Antonines, Themistius, Himerius and Libanius in the 4th. Amid much which is Chairs of Rhetoric. tawdry or vapid, these writings occasionally present passages of true literary beauty, while they constantly offer matter of the highest interest to the student. In the medieval system of academic studies, grammar, logic and rhetoric were the subjects of the trivium, or course followed during the four years of undergraduateship. Medieval Music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy con- study of stituted the quadrivium, or course for the three years Rhetoric. from the B.A. to the M.A. degree. These were the seven liberal arts. In the middle ages the chief authorities on rhetoric were the latest Latin epitomists, such as Martianus Capella (sth cent.), Cassiodorus (5th cent.) or Isidorus (7th cent.). After the revival of learning the better Roman and Greek writers gradually returned into use. Some new treatises were also produced. Leonard Cox (d. 1549) wrote The Art or Craft of Rhetoryke, partly compiled, partly original, which was reprinted in Latin at Cracow. The Art of Rhetorique, by Thomas Wilson (J553)> afterwards secretary of state, embodied rules chiefly from Aristotle, with help from Cicero and Quintilian. About the same time treatises on rhetoric were published in France by Tonquelin (1555) and Courcelles (1557). The general aim at this period was to revive and popularize the best teaching of the ancients on rhetoric. The subject was regularly Rhetoric taught at the universities, and was indeed important. at the At Cambridge in 1570 the study of rhetoric was Uaiver- based on Quintilian, Hermogenes and the speeches of Cicero viewed as works of art. An Oxford statute of 1588 shows that the same books were used there. In 1620 George Herbert was delivering lectures on rhetoric at Cambridge, where he held the office of public orator. The decay of rhetoric as a formal study at the universities set in during the i8th century. The function of the rhetoric lecturer passed over into that of correcting written themes; but his title remained long after his office had lost its primary meaning. If the theory of rhetoric fell into neglect, the practice, however, was encouraged by the public exercises (" acts " and " opponencies ") in the schools. The college prizes for " declamations " served the same purpose. The fortunes of rhetoric in the modern world, as briefly sketched above, may suffice to suggest why few modern writers of ability have given their attention to the subject. Modem Perhaps one of the most notable modern contributions Writers on to the art is the collection of commonplaces framed (in KhetoHc. Latin) by Bacon, " to be so many spools from which the threads can be drawn out as occasion serves," a truly curious work of that acute and fertile mind. He called them " Antitheta." A specimen is subjoined: — UXOR ET LlBERI Against. state " He who marries, and has children, has given hostages to fortune." " The immortality of brutes is in their progeny; of men, in their fame, services, and insti- tutions." " Regard for the family too often overrides regard for the state." For. " Attachment to the begins from the family." " Wife and children are a dis- cipline in humanity. Bachelors are morose and austere." " The only advantage of celi- bacy and childlessness is in case of exile." This is quite in the spirit of Aristotle's treatise. The popu- larity enjoyed by Blair's Rhetoric in the latter part of the i8th and the earlier part of the igth century was merited rather by the form than by the matter. Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric, which found less wide acceptance than its predecessor, was superior to it in \lepth, though often marred by an imperfect comprehension of logic. But undoubtedly the best modern book on the subject is Whately's Elements of Rhetoric. \n,atei Starting from Aristotle's view, that rhetoric is " an offshoot from logic," Whately treats it as the art of " argu- mentative composition." He considers it under four heads: (1) the address to the understanding ( = Aristotle's XOTIKI? TROTIS); (2) the address to the will, or persuasion ( = Aristotle's ^1x17 and RHEUMATISM 237 iritTTis); (3) style; (4) elocution, or delivery. But when it is thus urged that — " All a rhetorician's rules But teach him how to name his tools," the assumption is tacitly made that an accurate nomenclature and classification of these tools must be devoid of practical use. The conditions of modern life, and especially the invention of printing, have to some extent diminished the importance which belonged in antiquity to the art of speaking, though modern democratic politics and forensic conditions still make it one which may be cultivated with advantage. Among more modern works are J. Bascom, Philosophy of Rhetoric (New York, 1885); and numerous books on voice culture, gesture and elocution. For ancient rhetoric see Sir R. C. Jebb's translation of Aristotle's Rhetoric (ed. J. E. Sandys, 1909), and his Attic Orators (1876); also Spengel, Artium Scriptores (1828); Westermann, Gesch. der Beredtsamkeit (1833—35;) Cope, in the Cambridge Journal of Classical and Sacred Philology (1855-57) ; introductions to Cicero's De Oratore (A. S. Wilkins) and Orator (J. E. Sandys); Volkmann, Die Rlietorik der Griechen und Romer in system. Ubersichl (ed. 2, 1885). (R. C.J.; X.) RHEUMATISM (from Gr. peDjwx, flux), a general term for various forms of disease, now subdivided more accurately under separate names. ACUTE RHEUMATISM or RHEUMATIC FEVER is the name given to a disease having for its chief characteristics inflammatory affections of the joints, attended by severe constitutional dis- turbances and frequently associated with inflammation of the pericardium and valves of the heart. The acute rheumatism of childhood differs materially from that of adults in that the articular manifestations and constitutional disturbance are usually much less severe, whereas the heart and pericardium are especially liable to be attacked. It will be advisable, therefore, in discussing the symptoms, to deal separately with the rheumatism of adults and that of childhood. There are certain points of importance in connexion with its causation which are generally agreed upon. It is essentially a disease of childhood and early adult life, being most commonly met with between the ages of ten and twenty-five and comparatively rarely after forty. Heredity is unquestionably an important predisposing cause. Climate is also a factor of considerable importance, cold and damp with sudden and wide fluctuations of temperature being especially conducive to an attack. While perhaps more common in Great Britain than elsewhere, it is met with in most parts of the globe. Exposure to cold and wet, and especially a chill after free perspiration and fatigue, are among the most common exciting causes of an attack. Of recent years much evidence has accumulated tending to show that rheumatism is a specific infective disease due to a micro-organism, and this is now generally recognized. There is still, however, some difference of opinion as to the nature of the micro-organism by which it is produced. In 1900 F. J. Poynton and Paine isolated from eight cases of acute rheumatism in children a minute diplococcus similar to that previously de- scribed by Triboulet and by A. Wasserman, which inoculated into rabbits produced lesions of the joints and of the heart indistinguishable from those met with in acute rheumatism. They have since obtained the same micro-organism from a further large number of cases of acute rheumatism, and their results have been confirmed by Walker, Beattie and others. They therefore claim that this micro-organism, to which they have given the name Diplococcus rheumaticus, is the specific cause of acute rheumatism. The objections which have been raised by other competent observers against this view are: (i) That this diplococcus is not found in all cases of acute rheumatism. (2) That certain other micro-organisms when inoculated into animals will produce joint and heart affections similar to those produced by the aforesaid Diplococcus rheumaticus . It would be out of place here to enter into the merits of this controversy; suffice it to say that the objections raised do not appear to be cogent enough to invalidate the conclusions arrived at by the authors of the germ theory. The matter is, however, still to a certain extent sub judice. In adults the affection of the joints is the most striking feature. The attack is usually ushered in by a feeling of chilliness or malaise, with pain or stiffness in one or more joints, generally those of large or medium size, such as the knees, ankles, wrists or shoulders. At first the pain is confined to one or two joints, but others soon become affected, and there is a tendency to symmetry in the order in which they are attacked, the inflammation in one joint being followed by that of the same joint on the opposite side. The affected joints are swollen, hot and excessively tender, and the skin over them is somewhat flushed. The temperature is raised, ranging from about 101° to 103° F., the pulse rapid, full and soft; the face is flushed, the tongue coated with a thick white fur, and there is thirst, loss of appetite, and constipation.^ The body is bathed in a profuse perspiration, which has a characteristic sour, disagreeable odour. The urine is diminished, acid and loaded with urates. The attack is of variable duration, and may pass off in a few days or last for some weeks. Relapses are not uncommon when convalescence appears to have been estab- lished. Among the complications which may arise are hyper- pyrexia, or rapid and extreme rise of temperature, which may run up as high as 110° F., when death will speedily ensue unless prompt and energetic treatment by cold baths or icepacks is resorted to. Affections of the heart, pericarditis (inflammation of the fibro-serous sac investing the heart) and endocarditis (inflammation of the lining membrane and the valves of the heart), which are so frequently associated with rheumatism, should be regarded as part of the disease, rather than as com- plications of rheumatism. They are far more common in children than in adults, and it is the damage to the valves of the heart in children by rheumatism which lays the foundation of much chronic heart disease in later life. In childhood the affection of the joints is usually slight, and may be confined to a little pain or stiffness in one or two joints, and is sometimes attributed by parents to " growing pains." The constitutional symptoms are also ill-marked and tliere are no acid sweats, the temperature is not as a rule very high, the tongue not heavily coated, and the child does not appear to be very ill. The heart and pericardium are, however, especially liable to attack, and this may be so insidious in its onset that attention is not called to it till considerable damage has been done to the heart. It is of importance, therefore, that in children the heart should be frequently examined by a physician, when there is the slightest suspicion of an attack of rheumatism. Chorea or St Vitus's dance is a common manifestation of rheu- matism in children. Subcutaneous fibrous nodules, attached to tendons or fibrous structures beneath the skin, are a special feature of the rheumatism of childhood. They are painless, and vary in size from one-eighth to half an inch in diameter. They are not very common, but when present indicate that the rheumatism has a firm hold and that cardiac complications are to be apprehended. The patient should be placed in bed between blankets, and should wear a light flannel or woollen shirt. The affected joints should be kept at rest as far as possible, and enveloped in cotton-wool. Salicylate of soda or salicin, first meat' suggested by Dr Maclagan in 1876, appear to exercise a specific influence in acute rheumatism. They have a power- ful effect not only in reducing the temperature, but in relieving the pain and cutting short the attack. Frequent and fairly large doses of salicylate of soda should be administered for the first twenty-four hours: the dose and interval at which it is given should then be gradually reduced till the symptoms subside. In conjunction with this, alkalies such as bicarbonate or citrate of potash should also be administered. The effect of the salicylate should be carefully watched, and the dose reduced if toxic symptoms such as delirium, deafness, and noises in the ears occur. These drugs are of less service in the rheumatism of children than in that of adults, as they do not appear to exercise any specific influence in arresting the cardiac inflammation to which children are specially liable, though they have a marked effect on the joint affections. Aspirin has RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS recently come into use as a substitute for salicylates, and may succeed when salicylates fail. Subacute rheumatism. — This term is sometimes applied to attacks of the disease of a less severe type in which the symp- toms, though milder in character, are usually of longer duration and more intractable than in the acute form. It is difficult, however, to draw a hard-and-fast line between the two, but the term may perhaps be most appropriately applied to the repeated and protracted attacks of cardiac rheumatism in children. CHRONIC RHEUMATISM. — This term has been somewhat loosely applied to various chronic joint affections, sometimes of gouty origin or the result of rheumatoid arthritis. Strictly speaking, it may be applied to cases in which the joint lesrons persist after an attack of rheumatism, and chronic inflammatory thickening of the tissues takes place, so that they become stiff and deformed. It is also appropriate to certain joint affections occurring in later life in rheumatic subjects, who are liable to repeated attacks of pain and stiffness in the joints, usually induced by exposure to cold and wet. This form of rheumatism is less migratory than the acute, and is commonly limited to one or two of the larger joints. After repeated attacks the affected joints may become permanently stiff and painful, and crackling or creaking may occur on movement. There is seldom any constitutional disturbance, and the heart is not liable to be affected. MUSCULAR RHEUMATISM. — By this is understood a painful affection of certain groups of muscles attributable to inflamma- tion of their fibrous and tendinous attachments. It is commonly brought on by exposure to cold and wet, and especially by a chill after violent exercise and free perspiration when the clothes are not changed. Any movement of the affected muscles gives rise to severe and sharp pain which may induce a certain degree of spasm and rigidity at the time. The pain usually subsides and passes off completely while the patient is at rest, but occurs on the slightest movement of the affected muscles. The chief varieties of muscular rheumatism are: — 1. Lumbago, in which the muscles of the lower part of the back are affected so that stooping, particularly the attempt to rise again to the erect position, induces severe pain. 2. Intercostal rheumatism, affecting the muscles between the ribs, so that taking a deep breath and certain movements of the arms give rise to pain. 3. Torticollis or stiff neck, affecting the muscles of one side of the neck. Treatment. — Salicylates, which are of service in acute rheu- matism, are not so reliable in the chronic varieties, but are some- times of service. Aspirin, salicin, quinine and iodide of potas- sium may be more successful, but other active treatment is usually required. The application of heat in the form of poul- tices or fomentations, counter irritation by mustard leaves or blisters, are indicated in some cases. In others massage, hot douches, or electricity may be required. Mineral waters and baths of various health resorts are often of great benefit in obstinate cases, such as those of Buxton, Bath, Harrogate, Woodhall Spa, &c., in England, or of Aix-les-Bains, Wiesbaden, Wildbad, &c., and many others on the continent of Europe. Wintering abroad in warm, dry and sunny climates may be advisable in some cases when this is practicable. Q. F. H. B.) RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS (OSTEO-ARTHRITIS, ARTHRITIS DE- FORMANS), terms employed to designate a disease or group of diseases characterized by destructive changes in the joints. Though it is only in comparatively recent times that the disease was definitely recognized as separate clinically from either rheumatism or gout, it is certain that it prevailed in ancient times. Characteristic changes in the bones have been found in remains in tombs in Egypt attributed by Petrie to 1300 B.C., and ancient Roman as well as British graves have held bones showing distinct traces of the diseases. Of early medical writers, Paulus Aeginata observed the lesions and seemed to consider them distinctive. Landre Beauvais in 1800 published a description of the disease under the title of Goulte aslhenique primitif. The first endeavour, however, to separate rheumatoid arthritis as a distinct disease was made by William Heberden in 1803; while in 1805 John Haygarth recognized the difference between it and rheumatism, and suggested the term " nodosity of the joints." A wide divergence of opinion during the igth century as to its relation to rheumatism and to gout gave rise to the unfortunate term " rheumatic gout." The name arthritis deformans-wa.s suggested by Virchow in 1859. Various causes, such as nervous origin, inherited arthritic diathesis, a relationship to rheumatism or gout, and reflex irritation, have been put foward as giving rise to the disease, but in the present state of medical knowledge two are most favoured. The first ascribes the disease to an infective process arising from micro-organisms. Several observers have found bacteria in the synovial fluid and membranes of affected joints, — Max Schuller finding both bacilli and cocci, while in 1896 Gilbert Bannatyne, Wohlmann and Blaxall isolated a micro-organism, a bacillus with a bipolar staining, which they stated to be almost constantly present in the joints of patients with true rheumatoid arthritis. The second view is that the disease is the result of a chronic toxaemia produced by absorption of toxines from the intestine, with perhaps some error in metabolism. In many cases there seems to be a distinct evidence of a local infection, injury being a determining factor, and some families seem to have joints which are specially liable to degeneration. The disease may begin at any age, for there is no doubt that persistent cases have been met with in quite young children; but it usually begins in early middle-age, and statistics seem to confirm the impression of the greater liability of females. Conditions which tend to lower the general health seem to act as a predisposing cause to rheumatoid arthritis, e.g. mental worry, uterine disorders and various lowering diseases,' prominent among which are influenza and tonsillitis. In a number of cases in women the onset occurs about the time of the menopause. The method of onset varies according to the form. There are four well-marked types — (i) the peri-articular form, in which the most marked changes are in the synovial membrane and peri-articular tissues, and the cartilage may be involved to a lesser degree. In this variety is found every grade of severity. The onset may be acute, resembling an attack of rheumatic fever, for which it may be mistaken; the joints, one or more, are swollen, tender and painful to the touch; the temperature elevated to 100°; 101°; but unlike rheumatic fever, sweating and hyperpyrexia are uncommon. The acute stage may then subside, a slight thickening remaining in the capsule of the joint, and the contours of the limb scarcely regaining the normal; or the attack may gradually develop into the chronic form. The pain varies greatly, and is not necessarily in ratio to the amount of arthritis present. Various joints may be involved, the spinal vertebrae not infrequently sharing in an arthritis; the most usual joints to be attacked, however, arerthe knee and shoulder. When the knee is attacked there is commonly effusion into the joint. Muscular atrophy is usually present, but varies greatly in its extent. In most cases it is present to a much greater degree than can be accounted for by disuse of the muscles. The skin has in these cases a curious glossy appearance, and pigmentations may be noticed. In chronic forms the onset is gradual, one joint becoming painful and swelling, and then the others successively; in these slow forms the outlook for the recovery of the joint is not so good as in the acute, and some cases may proceed to extreme deformity with little or no pain. Gradually the shape of the joint is altered ; this is in a great measure due to synovial thickening, and partly to the presence of olsteophytes in the joint. When the affected joint is moved a distinct crepitation can be felt. The muscles about the joint atrophy often to an extreme degree, and con- tractures supervene, flexing the leg upon the thigh if the knees should be affected, and the thigh upon the abdomen should the hip be affected. In extreme degrees the patient may become a complete cripple. Later, in many cases a quiescent stage of the RHEYDT— RHIGAS 239 disease is reached, the patients cease to suffer pain, and are inconvenienced only by the deformities in the limbs, in which a considerable degree of motion may be retained. Remarkable deformities are seen in hands in which a considerable amount of usefulness still remains. Dyspepsia and anaemia are fre- quently associated with arthritis. Monarticular arthritis more particularly affects the aged; and when it affects the hip is known as morbus coxae senilis. (2) The atrophic form of arthritis is not very common. The chief anatomical change is due to atrophy in the bone and cartilage. The disease occurs at an earlier period in life than the peri-articular form, from which the initial symptoms do not markedly differ; but the disorganization in the joint is greater, dislocations frequently occur, and ankylosis of the joints follows. This is the most serious form of arthritis. (3) In the hypertrophic form the anatomical changes include the formation of new bone as well as changes in the cartilage. This new-bone formation may lead to progressive ankylosis in the joints. Should the , vertebral column be affected a rigid condition of the spine known as spondylilis deformans (" poker back ") may ensue. What are termed " Heberden's nodes " are small hard knobs about the size of a pea frequently found upon the fingers near the terminal phalangeal joints; they rarely give rise to symptoms. Popularly ascribed to gout, these nodes are in reality a manifestation of arthritis. (4) A variety of arthritis occurring in children is known as Still's disease; in which the swelling of the joints is associated with swelling of the lymph glands and of the spleen. The onset is often acute, with fever and rigors; sweating is profuse and the joints are enlarged and painful. There may be much muscular wasting and limitation of movement in the joints, and anaemia is associated with the disease. The treatment of rheumatoid arthritis is rarely curative, once the disease has been permanently established; and it is therefore important to begin treatment before destructive changes have taken place in the joints. In the acute febrile form, which is frequently taken for rheumatism, the essential treatment is rest to the affected joints, with the application of oil of wintergreen; the joint should not be fixed but supported. In the more chronic forms medicinal treatments are usually of little value. Potassium iodide is useful in some cases by promoting absorption of the hypertrophied fibrous tissue, and guaiacol if administered for a sufficiently long time is said to be capable of arresting the disease, diminishing the size of the joint and helping movement. Where anaemia accompanies the disease iron and arsenic are of value. The general health of a patient suffering from rheumatoid arthritis must be maintained, and he should live upon a dry soil. Visits to Aix-les-Bains, Buxtdn, Bath or Droitwich, with their baths and shampooings, often prove useful, particularly when combined with gentle massage. It is a mistake to keep the joints entirely at rest in the chronic forms, as this tends to the formation of coritractures and ankylosis. Moderate exercise without undue fatigue is desirable. Patients should go early to bed and have plenty of rest, sunshine and fresh air. It is important that the diet should be nourishing and plentiful, and should there be intestinal putrefaction fermented milk is useful. As regards the local treatment, it will be well in the majority of cases to determine by the X-rays the exact state of the affected joints. Radiant heat, vibration and hot-air baths are among the best treatments. The active hyperaemia induced by hot air favours restoration of movement and alleviates pain, but where there is pronounced destruction of bone and cartilage full restoration of a joint cannot take place. Systematic exercises of the joints tend to prevent the atrophy of the adjacent muscles, and Bier's passive hyperaemia induced by the temporary use of an elastic bandage has the same results. Should an X-ray photograph reveal the presence of spurs or loose bodies in the joints interfering with free movement their removal is called for. Sometimes the breaking down of adhesions under an anaesthetic is necessary, and gentle passive and later active movements of the joints should follow if freedom of use is to be gained. Recently treatment by radium has taken a definite place in the therapeutics of chronic arthritis, its analgesic properties seeming of great benefit. (H. L. H.) RHEYDT, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine pro- vince, situated on the Niers, 19 m. W. of Dusseldorf, on the main line of railway to Aix-la-Chapelle, and at the junction of lines to' Crefeld and Stolberg. Pop. (1005) 40,149. It has two Roman Catholic and two Evangelical churches, a handsome new town hall (1895), a gymnasium, and several technical schools. The principal products of its numerous factories are silk, cotton, woollen and mixed fabrics, velvet, iron goods, machinery, shoes, cables, soap and cigars. Dyeing and finishing, brewing and distilling, are also carried on. Rheydt is an ancient place, but its industrial importance is of very recent growth, and it only received municipal rights in 1856. See Rheyter Chronik. Geschichte der Herrschaft und Stadt Rheydt (2 vols., Rheydt, 1897); and Strauss, Geschichte der Stadt Rheydt (Rheydt, 1897). RHlANUS, Greek poet and grammarian, a native of Crete, friend and contemporary of Eratosthenes (275-195 B.C.). Sui'das says he was at first a slave and overseer of a palaestra, but obtained a good education later in life, and devoted himself to grammatical studies, probably in Alexandria. He prepared a new recension of. the Iliad and Odyssey, characterized by sound judgment and poetical taste. His bold atheteses are frequently mentioned in the scholia. He also wrote epigrams, eleven of which, preserved in the Greek anthology and Athenaeus, show elegance and vivacity. But he was chiefly known as a writer of epics (mythological and ethnographical), the most celebrated of which was the Messeniaca in six books, dealing with the second Messenian war and the exploits of its central figure Aristomenes, and used by Pausanias in his fourth book as a trustworthy authority. Other similar poems were the Achaica, Eliaca, and Thessalica. The Heracleia was a long mythological epic, probably an imitation of the poem .of the same name by Panyasis, and containing the same number of books (fourteen). Fragments in A. Meineke, Analecta Alexandrina (1843); for Rhianus's work in connexion with Homer, see C. Mayhoff, De Rhiani Studiis Homericis (Dresden, 1870); also W. Christ, Ges- chichte der griechischen Litteralur (1898). RHIGAS, CONSTANTINE, known as Rhigas of Velestinos (Pherae), or Rhigas Pheraios (1760-1798), Greek patriot and poet, was born at Velestinos, and was educated at Zagora and at Constantinople, where he became secretary to Alexander Ypsilanti. In 1786 he entered the service of Nicholas Mavro- genes, hospodar of Wallachia, at Bucharest, and when war broke out between Turkey and Russia in 1787 he was charged with the inspection of the troops at Craiova. Here he entered into close and friendly relations with a Turkish officer named Osman Passvan-Oglou (1758-1807), afterwards the famous governor of Widin, whose life he saved from the vengeance of Mavrogenes. After the death of his patron Rhigas returned to Bucharest to serve for some time as interpreter at the French Consulate. At this time he wrote the famous Greek version of the Marseillaise, well known in Byron's paraphrase as " sons of the Greeks, arise." He was the founder of the Hetaireia, a society formed to organize Greek patriotic sentiment and to provide the Greeks with arms and money. Believing that the influence of the French Revolution would spread to the Near East, he betook himself to Vienna to organize the movement among the exiled Greeks and their foreign supporters in 1793, or possibly earlier. He published in Vienna many Greek translations of foreign works, and presently foun jp-i a Greek press there, but his chief glory was the collection of national songs which, passed from hand to hand in MS., roused patriotic enthusiasm throughout Greece. They were only printed posthumously at Jassy in 1814. While at Vienna Rhigas entered into communication with Bonaparte, to whom he sent a snuff-box made of the root of a laurel tree taken from the temple of Apollo, and eventually he set out with a view to meeting the general of the army of Italy in Venice. But before leaving Vienna he forwarded papers, amongst which is said to have been his correspondence 240 RHINE with Bonaparte, to a compatriot at Istria. The papers were betrayed by Demetrios Oikonomos Kozanites into the hands of the Austrian government, and Rhigas was arrested at Trieste and handed over with his accomplices to the Turkish authorities at Belgrade. Immediately on arrest he attempted suicide. His Turkish friend, Passvan-Oglou, sought to secure his escape, and the government apparently consented to release him on the payment of a ransom of about £6000; but meanwhile the Turkish pasha commanding at Belgrade had taken the law into his own hands. Rhigas's five companions were secretly drowned, but he himself offered so violent a resistance that he was shot by two Turkish soldiers. His last words are reported as being: " I have sown a rich seed; the hour is coming when my country will reap its glorious fruits." Rhigas, writing in the popular dialect instead of in classical Greek, aroused the patriotic fervour of his contemporaries and his poems were a serious factor in the awakening of modern Greece. See Rizos Neron'.os, Histoire de la revolution grecque (Paris, 1829); I. C. Bolanachi, Hommes illustres de la Grece moderne (Paris, 1875) > and Mrs E. M. Edmonds, Rhigas Pheraios (London, 1890). RHINE (Lat. Rhenus, Ger. Rhein, Fr. Rhin, Dutch Rhyn, or Rijri), the chief river of Germany and one of the most im- portant in Europe. It is about 850 m. in length and drains an area of 75,000 sq. m. The distance in a direct line between its source in the Alps and its mouth in the German Ocean is 460 m. Its general course is north-north-west, but it makes numerous deflexions and at one point is found running in a diametrically opposite direction. The name Rhine, which is apparently of Celtic origin, is of uncertain etymology, the most favoured derivations being either from der Rinnende (the flowing), or from Rein (the clear), the latter being now the more generally accepted. i. The Swiss Portion. — The Rhine rises in the mountains of the Swiss canton of the Grisons, and flows for 233 m. in Swiss territory, within which its drainage basin includes about 14,059 sq. m., and every canton save Geneva. The two main branches of the Rhine, the Hinter Rhine and the Vorder Rhine, unite at Reichenau, 6 m. S.W. of Coire. (i) The principal stream is considered to be that of the Hinter Rhine, which issues (7271 ft.) from the glaciers of the Rheinwaldhorn group, and then flows first N.E. through the Rheinwald valley, and next N. through the Schams valley, which communicates by the well-known gorge of the Via Mala with the Tomleschg valley at Thusis, whence the stream continues its N. course to Reich- enau; total length 35^ m., total fall 3711 ft. It receives a number of mountain torrents during its course, the most im- portant being that from the Avers glen, and the Albula, both on the right, which is itself formed by many mountain streams. (2) The Vorder Rhine rises in the small Toma lake (7691 ft.), S. of the Oberalp Pass, not far from the St. Gotthard Pass, and then flows N.E. past Disentis and Ilanz, which claims the honour of being the " first town on the Rhine," to Reichenau; total length 42 m., total fall 34925 ft. Its chief affluents are the stream dignified by the name of the Medels Rhine, that rises in the Cadlimo glen, W. of the Lukmanier Pass, and, after flowing through the Medels glen, joins the Vorder Rhine at Disentis, and the Glenner, flowing from the Lugnetz glen, both on the right. From Reichenau the united streams flow N.E. to Coire, the capital of the canton of the Grisons, and then turn towards the N., past Ragatz, the valley broadening out, and the river being joined on the right by the Landquart and the 111, before it expands into the Lake of Constance. Extensive " corrections " of the river bed, especially the canal of Diepold- sau, have been carried out in the lower bit of this part of the valley, while from a little north of Ragatz the right bank belongs first to Liechtenstein and then to the Austrian province of the Vorarlberg. On issuing from the Lake of Constance at Con- stance, the Rhine flows nearly due west to Basel, where it leaves Swiss territory, the south bank during this portion of the river being entirely Swiss, save the town of Constance, but the north shore belongs to Baden, save in the case of the Swiss town of Stein-am-Rhein and the Swiss canton of Schaffhausen. The chief towns on its banks are Constance (S.), Schafihausen (N.), Waldshut (N.), Laufenburg (S.), Sackingen (N.), Rheinfelden (S.), and Basel (both banks). About 15 m. below Schaffhausen the river forms the famous Falls of the Rhine, or Falls of Schaff- hausen (60 ft. high), while at Coblenz, opposite Waldshut, it receives its chief affluent, the Aar, recently swollen by the Reuss and the Limmat, and of greater volume than the river in which it loses its identity. (W. A. B. C.) 2. The German and Dutch Portion. — After Basel, when the Rhine turns to the north and enters Germany, its breadth is between 550 and 600 ft., while its surface now lies not more than 800 ft. above the sea, showing that the river has made a descent of 6900 ft. by the time it has traversed a third of its course. From Basel to Mainz the Rhine flows through a wide and shallow valley, bordered on the east and west by the parallel ranges of the Black Forest and the Vosges. Its banks are low and flat, and numerous islands occur. The tendency to divide into parallel branches has been curbed in the interests of naviga- tion, and many windings have been cut off by leading the water into straight and regular channels. At Mannheim the river is nearly 1500 ft. in width, and at Mainz, where it is diverted to the west by the barrier of the Taurius, it is still wider. It follows the new direction for about 20 m., but at Bingen it again turns to the north and begins a completely new stage of its career, entering a narrow valley in which the enclosing rocky hills abut so closely on the river as often barely to leave room for the road and railway on either bank; during this portion of its course the speed of the current at a normal state of the water exceeds 6 m. an hour. This is the most beautiful part of the whole course of the river, abounding in ruintd castles, romantic crags and sunny vineyards. At Coblenz the valley widens and the river is 1200 ft. broad, but the hills close in again at Andernach, and this ravine-like part of its course cannot be considered as ending till below the Siebengebirge (Seven Mountains), where the river once more expands to a width of 1300-1600 ft. Beyond Bonn and Cologne the banks are again flat and the valley wide, though the hills on the right bank do not completely disappear till the neighbourhood of Diisseldorf. Farther on the country traversed by the Rhine is perfectly level, and the current becomes more and more sluggish. On entering Holland, which it does below Emmerich, its course is again deflected to the west. Within Holland the banks are so low as to require at places to be protected by embank- ments against inundations. Almost immediately after entering Holland the stream divides into two arms, the larger of which, carrying off about two-thirds of the water, diverges to the west, is called the Waal, and soon unites with the Maas. The smaller branch to the right retains the name of Rhine and sends off another arm, called the Yssel, to the Zuider Zee. The Rhine now pursues a westerly course almost parallel with that of the Waal. At Wijk another bifurcation takes place, the broad Lek diverging on the left to join the Maas, while the " Kromme Rijn " to the right is comparatively insignificant. Beyond Utrecht, where it is again diminished by the divergence of the Vecht to the Zuider Zee, the river under the name of the " Oude Rijn," or Old Rhine, degenerates into a sluggish and almost stagnant stream, which requires the artificial aid of a canal and of sluices in finding its way to the sea. In Roman times the Rhine at this part of its course seems to have been a full and flowing river, but by the 9th century it had lost itself in the sands of Katwijk, and it was not until the beginning of the igth century that its way to the sea was re-opened. Though the name Rhine thus at last attaches to a very insignificant stream, the entire district between the Waal on one side and the Yssel on the other, the Insula Batavorum of Caesar, in reality belongs to trie delta of the famous river. Tributaries. — The Rhine is said to receive, directly or indirectly, the waters of upwards of 12,000 tributaries of all sizes. Leaving out of account the innumerable glacier streams that swell its volume above the Lake of Constance, the most important affluents to its upper course are the Wutach, the Alb and the Wiese, descending on the right from the Black Forest, and the Aar, draining several Swiss cantons on the left. In the upper Rhenish basin, between RHINE 241 Basel and Mainz, the tributaries, though numerous, are mostly short and unimportant. The 111 and the Nahe on the left and the Neckar and the Main on the right are, however, notable exceptions. Before joining the Rhine the 111 runs almost parallel with it and at no great distance for upwards of 50 m. In the narrow part of the valley, between Bingen and Cologne, the Rhine receives the waters of the Lahn and the Sieg on the right, and those of the Mosel, bringing with it the Saar, and the Ahr on the left. Still lower down, but before the Dutch frontier is reached, come the Ruhr and the Lippe on the right, and the Erft on the left. The numerous arms into which the Rhine branches in Holland have already been noticed. Physical Geography. — The Rhine connects the highest Alps with the mud banks of Holland, and touches in its course the most varied geological periods; but the river valley itself is, geologically speaking, of comparatively recent formation. Rising amid the ancient gneiss rocks of the St Gotthard, the Rhine finds its way down to the Lake of Constance between layers of Triassic and Jurassic formation; and between that lake and Basel it penetrates the chalk barrier of the Jura. The upper Rhenish valley is evidently the bed of an ancient lake, the shores of which were formed by the gneiss and granite of the Black Forest on the one side and the granite and sandstone of the Vosges on the other. Within the valley all the alluvial deposits are recent. Between Bingen and Bonn the Rhine forces its way through a hilly and rocky district belonging to the Devonian formation. The contorted strata of slate and greywacke rock must have been formed at a period vastly anterior to that in which the lake of the upper valley managed to force an outlet through the enclosing barriers. Probably this section may be looked upon as the oldest portion of the river course proper, connecting the upper Rhenish lake with the primeval ocean at Bonn. In this district, too, as has already been remarked, is the finest scenery of the Rhine, a fact due in great part to the grotesque shapes of the quartzose rocks, left denuded of the less urable slate and sandstone. All the strata intersected by the Rhine between Bingen and Bonn contain fossils of the same classes. The deposits of the actual valley here, belonging to the Miocene group of the Tertiary system, are older than the deposits either farther up or farther down the river; but they are contempo- raneous with the basalts of the Rhine, which at Coblenz and in the peaks of the Seven Mountains also contribute to the scenic charm of the river. The very extensive pumice deposits at Neuwied and the lava and other volcanic rocks belong to a more recent epoch. Below Bingen the formations belong almost entirely to the Post- Tertiary period. Numerous extinct volcanoes rise near Neuwied. In the natter parts of the valley occur large beds of loam and rubble, sometimes in terraces parallel with, but several hundred feet above, the river, proving by their disposition and appearance that the valley has been formed by the action of water. Navigation. — The Rhine has been one of the chief waterways of Europe from the earliest times; and, as its channel is not exposed to the danger of silting up like those of the Elbe and the Oder, it has always been comparatively easy to keep it open* The Romans exerted themselves to improve the lower navigation of the river, and appointed prefects of the Rhine to superintend the shipping and to exact the moderate dues imposed to keep the channel in repair. The Franks continued the same policy and retained a system of river-dues. Afterwards, as the banks became parcelled out among a host of petty princelings, each of whom arrogated the right of laying a tax on passing vessels, the imposts became so prejudicial as seriously to hamper the development of the shipping. —Many of the riparian potentates derived the bulk of their revenue from this source, and it is calculated that in the 1 8th century the Rhine yielded a total revenue of £200,000, in spite of the comparatively insignificant amount of the shipping. The first proposal for a free Rhine was mooted by the French at the congress of Rastatt (1797-1799), but Holland, commanding the mouth of the river, placed every obstacle in the way of the sugges- tion. In 1831, on the separation of Holland and Belgium, the former had become more amenable to reason; and a system was agreed upon which practically gave free navigation to the vessels of the riverine states, while imposing a moderate tariff upon foreign ships. After the war of 1866, Prussia negotiated with Baden, Bavaria and Hesse-Darmstadt with a view to the removal of all tolls. It was not, however, till 1868 (see Die Rhein-Schiffahrts Akte vom ijten Okt., 1868) that the last vestige of a toll disappeared and the river was thrown open without any restriction. -The management of the channel and navigation is now vested in a central commis- sion, meeting at Mannheim on the 1st of July in each year. The channel has been greatly improved and in many places made more direct since the beginning of the igth century, large sums being annually spent in keeping it in order. Capacious river harbours have been formed at various points, twenty-nine of these being in Germany and eight in Holland. The position of the river is highly favourable for the development of its trade. It flows through the ...o.,'; pooulous regions of the continent of Europe, to discharge into one ot the most frequented seas opposite Great Britain, and, besides serving as a natural outlet for Germany, Belgium and Holland, is connected with a great part of central and southern France by the Rhine-Rhone and the Rhine-Marne canals, and with the basin of the Danube by the Ludwigs-Canal. The introduction of steam has greatly increased the shipping on the Rhine; and small steamers ply also on the Main, the Neckar, the Maas and the Moscl. The first Rhine steamer was launched in 1817; and now the river is regularly traversed by upwards of a hundred, from the small tug up to the passenger saloon-steamer* The steamboat traffic has especially encouraged the influx of tourists, and the number of passing travellers may now be reckoned as between one and two millions annually. The river is navigable without interruption from Basel to its mouth, a distance of 550 miles, of which 450 lie within Germany. Above Spires, however, the river craft are comparatively small, but lower down vessels of 500 and 600 tons burden find no difficulty in plying. Between Basel and Strassburg the depth of water is sometimes not more than 3 ft. ; between Strassburg and Mainz it varies from 5 to 25 ft. ; while below Mainz it is never less than q or 10 ft. The deepest point is opposite the Lorelei (Lurlei) Rock near St Goar, where it is 75 ft. in depth ; at Dusseldorf the depth is about 50 ft. London, Hamburg, Bremen and the chief Baltic ports as far as Riga and St Petersburg participate in the traffic on the Rhine. The boats which ply up and down the river itself, without venturing upon the open sea, are mostly craft of 100 to 200 tons, owned in the great majority of cases by their captains, men principally of German or Dutch nationality. This fleet is computed to number some 8500 craft, with an aggregate capacity of over 2 million tons, of which about one-tenth are steamships. The traffic at the chief German ports of the river aggregated 4,489,000 tons in 1870, but by 1900 this had grown to a total of 17,000,000 tons, thus distributed: Ruhrort, 6,512,000 tons; Duisburg, 3,000,000 tons; Cologne, 1,422,000 tons; and Mannheim, 6,021,000 tons. These are not the only ports on the river; a large trade is also done at Kehl, Maxau (for Karlsruhe), Ludwigshafen, Mainz, Bonn, Rotterdam and a host of smaller places. The amount of traffic which passed the town of Emmerich near the Dutch frpntier,.both ways, increased from an annual average of about 6 million tons in 1881-85 to over ^'f. million t'1£.° m 1802- Notwithstanding the inherent diffi- culties of constructiSh-- The resolution of the B type is preceded by rapid multiplication of the nuclei by mitosis (fig. 5, 7), and the uninucleate cells are 2-flagellate zoospores (fig. 5, 9). These pair with zoospores of a different brood to their own (fig. 5, 10) (i.e. they are exogamous gametes); and the fusion cell (fig. 5. n) so formed is the starting-point of the A type (fig. 5, 12). Brood formation by resolution of a multinucleate individual has been observed or conjectured in Amoeba, &c. A formation of numerous pseudopodiospores within Pdomyxa has been repeatedly described, and these have been seen to conjugate equally, the zygote becoming multinuclear. But the possibility of the alleged reproductive cells being parasites has not yet been fully ex- cluded. Chlamydophrys stercorea is a small Pilose, occurring in the faeces of several mammals, but only forming its characteristic shell out- side the body; plastogamic monstrosities are frequent. The nucleus degenerates, and is expelled with some plasm. The chromidia remain inside the shell, and differentiate or aggregate into about eight nuclei; the cell is then resolved into as many a-flagellate swarmers, which escape as isogamous exogametes. The zygote becomes surrounded by a brown cyst. When From Eugene Penard, Paune rhizopodijut du kassin du Ltnum. FIG. 6. — A, Euglypha alveolata. I, Living animal; a, guitar- shaped outline of body, retracted from shell For emission of pseudo- pods ; b, b, reserve plates in body for offspring in next bud-fission ; 2, empty shell; 3, round plates; 4, 5, adoral plates with more or less marked denticulations; 6, oval plates; 7, transverse section of shell, showing circle of reserve plates within. B, Sphenoderia lenta. I, Animal, lateral view; 2, same from above; 3, shell, lateral view; 4, shell, oral view of the pylome; 5, optical section through empty shell and pylome; 6, nucleus; 7, surface view of pylome (dotted lines represent its opposite side as seen at a lower focus). 248 RHODE ISLAND swallowed by a mammal it develops, and the ordinary form is found in the excreta. Cenlropyxis aculeata is closely allied to Difflugia. It divides by fission and also at the end of a cycle by schizogony, the 8 FIG. 7. — Filosa and Foraminifera of similar habit. I. Diplo- phrys archeri (moor pools); a, nucleus; 6, contractile vacuoles; c, oil drop. 2. Allogromia fluviatilis (freshwater Foraminifer) ; a, numerous nuclei; the elongated bodies are ingested diatoms. 3. Shepheardella taeniformis (marine Foraminifer), X 30 with retracted protoplasm; a, nucleus. 4. The same X 15 with expanded pseudopods. 5-9. Nucleus of same in various aspects as carried along in streaming protoplasm. 10. Amphitrema wrighti- anum(moor pools) ; shell membranous.encrusted with foreign bodies. II. Diaphorodon mobile (moor pools); a, nucleus. offspring being amoebulae. In some these acquire a shell directly; in others a second brood division into four takes place, and it is only then that shells are formed. The latter conjugate as males with the former as females; and the fusion cell encysts within the approximated shells; it emerges as a naked amoeba after a period of rest, forms a shell and assumes the type of the species. Other types of reproduction are known, Amoeba colif an inhabitant of the gut of man, showing an endogamous pairing of closely related nuclei similar to that of Actinosphaerium (see HELIOZOA). CLASSIFICATION Lobosa. — W. B. Carpenter. Cytoplasm with a clear ectosarc, not wetted by the medium ; pseudopods never finely branching, usually rounded at the apex; nucleus single or multiple; shell (" test," " theca ") absent, gelatinous, membranous or of cemented granules of ingested sand, &c., or plates secreted in the endosarc. ^Selected genera: § i. Naked Amoeba ( United States. 25° RHODE ISLAND was valued in 1908 at $556,774. The value of the clay products, lime and talc, decreased from $245,378 in 1907 to $112,815 in 1908. The mining of iron ore was begun about 1767 in the vicinity of the present Cranston, and much of the metal was used in the making of cannon during the War of Independence, but the supply was soon exhausted. Near Tiverton and Cranston graphite has been quarried. Manufactures. — Rhode Island is essentially a manufacturing state; of the 191,923 persons in the state engaged in gainful occupations in 1900, 101,162 (or 52.7%) were employed in manufacturing and mechanical pursuits. By the middle of the 1 7th century boat-building had become an established industry, and large vessels were built at Newport. In 1777 the state offered a large premium for every pound of steel, similar to German steel, made within its boundaries; and in 1789 a rolling and slitting mill was built near Providence. Cotton was first imported to Providence from Spain in 1785; a company to carry on cotton-spinning, formed at Providence in 1786, established there in the following year a factory con- taining a spinning jenny of 28 spindles (the first machine of the kind to be used in the United States), and also a carding machine and a spinning frame with which was manufactured a kind of jean having a linen warp and a cotton filling. The fly shuttle was also apparently first introduced at Providence in 1788. The first calico printed in the United States was made at East Greenwich about 1794. The Providence Associa- tion of Mechanics and Manufacturers, incorporated in 1789, organized industrial development. The prohibition of the exportation from England of machinery, models or drawings retarded mechanical improvement, but in 1790 an industrial company was formed at Providence to carry on cotton spinning, and in December of that year there was established at Paw- tucket a factory equipped with Arkwright machines constructed by Samuel Slater. This machinery was operated by water- power, then first used in the United States for the spinning of cotton thread; and from this may be dated the beginning of the factory system in Rhode Island. These machines were soon adapted to the spinning of wool, and in 1804 a woollen factory was built at Peacedale, South Kingston. The first power- loom used in the United States was invented about 1812, and was set up at Peacedale, in 1814, for the manufacture of woollen saddlegirths and other webbing. The first power-loom for cotton manufacture was set up in North Providence in 1817. Textile manufacturing by improved methods was hardly well established in Rhode Island before 1825. The manufacture of jewelry, which was established in Providence in 1784, was greatly promoted ten years later by Nehemiah Dodge's in- vention of the process of " gold-filling," still further improved in 1846 by Thomas H. Lowe. The manufacture of silverware was begun in Providence soon after the close of the War of Independence. Rhode Island's water powers have been its only natural resources which have aided in the development of its manu- factures, and its transportation facilities have always been inadequate, because of shallow water at Providence and scanty railway communication; but the state's manufacturing enter- prises are of great importance. In 1900 Rhode Island ranked 1 7th among the states in the value of its manufactured products, but led all of the states in the value per capita ($430). The total number of establishments in 1850 was 864; in 1890, 3377, and in 1900, 4189. In 1900 there were 1678 factories, and in 1905, 1617 factories.1 The total capital in- vested in manufacturing in 1850 was $12,935,676; in 1890, $126,483,401, and in 1900, $183,784,587, of which $176,901,606 was in factories; in 1905 the capital invested in factories was $215,901,375. The value of all manufactured products in 1850 was $22,117,688; in 1890, $142,500,625, and in 1900, $184,074,378, of which $165,550,382 was the value of factory products; in 1905 the value of factory products was $202,109,583. The average number of employes in 1850 was 20,967; in 1890, 81, ill; and in 1 The 1905 census of manufactures gives statistics only for estab- lishments under the factory system, excluding the hand trades, and gives factory statistics for 1905 and for 1900. The statistics given above for 1900 in comparison with 1905 are for factory pro- ducts. 1900, 98,813, of whom 88,197 were factory employes; in 1905 there were 97,318 factory employes. Rhode Island ranked first in 1900 ($13,229,313) and in 1905 ($14,431,756) among the states of the United States in the Value of jewelry, which was fourth in the value of the state's manu- factures; second in worsted goods (1900, $33,341,329; 1905, $44,477,596), which were first in value in the state's manufac- tures; and third in dyeing and finishing textiles (1900, $8,484,878; 1905, $9,981,457), which ranked fifth among; the state's manu- factures; in the value of cotton goods (second in rank in the state) it fell from the fourth rank in 1900 ($24,056,175) to fifth rank in 1905 ($30,628,843), when the value of Rhode Island's product was less than that of Georgia. Other important manufactures were: combined textiles (not including flax, hemp and jute products) in 1900, $77,998,396; in 1905, $103,096.311; foundry and machine shop products in 1900, $13,269,086; in 1905, $16,338,512; woollen goods in 1900, $5,330,550; in 1905, $8,163,167; rubber boots and shoes in 1900, $8,034,417; electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies in 1900, $5,113,292; in 1905, $5,435,474; silversmithing . and silverware in 1900, $4,249,190; in 1905, $5,323,264; gold and silver, reducing and refining (not from ore) in 1900, $3,484,454; in 1905, $.4,260,698; cotton small wares in 1900, $2,379,500; in 1905, $3,944,607; hosiery and knit goods in 1900, $2,713,850; in 1905, $3,344,655; silk and silk goods in 1900, $1,311,333; in 1905, $2,555,986. In 1905, 1146 establishments reported power, as against 1360 in 1900 — a decrease of 15-7%, but the total horsepower increased from 155,545 to 190,777, or 22-7%. Transportation. — Steam railway mileage in Rhode Island in- creased from 68 m. in 1850 to 209 m. in 1900, and to 211 m. on the 1st of January 1909 (the New York, New Haven & Hartford being the only railway system of any importance in the state). In 1910 a charter was granted to the Grand Trunk system. In 1902 the mileage of street and electric railways (most of them interurban) operated in the state was 336-33 m. The state has a natural water outlet in the Providence river and Narragansett Bay, but there is lack of adequate dockage in Providence harbour, and insufficient depth of water for ocean traffic. The ports of entry are Providence (by far the largest, with imports valued at $1,893,551, and exports valued at $12,517 in 1909), Newport and Bristol. Population. — The total population of Rhode Island in 1880 was 276,531; in 1890, 345,506; in 1900, 428,556; and in 1910, 542,674.z The increase from 1880 to 1890 was 24-9%, from 1890 to 1900 24%, and from 1900 to 1910, 26-6%. Of the total population in 1900, 285,278 were native whites, 134,519 were foreign-born, 9092 were negroes, 366 were Chinese, 35 were Indians and 13 were Japanese. Of the foreign-born, 35,501 were Irish, 31,533 were French-Canadians and 22,832 were English. Of the total population, 275,143 were of foreign parentage, i.e. either one or both parents were foreign-born — and 81,232 were of Irish parentage, both on the father's and mother's side, and, in the same sense, 49,427 were of French- Canadian and 32,007 of English parentage. Rhode Island in 1900 had the highest percentage of urban population of any state in the Union, 91-6% of the total population living in cities of 4000 or more inhabitants. From 1890 to 1900 the urban population increased from 310,335 to 392,509 or 26-5%; while the rural population (i.e. population outside of incor- porated places), increased from 35,171 to 36,047 — 1-1% of the total increase in population. The cities of the state, with population in 1900,' are Providence, 175,597; Pawtucket, 39,231; Woonsocket, 28,204; Newport, 22,034; and Central Falls, 18,167. In 1906 there were in the state 264,712 com- municants of various religious denominations, and of these 199,951 were Roman Catholics. Second in strength were the Baptists, who founded the colony; in 1906 they numbered 19,878, of whom 14,304 were of the Northern Convention. There were 15,443 Protestant Episcopalians, 9858 Congrega- tionalists, 7892 Methodists. The Friends, whose influence was so strong in the early history of Providence, numbered in 1906 only 648 in the whole state. Administration. — The state is governed under the con- stitution of 1842, with amendments adopted in 1854, 1864, 1886, 1888, 1889, 1892, ^893, 1900, 1903, 1909. All native or naturalized citizens of the United States residing, in Rhode 2 The populations in other census years were: (1790) 68,825; (1800) 69,122; (1810) 76,931; (1820) 83,059; (1830) 97,199; (1840) 108,830; (1850) 147,545; (1860) 174,620; (1870) 217,353. 3 In 1910 the populations of the cities were: Providence, 224,326; Pawtucket, 51,622; Woonsocket, 38,125; Newport, 27,149; and Central Falls, 22,754. RHODE ISLAND 251 Island are citizens of the state. Under an act of 1724 the suffrage was restricted to adult males who possessed a freehold of the value of $134 (see History). So far as state and national elections are concerned, the privilege was extended to native non-freeholders by the constitution of 1842, to naturalized foreigners who had served in the Civil War by an amendment of the 7th of April 1886, and to all adult male citizens by the amendment of the 4th of April 1888. A curious survival of the old system exists in the provision that only those who pay taxes on $134 worth of property may vote for members of city councils or on propositions to levy taxes or to expend public money. The working men are thus almost entirely excluded from participating in the government of the large factory towns. Amendments to the constitution must be passed by both houses of the General Assembly at two consecutive sessions, and must then be ratified by three-fifths of the electors of the state present and voting thereon in town and ward meetings. Fifteen amendments have thus been added to the constitution of 1842. An amendment of the 7th of April 1886 forbade the manufacture and sale of intoxicating beverages, but it was badly enforced and was repealed by a subsequent amendment of the zoth of June 1889. The powers of the governor are unusually small. Until 1909, when a constitutional amendment was adopted, he had no power of veto, and his very limited nominal powers of appointment and removal are controlled by a rotten-borough Senate. The other administrative officers are a secretary of state, an attorney-general, an auditor, a treasurer, a commissioner of public schools, a railroad commissioner, and a factory inspector, and various boards and commissions, such as the board of education, the board of agri- culture, the board of health, and the commissioners of inland fisheries, commissioners of harbours and commissioners of pilots. The legislative power is vested in the General Assembly,1 which consists of a Senate made up of the lieutenant-governor and of one senator from each of the thirty-eight cities and townships in the state, and a House of Representatives of one hundred members, apportioned according to population, but with the proviso that each town or city shall have at least one member and none shall have more than one-fourth of the total (see History). Members of the legislature and all state officials are elected annually in November. A majority vote was formerly required, but since the adoption of the tenth amendment (November 28, 1893) a plurality vote has elected. At the head of the judicial system is the supreme court (1747), divided since 1893 into an appellate division and a common pleas division, with final revisory and appellate jurisdiction upon all questions of law and equity. Below this are the twelve district courts, the town councils, probate courts in the larger towns, and justices of the peace. The seven judges of the supreme court and the district judges are elected by the General Assembly, the former during good behaviour, the latter for terms of three years. The town (or township) is the unit of local government, the county being recognized only for judicial purposes and to a certain extent in the appointment by central administrative boards. There are five counties and thirty-eight towns. The municipal govern- ments of Newport and Providence present interesting features, for which see the separate articles on these cities. Education. — The public school system of Rhode Island was established in 1800, abolished in 1803, and re-established in 1828. At the head of it is a commissioner of education, appointed by the governor and the Senate, and a board of education, composed of the governor and the lieutenant-governor ex officio and six other members elected by the General Assembly. Under an act of the I2th of April 1883, as amended on the 4th of April 1902, education is compulsory for children between the ages of seven and fifteen, but the maximum limit is reduced to thirteen for children who are employed at lawful labour. The total enrolment in the public schools in 1905 was 71,425 and the total expenditure for public school purposes was $1,987,751. A considerable proportion of the Irish and the French Canadians send their children to the Roman Catholic parochial schools. The chief institutions for higher educa- 1 Under the constitution of 1842 it was provided that there should be two sessions of the General Assembly annually : one at Newport in May, and the other in October to be held at South Kingstown once in two years, and the intermediate years alternately at Bristol and East Greenwich, an adjournment from the October session being held annually at Providence. In 1854 this was amended: one session was provided for to be held in Newport in May, an adjournment being held annually at Providence. And in 1900 by another amendment Providence became the only meeting-place of the General Assembly. tion are Brown University (1764), the State School of Design (1877), the State Normal School (reorganized 1898), and the Moses Brown School (1819), all at Providence (q.v.), and the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts (1888) at Kingston, a land grant college under the Morrill Acts of 1862 and 1890, the Hatch Act of 1887 and the Adams Act of 1906. This institution was founded as an agricultural school in 1888 and became a college in 1892. It has departments of agriculture, engineering and science, a library of 15,000 volumes and an experiment station. There an- state training-schools for teachers at Providence, Cranston, Bristol, Barrington, Central Falls, Warwick and Pawtucket. Charitable and Penal Institutions. — A board of state charities and corrections, established in 1869, supervises and controls all of the penal, charitable and correctional institutions of the state at large and also the local almshouses. There were in 1910 nine members of the board, three from Providence county, one from each of the other counties, and one from the state at large; five were appointed by the governor with the consent of the Senate, and four were elected by the Senate. A group of institutions (under the control of the board) at Howard, in Cranston town- ship, about 7 m. from Providence, including the Workhouse and House of Correction, the Hospital for the Insane (1869), the Alms- house, the State Prison and Providence County Jail, the Sock- anosset School for Boys, and the Oaklawn School for Girls, are supported entirely or in part by the state. In addition to the institutions under the board of charities and corrections there are two under the board of education, and supported wholly or in part by the state, the School for the Deaf (1877) and the Home and School for Dependent and Neglected Children (1885) at Providence. The Soldiers' Home (1891) at Bristol, the Butler Hospital for the Insane (1847) at Providence, and a Sanitarium (1905) at Wallum Lake, in the township of Burrillville, also receive state aid. Finance. — The chief sources of revenue in the order named are the general property tax, the tax on savings banks, the tax on insurance companies, and liquor licences. There is no corporation tax. The total receipts from all sources for the year 1909 were $2,317,512, the expenditures $2,345,359. The public debt, which originated in 1752, amounted to £70,000 sterling in 1764, to £4000 in 1775 and to $698,000 in 1783. Part of the Revolutionary debt was paid in depreciated paper, part was assumed by the United States government, part was paid at various rates of depreciation between 1803 and 1820, and the remainder, $43,971, was repudiated in 1847. Other obligations had accumulated in the meantime, however, so that the debt in 1848 amounted to $187,000. This was gradually reduced until the Civil War, when it was increased to $3,889,000 by 1865. A sinking fund commission was established in 1875, and the entire sum was extinguished by the 1st of August 1894. The issue of bonds for the construction of the new capitol building and other purposes has led, however, to a new debt, which at the beginning of 1910 amounted to $4,800,000. There was at the same time a sinking fund of $654,999. Before the adoption of the Federal constitution Rhode Island was badly afflicted with the paper money heresy. £5000 were printed in 1710, and from that time until 1751 there were nine separate issues. These were gradually retired, however, through the efforts of the mercantile classes, aided by the parliamentary statutes of 1751 and 1763, and by about 1763 the finances were again placed on a sound money basis. The influx of Continental currency gave some trouble during the War of Independence, but there were no further local issues until I7$6, when £100,000 were issued. The first banks organized in the state were the Providence Bank in 1791, the Bank of Rhode Island at Newport in 1795, and the Washington Bank at Westerly in 1800. Forty-four charters had been issued in 1826 and sixty in 1837. Partly through restrictive local legislation and partly as a result of the operation of the Suffolk system of redemption in Boston, these institutions were always conservative. During practically the entire period before the Civil War their note issues constituted a smaller proportion of the capital stock than those of any other state. By an act of 1858 which is still in force, annual reports must be presented to the state auditor. On the establishment of the national banking system, 1863-65, nearly all of the banks took out national charters. Since 1865 the most notable features have been the rise and de- cadence of the national banks and the rise of the trust companies. During the decade from 1890 to 1900 the deposits in the national banks increased only 5%, from $16,700,000 to $17,500,000; those of the trust companies increased 330 %, from $12,000,000 to more than $40,000,000. During the period from 1890 to 1901 twenty national banks retired from business, and the total capital stock was re- duced from about twenty millions to about thirteen millions of dollars. History. — Rhode Island was founded by refugees from Massachusetts, who went there in search of religious and political freedom. The first settlements were made at Pro- vidence by Roger Williams (q.r.) in June 1636, and at Portsmouth on the island of Aquidneck by the Antinomians, William Coddington (1601-1678), John Clarke (1609-1676), and Anne Hutchinson (1591-1643), in March-April 1638. 252 RHODE ISLAND Becoming dissatisfied with conditions at Portsmouth, Codd- ington and Clarke removed a few miles farther south on the 2Qth of April 1639, and established a settlement at New- port. In a similar manner Warwick was founded in January 1643 by seceders from Providence under the lead of Samuel Gorton. The union of Portsmouth and Newport, March 12, 1640, was followed by the consolidation of all four settlements, May 19, 1647, under a patent of March 14, 1644, issued by the parliamentary board of commissioners for plantations. The particularistic sentiment was still very strong, however, and in 1651 the union split into two confederations, one in- cluding the mainland towns, Providence and Warwick; the other, the island towns, Portsmouth and Newport. A re- union was effected in 1654 through the influence of Roger Williams, and a charter was secured from Charles II. on the 8th of July 1663. In the patent of 1644 the entire colony was called Providence Plantations. On the i3th of March 1644 the Portsmouth-Newport General Court changed the name of the island from Aquidneck to the Isle of Rhodes or Rhode Island. The official designation for the province as a whole in the charter of 1663, therefore, was Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. The charter was suspended at the beginning of the Andros regime in 1686, but was re- stored again after the Revolution of 1689. The closing years of the 1 7th century were characterized by a gradual transition from the agricultural to the commercial stage of civilization. Newport became the centre of an extensive business in piracy, privateering, smuggling, and legitimate trade. Cargoes of rum, manufactured from West Indian sugar and molasses, were exported to Africa and exchanged for slaves to be sold in the southern colonies and the West Indies. The passage of the Sugar Act of April 5, 1764, and the steps taken by the British government to enforce the Navigation Acts seriously affected this trade. The people of Rhode Island played a prominent part in the struggle for independence. On the 9th of June 1772 the " Gaspee," a British vessel which had been sent over to enforce the acts of trade and navigation, ran aground in Narragansett Bay and was burned to the water's edge by a party of men from Providence. Nathanael Greene, a native of Rhode Island, was made commander of the Rhode Island militia in May 1775, and a major-general in the Continental army in August 1776, and in the latter capacity he served with ability until the close of the war. In the year 1776, General Howe sent a detachment of his army under General Henry Clinton to seize Newport as a base of operations for reducing New England, and the city was occupied by the British on the 8th of December 1776. To capture this British garrison, later increased to 6000 men, the co-operation of about 10,000 men (mostly New England militia) under Major-General John Sullivan, and a French fleet carrying 4000 French regulars under Count D'Estaing, was planned in the summer of 1778. On the gth of August Sullivan crossed to the north end of the island of Rhode Island, but as the Frenchmen were disembarking on Conanicut Island, Lord Howe arrived with the British fleet. Count D'Estaing hastily re-embarked his troops and sailed out to meet Howe. For two days the hostile fleets manoeuvred for positions, and then they were dispersed by a severe storm. On the zoth, D'Estaing returned to the port with his fleet badly crippled, and only to announce that he should sail to Boston to refit. The American officers protested but in vain, and on the z8th they decided to retreat to the north end of the island. The British pursued, and the next day there was a severe engagement in which the Americans were driven from Turkey and Quaker Hills. On the 3Oth the Americans, learning of the approach of Lord Howe's fleet with 5000 troops under Clinton, decided to abandon the island. The British evacuated Newport the 2$th cf October 1779, and the French fleet was stationed here from Ju v 1780 to 1781. The influence of Roger Williams's iceas and the peculiar conditions under which the first settlements v",:3 established have tended to differentiate the history of Rhoc . Island from that of the other New England states. In 1640 the General Court of Massachusetts declared that the representatives of Aquidneck were " not to be capitulated withal either for them- selves or the people of the isle where they inhabit," and in 1644 and again in 1648 the application of the Narragansett settlers for admission to the New England Confederacy was refused except on condition that they should pass under the jurisdiction of either Massachusetts or Plymouth. Rhode Island was one of the first communities in the world to advo- cate religious freedom and political individualism. The individualistic principle was shown in the jealousy of the towns toward the central government, and in the establish- ment of legislative supremacy over the executive and the judiciary. The legislature migrated from county to county up to 1854, and there continued to be two centres of govern- ment until 1900. The dependence of the judiciary upon the legislature was maintained until .1860, and the governor is still shorn of certain powers which are customary in other states (see Administration). In the main the rural towns have adhered most strongly to the old individualistic sentiment, whereas the cities have kept more in touch with the modern nationalistic trend of thought. This was shown, for example, in the struggle for the ratification of the Federal constitution. Under the Articles of Confederation it was principally Rhode Island that defeated the proposal to authorize Congress to levy an impost duty of 5% mainly as a means of meeting the debts of the Central government. When the constitu- tional convention met in Philadelphia in 1787 to frame a con- stitution for a stronger Federal government, the agriculturists of Rhode Island were afraid that the movement would result in an interference with their local privileges, and especially with their favourite device of issuing paper money, and the state refused to send delegates, and not until the Senate had passed a bill for severing commercial relations between the United States and Rhode Island, did the latter, in May 1790, ratify the Federal constitution, and then only by a majority of two votes. Rhode Island, like the rest of New England, was opposed to the War of 1812 and the Mexican War. During the Civil War it sent 23,457 men into the service of the Union. The economic transition of the later i7th century from the agricultural to the commercial regime was followed by a further transition to the manufacturing regime during the closing years of the i8th and the early years of the igth centuries. Com- mercial interests have been almost entirely destroyed, partly because of the abolition of the slave trade and partly because of the embargo and the war of 1812, but mainly because the cities of the state are unfavourably situated to be the termini of interstate railway systems. Providence, owing to its superior water-power facilities, has therefore become one of the leading manufacturing centres of New England, whereas Newport is now known only as a fashionable summer resort. The move- ment as a whole was of exactly the same character as the industrial revolution in England, and it led to the same result, a struggle for electoral reform. The system of apportionment and the franchise qualifications were worked out to meet the needs of a group of agricultural communities. The charter of 1663 and the franchise law of 1724 established substantial equality of representation among the towns, and restricted the suffrage to freeholders. In the course of time, therefore, the small towns came to be better represented proportionally than the large cities, and the growing class of artisans was entirely disfranchised. The city of Providence issued a call for a constitutional convention in 1796, and similar efforts were made in 1799, 1817, 1821, 1822 and 1824, but nothing was accom- plished. About 1840 Thomas W. Dorr (1805-1854), a young lawyer of Providence, began a systematic campaign for an extension of the suffrage, a reapportionment of representation and the establishment of an independent judiciary. The struggle, which lasted for several years, and in fact is not yet entirely over, was one between the cities and the country, between the manufacturers and the agriculturists. It was RHODE ISLAND 253 also complicated by racial and religious prejudices, a large proportion of the factory operatives being foreigners and Roman Catholics, and most of the country people native Protestants. The former were in general associated with the Democratic party, the latter with the Whigs. A convention summoned without any authority from the legislature, and elected on the principle of universal manhood suffrage, met at Providence, October 4-November 18, 1841, and drafted a frame of govern- ment which came to be known as the People's Constitution. A second convention met on the call of the legislature in February 1842 and adopted the so-called Freeman's Constitution. On being submitted to popular vote the former was ratified by a large majority (December 27, 28, 29, 1841), while the latter was rejected by a majority of 676 (March 21, 22, 23, 1842). At an election held on the i8th of April 1842 Dorr was chosen governor. The supreme court of the state and the president of the United States (Tyler) both refused to recognize the validity of the People's Constitution, whereupon Dorr and a few of his more zealous adherents decided to organize a rebellion. They were easily repulsed in an attack upon the Providence town arsenal, and Dorr, after a brief period of exile in Connecti- cut, was convicted of high treason on the 26th of April 1844, and was sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was released by act of the Assembly in June 1845, and was restored to the full rights of citizenship in May 1851. The Freeman's Constitution, modified by another convention, which held its session at New- port and East Greenwich, September i2-November 5, 1842, was finally adopted by popular vote on November 21-23, 1842. Only a partial concession was made to the demand for reform. The suffrage was extended to non-freeholders, but only to those of American birth. Representation in the lower house of the legislature was apportioned according to population, but only on condition that no city or town should ever elect more than one-sixth of the total number of members. Each city and town without regard to population was to elect one senator. In order to perpetuate this system the method of amending the constitution was made extremely difficult (see Administration). Since the adoption of the constitution the conditions have become worse owing to the extensive immigration of foreigners into the large cities and the gradual decay of the rural towns. From about 1845 to 1880 most of the immigrants were Irish, but since 1880 the French-Canadians have constituted the chief element. In 1900 over 30% of the population of the state was foreign-born. A constitutional amendment of 1888 extended to them the right of suffrage in state and national elections, and an amendment of 1909 partially remedied the evils in the system of apportionment. When the last Federal census was taken in 1910, Providence, Pawtucket, Woonsocket and Newport, with a combined population of 341,222, had four senators, whereas the remainder of the state, with a population of 201,452, had thirty-four. Providence, with a population of 224,326 out of a total of 542,674, had one member in a Senate of thirty-eight and twenty-five members in a House of Representatives of one hundred. The Republican machine finds it easy with the support of the millionaire summer colony at Newport and the street railway corporations to corrupt the French-Canadians and a portion of the native element in the rural towns and maintain absolute control of the state government. The majority has occasionally protested by electing a Democratic governor, but he has not been able to accomplish a great deal, because until 1909 he did not have veto power nor effectual means to induce the Senate to ratify his appointments. Bonds were issued on the 8th of November 1892 for the construction of a new state house at Providence, the corner stone was laid in October 1896, and the building was thrown open to use on the ist of January 1901. A constitutional amendment of 1900 dispensed with the session of the legislature at Newport. In presidential campaigns the state has been Federalist, 1792-1800; Democratic Republican, 1804; Federalist, 1808- 1812; Democratic Republican, 1816-1820; Adams (Republican), 1824-1828; National Republican, 1832; Democratic, 1836; Whig, 1840-1848; Democratic, 1852; and Republican since 1856. GOVERNORS OF RHODE ISLAND Portsmouth William Coddington . . .• Judge, 1638-1639 William Hutchinson . . „ 1639-1640 Newport William Coddington . . . Judge, 1639-1640 Portsmouth and Newport William Coddington . . Governor, 1640-1647 PRESIDENTS UNDER THE PATENT OF 1644 John Coggeshall Jeremy Clarke ...... John Smith . Nicholas Easton ... Providence and Warwick ' Samuel Gorton . President, John Smith . . M Gregory Dexter ... „ Portsmouth and Newport John Sanford . . President, 1653-1654 PRESIDENTS UNDER THE PATENT OF 1644 Nicholas Easton . 1654 Roger Williams Benedict Arnold William Brenton Benedict Arnold 1647-1648 1648-1649 1649-1650 1650-1651 1651-1652 1652-1653 1653-1654 GOVERNORS UNDER THE CHARTER OF Benedict Arnold William Brenton Benedict Arnold Nicholas Easton William Coddington . Walter Clarke . Benedict Arnold William Coddington . John Cranston . Peleg Sanford William Coddington, 2nd Henry Bull Walter Clarke . John Coggeshall (acting) Henry Bull John Easton . . ' Caleb Carr Walter Clarke . Samuel Cranston Joseph Jencks William Wanton John Wanton Richard Ward . . William Greene . Gideon Wanton . William Greene . Gideon Wanton . William Greene ' Stephen Hopkins William Greene . Stephen Hopkins Samuel Ward Stephen Hopkins Samuel Ward Stephen Hopkins Josias Lyndon Joseph Wanton . Nicholas Cooke . William Greene, 2nd . John Collins Arthur Fenner, a Federalist and Democratic Re- publican ... . . Paul Mumford (acting), Democratic Republican Henry Smith, „ „ „ Isaac Wilbour, „ „ „ James Fenner, Democratic Republican . William Jones, Federalist .... Nehemiah R. Knight, Democratic Republican William C. Gibbs, James Fenner4 (Democratic Republican and National Republican) .... 1654-1657 1657-1660 1660-1662 1662-1663 1663 1663-1666 1666-1669 1669-1672 1672-1674 1674-1676 1676-1677 1677-1678 .1678 1678-1680 1680-1683 1683-1685 1685-1686 1686* 1689-1690 1690 1690-1695 1695 1696-1698 1698-1727 I727-I/32 '732-1/33 1734-1740 1740-1743 1743-1745 1745-1746 1746-1747 1747-1748 1748-1755 I755-I/57 I757-I/58 '758-1762 1762-1763 1763-1765 1765-1767 1767-1768 1768-1769 1760-1775 i775-'778 1778-1786 1786-1790 1790-1805 1805 1805-1806 1806-1807 1807-1811 1811-1817 1817-1821 1821-1824 1824-1831 1 A separation occurred in 1651 between the towns of Providence and Warwick on one side and Portsmouth and Newport on the other. They were reunited in 1654. 2 The charter was suspended from 1686 to 1689, during which time the province was under the supervision of Sir Edmund Andros. * Arthur Fenner became a Democratic Republican about 1800. 4 James Fenner was a Democratic Republican to 1826, a National Republican (Adams) to 1829 and a Democrat (Jackson) to 1831. 254 RHODES, C. J. Lemuel H. Arnold, National Republican . 1831-1833 John B. Francis, Democrat arid Anti-Masonic 1833-1838 William Sprague, Whig .... 1838-1839 Samuel W. King, Whig . 1839-1843 UNDER THE CONSTITUTION OF 1842 James Fenner, Whig 1843-1845 Charles Jackson,1 Democrat . . . 1845-1846 Byron Diman, Whig ..... 1846-1847 Elisha Harris, Whig 1847-1849 Henry B. Anthony, Whig .... 1849-1851 Philip Allen, Democrat .... 1851-1853 Francis M. Dimond (acting), Democrat . 1853-1854 William W. Hoppin, Whig and American . 1854-1857 Elisha Dyer, Republican . ... . 1857-1859 Thomas G. Turner, Republican . . . 1859-1860 William Sprague,2 Unionist .... 1860-1863 William C. Cozzens (acting), Unionist . . 1863 James Y. Smith, Republican ', . . 1863-1866 Ambrose E. Burnside, „ . . . . 1866-1869 Seth Padelford, , 1869-1873 Henry Howard, 1873-1875 Henry Lippitt, „ 1875-1877 Charles C. Van Zandt, „ .... 1877-1880 Alfred H. Littlefield, 1880-1883 Augustus O. Brown, ,,.... 1883-1885 George P. Wetmore, „ . . . . 1885-1887 John W. Davis, Democrat, .... 1887-1888 ' Royal C. Taft, Republican, . . . . . 1888-1889 Herbert W. Ladd, „ . . . . 1889-1890 John W. Davis, Democrat .... 1890-1891 Herbert W. Ladd, Republican . . . 1891-1892 D. Russell Brown, „ 1892-1895 Charles W. Lippitt 1895-1897 Elisha Dyer, ' . 1897-1900 William Gregory, , 1900-1901 Charles Dean Kimball, Republican . . 1901-1903 L. F. C. Garvin, Democrat .... 1903-1905 George H. Utter, Republican . . . 1905-1907 James H. Higgins, Democrat . . . I9O7-.I9O9 Aram J. Pothier, Republican . . . 1909- BIBLIOGRAPHY. — For general physical description see C. T. Jackson, Report on the Geological and Agricultural Survey of Rhode Island (Providence, 1840); N. S. Shaler, J. B. Woodworth, and A. F. Foerste, Geology of the Narragansett Basin (Washington, 1899); and T. Nelson Dale, The Chief Commercial Granites of Massachusetts, lief ( Isle New Hampshire and Rhode Island (Ibid., 1908), being Bulletin 354 of the U.S. Geological Survey. Administration: — The charters of 1644 and 1663 and the constitution of 1842 are all given in F. N. Thorpe, Constitutions, Charters, and Organic Laws (Washington, 1909), vol. vi. See also the annual reports of the treasurer, the auditor, the commissioner of public schools, the board of education, and the board of state charities and corrections; W. H. Tolman, History of Higher Education in Rhode Island (Washington, 1894); Henry Phillips, Jr., Historical Sketches of the Paper Currency of the American Colonies (2 vols., Roxbury, Mass., 1865-1866); Thomas Durfee, Gleanings from the Judicial History of Rhode Island (Provi- dence, 1883); and the works of Field, Richman and Mowry (see History, Bibliography). History. — For many years the standard authority on the period before the ratification of the constitution was S. G. Arnold, History of Rhode Island, 1636-1790 (2 vols., New York, 1859-60, 4th ed., Providence, 1894). His work has, however, been partially super- seded by T. B. Richman, Rhode Island: Its Making and Meaning, 1636-1683 (2 vols., 1902), and Rhode Island: A Study in Separatism (Boston and New York, 1905). Edward Field (Editor), State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantation at the end of the Century: A History (3 vols., Boston, 1902), is valuable for the more recent history of the state. See also Adelos Gorton, The Life and Times of Samuel Gorton (Philadelphia, 1908); W. B. Weeden, Early Rhode Island: A Social History of the People (New York, 1910); F. G. Bates, Rhode Island and the Formation of the Union (New York, 1898); A. M. Mowry, The Dorr War; or the Constitutional Struggle in Rhode Island (Providence, 1901); Records of the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantation, 1636-1792 (10 vols., Providence, 1856-65); Rhode Island Historical Society, Collec- tions (10 vols., to be continued, Providence, 1827-1902); Proceed- ings and Publications, 23 numbers (Providence, 1872-1902, to be continued). The Quarterly (8 vols., 1892-1901, discontinued); Rhode Island Historical Tracts, Series I., 20 vols. (Providence, 1877-1884), Series II., 5 vols. (Providence, 1880-96). For general bibliographies see J. R. Bartlett, Bibliography of Rhode Island (Providence, 1864); C. R. Brigham, in Field, III., pp. 651- 81 ; and Richman, in A Study in Separatism, pp. 353-85. 1 Jackson was a Liberation Whig — favouring the liberation of Dorr from prison — but he was elected on the Democratic ticket. 2 Sprague was elected over the radical Republican candidate through a coalition of Democrats and conservative Republicans. RHODES, CECIL JOHN (1833-1902), British colonial and Imperial statesman, was born on the $th of July 1853, at Bishop Stortford, in Hertfordshire. His father was a clergyman, but he claimed descent from yeoman stock. Cecil John Rhodes was the fifth son in a large family of sons and daughters. At the time of his birth his father held the living of Bishop Stort- ford. The boy was educated at Bishop Stortford grammar school with the intention of preparing for the Church; but at the age of sixteen his health broke down, and in the latter part of 1870 he was sent to join an elder brother, then engaged in farming in Natal.. In that year diamonds were discovered in the Kimberley fields. By the end of 1871 Mr Rhodes and his brother were among the successful diggers. The dry air of the interior restored Mr Rhodes's health, and before he was nineteen he found himself financially independent, physically strong and free to devote his life to any object which commended itself to his choice. Rhodes has left behind him an interesting record of the manner in which he was affected by the situation. He deter- mined to return to England, and to complete his education by reading for a degree at Oxford; but before doing so, he spent eight months in a solitary journey through the then little known parts of the country lying to the north of the Orange and Vaal rivers. He went through Bechuanaland to Mafeking, thence to Pretoria, Murchison, Middelburg and back through the Transvaal to Kimberley. The journey, made in an ox- wagon at a rate of progression of some 15 to 20 miles a day, represented a walking tour of eight months through the vast spaces of rolling veld which at that time filled those regions of Southern Africa. He saw one of the healthiest countries in the world barely occupied. He knew the agricultural possibilities of Natal. He knew its mineral wealth. The effect of the combined influences on his mind, in the circumstances in which he found himself, was profound. The idea took passionate possession of him that the fine country through which he moved ought to be secured for occupation by the British race, and that no power but Great Britain should be allowed to dominate in the administration of South Africa. When he brought his self-imposed pilgrimage to an end, he had found an object to which he proposed to devote his life. It was nothing less than the governance of the world by the British race. A will exists written in Mr Rhodes's own handwriting a couple of years later, when he was still only twenty-two, in which he states his reasons for accepting the aggrandizement and service of the British empire as his highest ideal of practical achievement. It ends with a single bequest of everything of which he might die possessed, for the furtherance of this great purpose. Five- and-twenty years later his final will carried out, with some difference of detail, the same intention. The share which he allotted to himself in the general scheme was the extension of the area of British settlement in Africa, but he did not attempt to address himself immediately to public work. He returned, in accordance with his first resolve, to Oxford, where he matriculated at Oriel. In 1873 his health again failed, and he was sent back to South Africa under what was practically a death sentence. Years afterwards he saw the entry of his own case in the diary of the eminent physician whom he consulted, with a note, " Not six months to live." South Africa again restored him to health. Three years later he was back at Oxford, and from 1876 to 1878 he kept his terms. During this period he spent the Long Vacation each year in South Africa, where his large financial interests were daily increasing in importance. He was a member of the Cape ministry when, after a further lapse of years, he kept his last term and took his degree. He did not read hard at Oxford, and was more than once remonstrated with in the earlier terms for non-attendance at lectures. But he passed his examina- tions; and though he was never a student in the university sense of the term, he was to the end of his life a keen devourer of books. He kept always a special liking for certain classic authors. Aristotle was the guide whom as a lad he followed in seeking the " highest object " on which to exercise the RHODES, C. J. " highest activity of the soul." Marcus Aurelius was his constant companion. There exists at Grote Schuur a copy of the Meditations deeply scored with Mr Rhodes's marks. During this Oxford time, and on to 1881, Mr Rhodes was occupied with the amalgamation of the larger number of the diamond mines of Kimberley with the De Beers Company, an operation which established his position as a practical financier and gave him an important connexion and following in the business world. To many admirers who shared his ideas on public questions his connexion with the financial world and his practical success were a stumbling-block. It was often wished for him that he had " kept himself clear of all that." But this was not his own view. His ideals were political and practical. To him the making of money was a necessary preliminary to their realization, and he was proud of his practical ability in this direction. He was personally a man of most simple tastes. His immense fortune was spent in the execution of his ideals, and it has been justly said of him that he taught the world a new chapter of the romance of wealth. In 1881 Mr Rhodes entered public life as a member of the Cape assembly. It was the year of the Majuba settlement. South Africa was convulsed with questions which had arisen between the British and the Dutch, and leaders of Dutch opinion at the Cape ventured to speak openly of the formation of a United States of South Africa under its own flag. The British party needed a rallying-ground, and Mr Rhodes took his stand on a policy of local union combined with the consolida- tion and expansion of Imperial interests. He offered to Dutch and British alike the ideal of a South African Federation governing itself within the empire, and extending, by its gradual absorption of native territories, the range of Imperial administra- tion. Local self-government was, in his opinion, the only endur- ing basis on which the unity of the empire could be built, and throughout his life he was as keen a defender of local rights as he was of Imperial unity. There was a period somewhat later in his career when this attitude on his part gave rise to a good deal of misapprehension, and his advocacy of the elimination of direct Imperial interference in local affairs caused him to be viewed in certain quarters with suspicion as a Separatist and Independent. Those who were inclined to take this view were greatly strengthened in their suspicions by the fact that at a critical moment in the struggle for Home Rule in Ireland Mr Rhodes contributed £10,000 to the funds of the Separatist party. The subsequent publication of his correspondence on the subject with Mr Parnell, who was at that time leading the Home Rule party, demonstrated, however, the essential fact that, whatever might have been the secret intentions of the extreme Irish Home Rulers, Mr Rhodes's contribution was made strictly subject to the retention of the Irish members at West- minster. He remained of the opinion that the Home Rule movement, wisely treated, would have had a consolidating and not a disruptive effect upon the organization of the empire. In South Africa the influence which he acquired over the local independents and over the Dutch vote was subsequently an important factor in enabling him to carry out the scheme of northern expansion which he had at heart, and which he had fully developed in his own mind at Oxford in 1878. In 1881 the Bechuana territory was a sort of no man's land through which ran the trade routes to the north. It was evident that any power which commanded the trade routes would command the unknown northern territory beyond. The Pretoria Con- vention of 1 88 1 limited the westward extension of the Transvaal to a line east of the trade routes. Nevertheless, the reconstituted republic showed itself anxious to encroach by irregular overflow into native territories, and Mr Rhodes feared to see the extension of the British colonies permanently blocked by Dutch occupation. One of his first acts as a member of the Cape assembly was to urge the appointment of a delimitation commission. He served in person on the commission, and obtained from the chief Mankoroane, who claimed about half of Bechuanaland, a formal cession of his territories to the British government of the Cape. The Cape government refused to accept the offer. In February 255 1884 a second convention signed in London again denned the western frontier of the Transvaal, Bechuanaland being left outside the republic. With the consent of Great Britain, Germany had occupied, almost at the same time, the territory on the Atlantic coast now known as German South-West Africa. In August 1884 Mr Rhodes was appointed resident deputy commissioner in Bechuanaland, where, notwithstanding the conventions to the contrary, Boers had ousted the natives from considerable areas and set up the so-called republics of Goshen and Stellaland. An old Dutchman who knew the value of the position said privately to Mr Rhodes, " This is the key of South Africa." The question at issue was whether Great Britain or the Transvaal was to hold the key. It was a question about which at that time the British public knew nothing and cared nothing. Mr Rhodes made it his business to enlighten them. President Kruger, speaking for the government of the Transvaal, professed to regard the Dutch commandoes as freebooters, and to be unable to control them. It devolved upon Great Britain to oblige them to evacuate the territory. ^Largely as the result of Mr Rhodes's exertions the necessary step was taken. The Warren expedition of 1884-85 was sent out. In the presence of British' troops upon the frontier President Kruger recovered his controlling power over the Transvaal burghers, and without any fighting the commandoes were withdrawn. Thereupon southern Bechuanaland was declared to be British territory, while a British protectorate was declared over the northern regions up to the 22nd parallel (September 1885). It was the first round in the long duel fought on the field of South Africa between Mr Rhodes, as the representative of British interests, and President Kruger, as the head of the militant Dutch party. The score on this occasion was to Mr Rhodes, and the entrance to the interior was secured. But the 22nd parallel was far short of the limits to which Mr Rhodes hoped to see British influence extend, and he feared lest Germany and the Transvaal might yet join hands in the native territory beyond, and bar his farther progress Inwards the north. The discovery of gold or 'Is. V\ it watersrand in 1886, by adding to the wealth and Importance of the Transvaal, gave substance to this fear. The territory to the north of the 22nd parallel was at that time under the domination of Lobengula, chief of the Matabele, a native potentate celebrated alike for his ability and for the despotic character of his rule. There were rumours of Dutch and German emissaries at the kraal of Lobengula, engaged in persuading that chief to cede certain portions of his territory. Portugal also was putting forward shadowy claims to the country. It was in these circumstances that Mr Rhodes conceived the idea of forming a British Chartered Company, which should occupy the territory for trading and mining purposes as far as the Zambezi, and bring the whole under the protection of Great Britain. The idea took shape in 1887, in which year Mr Rhodes's first emissaries were sent to Lobengula. The charter of the British South Africa Company was granted in October 1889. Between the two dates hi* conception of the possibilities to be achieved by the Company had expanded. Mr Rhodes no longer limited the sphere of his operations to the Zambezi, but, crossing the river at the back of the Portuguese settlements at its mouth, he obtained per- mission to extend the territories of the Chartered Company to the southern end of Lake Tanganyika, including within the sphere of its operations the British settlements already made in Nyasaland. He hoped to go farther still, and to create a connected chain of British possessions through the continent which nrght eventually justify the description," Africa British from the Cape to Cairo." The treaty negotiated between Great Britain and Germany in 1890 extended the German sphere of influence from the East Coast to the frontier of the Congo Free State, and defeated this hope. But Mr Rhodes did not wholly renounce the idea. In 1892, when the question of the retention or abandonment of Uganda hung in the balance at home, he threw all the weight of his influence into the scale of retention, and undertook at his own personal expense to connect '256 RHODES, C. J. that territory by telegraph with British possessions in the south. In the following year, 1893, it was found inevitable to fight the Matabele, and a war, prosecuted with a success that is perhaps unique of its kind, placed the country entirely in British hands. The territory thus added to the British empire covered an extent of 450,000 square miles, of which large portions consist of healthy uplands suitable for white colonization. The pioneer party who constructed the first road and founded the first British stations in the country received their orders to cross the frontier in the end of 1889. By the end of 1899, before the outbreak of the South African War, though the country had passed through the trial of a war, two native rebellions, and the scourge of rinderpest, it had become, under the name of Rhodesia, a well-settled province of the British empire, with a white popula- tion of some 12,000 to 13,000 persons. The six years which followed the granting of the charter may be regarded as the most successful of a singularly successful life. In 1890, not many months after the granting of the charter, Mr Rhodes accepted the position of prime minister of the Cape. He was maintained in power very largely by the Dutch vote, which he spared no pains to conciliate; and having the confidence of both political sections of the colony, he found himself practically in a position to play the part of benevolent despot in South Africa. He used the position well so far as the public was concerned. While his scheme of northern expansion was making the rapid progress which has been indicated, he did much to elevate and to enlarge the field of local politics. He frankly declared and worked for the policy of uniting British and Dutch interests in South Africa; he took a keen interest in local educa- tion. He also during this period carried through some important reforms in native policy. He had the courage to restrict the franchise, introducing an educational test and limiting the exercise of voting power to men enjoying an income equal to a labourer's wage — thus abolishing, without making any distinction of colour, the abuses of what was known as the " blanket " vote. But his native policy was far from being one of simple re- striction. He liked the natives; he employed them by thousands in the mining industry, he kept native servants habitually about his person he seemed to understand their peculiarities and was singularly successful in dealing with them. The first canon of his native policy was that liquor should be kept from them; the second, that they should be encouraged to labour, and guaranteed the full possession of their earnings; the third, that they should be educated in the practical arts of peace. He appreciated the full importance of raising their territorial con- dition from one of tribal to individual tenure; and while he protested against the absurdity of permitting the uncivilized Kaffir to vote on questions of highly civilized white policy, he believed in applying to the native for his own native affairs the principle of self-government. Of these views some received practical embodiment in the much-disputed act known as the Glen Grey Act of 1894. In this connexion it may also be noted that he was one of the warmest and most convinced supporters of Lovedale, the very successful missionary institution for the education of natives in South Africa. The position of benevolent despot has obvious drawbacks. In Mr Rhodes's case the dependence which the populations of Cape Colony were led to place on him had its reaction on the public in a demoralizing loss of self-reliance, and for himself it must be admitted that the effect on the character of a man already much disposed to habits of absolutism in thought and action was the reverse of beneficial. Mr Rhodes felt himself to be far stronger than any man in his own surroundings; he knew himself to be actuated by disinterested motives in the aims which he most earnestly desired to reach. He was pro- foundly impressed by a sense of the shortness of life, and he so far abused his power as to become intolerant of any sort of control or opposition. The inevitable result followed, that though Mr Rhodes did much of great and good work during the six years of his supreme power, he entirely failed during that period to surround himself, as he might have done, by a circle of able men fit to comprehend and to carry on the work to which his own best efforts were directed. To work with him was practically impossible for those who were not willing to accept without demur the yoke of dogmatic authority He had a few devoted personal friends, who appreciated his aims and were inspired by his example; but he was lacking in regard for individuals, and a great part of his daily life was spent in the company of satellites and instruments, whom he used with cynical unconcern for the furtherance of his ends. In 1896 the brilliant period of his premiership was brought to an end by the incident which became famous under the name of the Jameson Raid. The circumstances which led to the Raid belong properly to the history of the Transvaal. It is enough to say briefly here that the large alien population which had been attracted to the Transvaal by the phenomenal wealth of the Johannesburg goldfields, conceiving themselves to have reason to revolt against the authority of the Transvaal government, resolved towards the end of 1895 to have recourse to arms in order to obtain certain reforms. Mr Rhodes, as a large mine-owner, was theoretically a member of the mining population. In this capacity he was asked to give his counten- ance to the movement. But as prime minister of a British colony he was evidently placed in a false position from the moment in which he became cognizant of a secret attempt to overturn a neighbouring government by force of arms. He did more than become cognizant. The subsequent finding of a Cape committee, which he accepted as accurate, was to the effect that " in his capacity as controller of the three great joint-stock companies, the British South Africa Company, the De Beers Consolidated Mines, and the Gold Fields of South Africa, he directed and controlled the combination which rendered such a proceeding as the Jameson Raid possible." He gave money, arms and influence to the movement; and as the time fixed for the outbreak of the revolution approached, he allowed Dr Jameson, who was then administrator of the British South Africa Company in Rhodesia, to move an armed force of some 500 men upon the frontier. Here Mr Rhodes's participation in the movement came to an end. It became abundantly clear from subsequent inquiry that he was not personally responsible for what followed. A cipher corre- spondence, seized and published by the Boers, left the civilized world in no doubt as to Mr Rhodes's share in the previous preparation, and he was for a time believed to be responsible for the Raid itself. Subsequent inquiries held by committees of the Cape parliament and of the British House of Commons acquitted him entirely of responsibility for Dr Jameson's final movement, but both committees found that he had acted in a manner which was inconsistent with his duty as prime minister of the Cape and managing director of the British South Africa Company. He displayed, in the circumstances, characteristic qualities of pluck and candour. He made no concealment of his own share in the catastrophe; he took full responsibility for what had been done in his name by subordinates, and he accepted all the consequences which ensued. He resigned his premier- ship of the Cape (January 1896); and, recognizing that his presence was no longer useful in the colony, he turned his attention to Rhodesia. His design was to live in that country, and to give all the stimulus of his own presence and encourage- ment to the development of its resources. The Matabele rebellion of March 1896 intervened to prevent the immediate realization of his plans. In June Imperial troops were sent up, and by the end of July the result of the military operations had driven the natives to the Matoppo Hills, where they held a practically impregnable position. The prospect was of con- tinued war, with a renewal of a costly campaign in the following year. Mr Rhodes conceived the idea that he might effect single-handed the pacification which military skill had failed to compel. To succeed, it was essential that he should trust and be trusted. He accordingly moved his tent away from the troops to the base of the Matoppo Hills. He lay there quietly for six weeks, in the power of the enemy if they had chosen to attack. Word was circulated among the natives RHODES, J. F. that he had come alone and undefended to hear their side of the case. A council was held by them in the very depths of the hills, where no armed force could touch them. He was invited to attend it. It was a case of staking his life on trust. He displayed no hesitation, but mounted and rode unarmed with the messenger. Three friends rode with him. The confidence was justified. They met the assembled chiefs at the place appointed. The native grievances were laid before Mr Rhodes. At the end of a long discussion Mr Rhodes, having made and exacted such concessions as he thought fit, asked the question, " Now, for the future is it peace or is it war?" And the chiefs, laying down their sticks as a symbol of surrendered arms, declared, "We give you one word: it is peace." The scene, as described by one of the eye-witnesses, was very striking. Mr Rhodes, riding away, characterized it simply as " one of the scenes which make life worth living." His life was drawing towards its end. He had still a few years, which he devoted with success to the development of the country which bore his name. The railway was brought to Bulawayo, and arrangements were made for carrying the line on in sections as far as the south end of Lake Tanganyika, a construction which was part of his pet scheme for connecting the Cape by a British line of communication with Cairo. He also concluded arrangements for carrying a telegraphic land line through to Egypt, and had the satisfaction of seeing the mineral development of the country fairly started. But the federal union of South Africa, to which he had always worked as the secure basis of the extension of British rule in the southern half of the continent, was not for him to see. The South African War broke out in 1899. Mr Rhodes took his part at Kimberley in sustaining the hardships of a siege; but his health was broken, and though he lived to see victory practically assured to British arms, peace had not been concluded when, on the 26th of March 1902, he died at Muizenberg, near Cape Town. His life's work did not end actually with his death. He left behind him a will in which he dedicated his fortunes, as he had dedicated himself, exclusively to the public service. He left the bulk of his vast wealth for the purpose of founding scholarships at Oxford of the value each of £300 a year, to be held by students from every important British colony, and from every state and Territory of the United States of America. The sum so bequeathed was very large; but it was not for the munificence of the legacy that the will was received with acclamation throughout the civilized world: it was for the striking manifestation of faith which it embodied in the principles that make for the enlightenment and peace and union of man- kind, and for the fine constancy of Mr Rhodes's conviction that the unity of the British Empire, which he had been proud to serve, was among the greatest of organized forces uniting for universal good. The will was drawn up some years before his death. A codicil, signed during the last days of his life, gave evidence of some enlargement of his views as to the association of races necessary in order to secure the peace of the world, and added to the original scheme a certain number of scholar- ships to be held at the disposal of German students. The publication of the will silenced Mr Rhodes's detractors and converted many of his critics. It set a seal which could not be mistaken upon his completed life. The revulsion of sentiment towards him was complete, and his name passed at once in the public estimation to the place which it is probably destined to take in history, as one which his countrymen are proud to count among the great makers of the British Empire. See the Life by Sir Lewis Michell (2 vols., London, iqio); consult also Sir T. E Fuller, Cecil John Rhodes: A Monograph and a Reminiscence (London, 1910), and " Vindex," Cecil Rhodes: His Political Life and Speeches (London, 1900). (F L. L.) The Rhodes Scholarships. — The scholarship system founded by the will of Cecil Rhodes provides in perpetuity for the support at Oxford, for a term of three years each, of about 175 selected scholars. Each scholar from the colonies and the United States has an allowance of £300 per annum during 257 the continuance of his scholarship; those from Germany, as being nearer to Oxford, an allowance of £250 each. In each province of Canada, in each state of Australia, in the four collegiate schools of Cape Colony (Rondebosch, Stellenbosch, South African College, and St Andrew's College, Grahamstown), in the dominion of New Zealand, and in the colonies of Natal, Jamaica, Bermuda and Newfoundland, a scholar is elected each year. Three scholarships annually are assigned to Rhodesia. Each state and Territory of the American Union is entitled to have two scholars in residence, so that an election takes place in two years out of three. Five scholarships are provided annually for scholars from Germany. In his will Rhodes mentions the objects he had in view in founding the different scholarships : — 1. Colonial. — " I consider that the education of young colonists at one of the universities in the United Kingdom is of great advantage to them for giving breadth to their views, for their instruction in life and manners, and for instilling into their minds the advantage to the colonies as well as to the United Kingdom of the retention of the unity of the empire." 2. American. — " I also desire to encourage and foster an apprecia- tion of the advantages which I implicitly believe will result from the union of the English-speaking people throughout the world, and to encourage in the students from the United States of North America who will benefit from the American scholarships to be established for the reason above given at the university of Oxford under this my will an attachment to the country from which they have sprung, but without, I hope, withdrawing them or their sym- pathies from the land of their adoption or birth." 3. German. — " I note the German emperor has made instruction in English compulsory in German schools. I leave five yearly scholarships at Oxford of £250 per annum to students of German birth, the scholars to be nominated by the German emperor for the time being. Each scholarship to continue for three years, so that each year after the first three there will be fifteen scholars. The object is that an understanding between the three Great Powers will render war impossible and educational relations make the strongest tie." He defines as follows the principles on which he wished his scholars to be selected : — " My desire being that the students who shall be elected to the scholarships shall not be merely bookworms, I direct that in the election of a student to a scholarship regard shall be had to (l) his literary and scholastic attainments; (2) his fondness for and success in manly outdoor sports such as cricket, football and the like; (3) his qualities of manhood, truth, courage, devotion to duty, sympathy for and protection of the weak, kindliness, unselfishness and fellowship; and (4) his exhibition during school days of moral force of character and of instincts to lead and to take an interest in his schoolmates, for those latter attributes will be likely in after life to guide him to esteem the performance of public duties as his highest aim." The trustees named in the will for the management of the trust were Lord Rosebery, Lord Grey, Lord Milner, Sir Lewis Michell, Dr L. S. Jameson, Mr Alfred Beit and Mr Bourchier F. Hawksley. After consultation with the educational authorities of all the communities to which scholarships are assigned, the trustees arranged a system for the selection of scholars. This system, which is subject to such changes as experience suggests, may be summarized as follows. Every candidate, in order to become eligible, is required to pass the Responsions examination of the university of Oxford, or some examination accepted by the university as an equivalent. In the case of communities possessing universities or colleges in affiliation with Oxford, a certain standing at those universities is accepted in lieu of Responsions. Examinations are held in two years out of three in each state of the American Union, and annually in colonies which do not have the affiliated universities or colleges referred to. German scholars are nominated by his majesty the emperor of Germany. Candidates must be unmarried — must be between the ages of 19 and 25 (in Jamaica and Queensland, 18-25; in Newfoundland, 18-21; in Western Australia, 17-25), and they must be, in the colonies, British subjects — in the United States and Germany, subjects of those countries. In each British colony electing scholars and in each state of the Union there is a committee of selection, composed commonly of leading educational authorities or high public officials. To these committees all candidates who have passed the qualifying tests submit their claims. The com- mittees are entrusted with the power of selection, but are expected to exercise this power, as closely as circumstances permit, in accord- ance with the suggestions made by Rhodes. The trust arranges for the distribution of elected scholars among the colleges of Oxford, each of which has agreed to receive a limited number of approved candidates. (G. R. P.) RHODES, JAMES FORD (1848- ), American historian, was born in Cleveland, Ohio, on the ist of May 1848. He xxin. 9 RHODES entered the university of New York as a special student in 1865, studied at the university of Chicago in 1866-67, and at the College de France in 1867-68, and in 1868 served as occasional Paris correspondent to the Chicago Times. He then took a course in metallurgy in the School of Mines, at Berlin; subsequently inspected iron and steel works in western Germany and in Great Britain; and in 1870 joined his father in the iron, steel and coal business in Cleveland, becoming a member of the firm in 1874. He retired from business with an ample fortune in 1885, and after two years devoted to general reading and travel he began his History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850, which, closing the narrative with the year 1877, was published in seven volumes in 1893- 1906. In recognition of the merit of his work he received honorary degrees from various American universities, was elected president of the American Historical Association in 1899, and received the Loubet prize of the Berlin Academy of Sciences in 1001. In 1909 he published a volume of Historical Essays. RHODES, the most easterly of the islands of the Aegean Sea, about 10 m. S. of Cape Alypo in Asia Minor. It forms, with the islands of Syme, Casos, Carpathos, Castelorizo, Telos and Charki, one of the four sanjaks into which the Archipelago vilayet of Turkey is divided. The governor-general of the vilayet resides at the town of Rhodes. The length of the island is about 45 m. from N.E. to S.W., its greatest breadth 22 m., and its area nearly 424 sq. m.' The population of the island comprises 7000 Moslems, 21,000 Christians, and 2000 Jews. The island is diversified in its surface, and is traversed from north to south by an elevated mountain range, the highest point of which is called Atairo (anc. Atabyris or Atabyrium) (4560 ft.). It commands a view of the elevated coast of Asia Minor towards the north, and of the Archipelago, studded with its numerous islands, on the north-west; while on the south-west is seen Mount Ida in Crete, often veiled in clouds, and on the south and south-east the vast expanse of waters which wash the African shore. The rest of the island is occupied in great part by ranges of moderately elevated hills, on which are found extensive woods of ancient pines, planted by the hand of nature. These forests were formerly very thick, but they are now greatly thinned by the Turks, who cut them down and take no care to plant others in their place. Beneath these hills the surface of the island falls lower, and several hills in the form of amphitheatres extend their bases as far as the sea. Rhodes was famed in ancient times for its delightful climate, and it still maintains its former reputation. The winds are liable to little variation; they blow from the west, often with great violence, for nine months in the year, and at other times from the north; and they moderate the summer heats, which are chiefly felt during the months of July and August, when the hot winds blow from the coast of Anatolia. Rhodes, in addition to its fine climate, is blessed with a fertile soil, and produces a variety of the finest fruits and vegetables. Around the villages are extensive cultivated fields and orchards, containing fig, pomegranate and orange trees. On the sloping hills carob trees, and others both useful and agreeable, still grow abundantly; the vine also holds its place, andj produces a species of wine which was highly valued by the ancients, though it seems to have degenerated greatly in modern times. The valleys afford rich pastures, and the plains produce every species of grain. The commerce of the island has been of late years increasing at a rapid rate. Many British manufactures are imported by indirect routes, through Smyrna, Constantinople, Beyrout and other places. Cotton stuffs, calicoes and grey linen are among the goods most in demand; they are exported to the neighbouring coast of Anatolia, between Budrum and Adalia, and thence conveyed into the interior. The expansion of the trade has been very much owing to the establishment of steam navigation direct to the island, which is now visited regularly by French and Austrian steamers, as well as by some from England to Symrna. The only town of any importance in the island is the capital, Rhodes, which stands at the north-east extremity. It rises in an imposing manner from the sea, on a gentle slope in the form of an amphitheatre. It is surrounded with walls and towers, and defended by a large moated castle of great strength. These fortifications are all the work of the Knights of St John. The interior of the city does not correspond to its outward appear- ance. No trace exists of the splendour of the ancient city, with its regular streets, well-ordered plan and numerous public buildings. The modern city of Rhodes is in general the work of the Knights of St John, and has altogether a medieval aspect. The picturesque fortifications also by which the city is surrounded remain almost unaltered as they were in the isth century. The principal buildings which remain are the church of St John, which is become the principal mosque; the hospital, which has been transformed into public granaries; the palace of the grand master, now the residence of the pasha; and the senate-house, which still contains some marbles and ancient columns. Of the streets, the best and widest is a long street which is still called the Street of the Knights. It is perfectly straight, and formed of old houses, on which remain the armorial bearings of the members of the order. On some of these buildings are still seen the arms of the popes and of some of the royal and noble houses of Europe. The only relics of classical antiquity are the numerous inscribed altars and bases of statues, as well as architectural fragments, which are found scattered in the courtyards and gardens of the houses in the extensive suburbs which now surround the town, the whole of which were comprised within the limits of the ancient city. The foundations also of the moles that separate the harbours are of Hellenic work, though the existing moles were erected by the Knights of St John. Rhodes has two harbours. The lesser of these lies towards the east, and its entrance is obstructed by a barrier of rocks, so as to admit the entrance of but one ship at a time. It is sufficiently sheltered, but by the negligence of, the Turks the sand has been suffered to accumulate until it has been gradually almost choked up. The other harbour is larger, and also in a bad condition; here small ships may anchor, and are sheltered from the west winds, though they are exposed to the north and north-east winds. The two harbours are separated by a mole which runs obliquely into the sea. At the eastern entrance is the fort of St Elmo, with a lighthouse. History. — It is as yet difficult to determine the part which Rhodes played in prehistoric days during the naval predominance of the neighbouring island of Crete; but archaeological remains dating from the later Minoan age prove that the early Aegean culture maintained itself there comparatively unimpaired until the historic period. A similar conclusion may be drawn from the legend which peopled primitive Rhodes with a population of skilful workers in metal, the " Telchines." Whatever the f racial affinities of the early inhabitants may have been, it is certain that in historic times Rhodes was occupied by a Dorian population, reputed to have emigrated mainly from Argos subsequently to the " Dorian invasion " of Greece. The three cities founded by these settlers — Lindus, lalysus and Camirus — belonged to the " League of Six Cities," by which the Dorian colonists in Asia Minor sought to protect themselves against the barbarians of the neighbouring mainland. The early history of these towns is a record of brisk commercial expansion and active colonization. The position of Rhodes as a distributing centre of Levantine and especially of Phoenician goods is well attested by archaeological finds. Its colonies extended not only eastward along the southern coast of Asia Minor, but also linked up the island with^the westernmost parts of the Greek world. Among such settlements may be mentioned Phaselis in Lycia, perhaps also Soli in Cilicia, Salapia on the east Italian coast, Gela in Sicily, the Lipari islands, and Rhoda in north-east Spain. In home waters the Rhodians exercised political control over Carpathos and other islands. RHODESIA 259 The history of Rhodes during the Persian wars is quite obscure. In the 5th century the three cities were enrolled in the Delian League, and democracies became prevalent. In 412 the island revolted from Athens and became the head- quarters of the Peloponnesian fleet. Four years later the in- habitants for the most part abandoned their former residences and concentrated in the newly founded city of Rhodes. This town, which was laid out on an exceptionally fine site according to a scientific plan by the architect Hippodamus of Miletus, soon rose to considerable importance, and attracted much of the Aegean and Levantine commerce which had hitherto been in Athenian hands. In the 4th century its political develop- ment was arrested by constant struggles between oligarchs and democrats, who in turn brought the city under the control of Sparta (412-395, 391-378), of Athens (395~39i, 378-357), and of the Carian dynasty of Maussollus (357-340). It seems that about 340 the island was conquered for the Persian king by his Rhodian admiral Mentor; in 332 it submitted to Alexander the Great. Upon Alexander's death the people expelled their Macedonian garrison, and henceforth not only maintained their independence but acquired great political influence. The expansion of Levantine trade which ensued in the Hellenistic age brought especial profit to Rhodes, whose standard of coinage and maritime law became widely accepted in the Mediterranean. Under a modified type of democracy, in which the chief power would seem to have rested normally with the six irpuravta, or heads of the executive, the city enjoyed a long period of remark- ably good administration. The chief success of the government lay in the field of foreign politics, where it prudently avoided entanglement in the ambitious schemes of Hellenistic monarchs, but gained great prestige by energetic interference against aggressors who threatened the existing balance of power or the security of the seas. The chief incidents of Rhodian history during this period are a memorable siege by Demetrius Polior- cetes in 304, who sought in vain to force the city into active alliance with King Antigonus by means of his formidable fleet and artillery; a severe earthquake in 227, the damages of which all the other Hellenistic states contributed to repair, because they could not afford to see the island ruined; some vigorous cam- paigns against Byzantium, the Pergamene and the Pontic kings, who had threatened the Black Sea trade-route (220 sqq.), and against the pirates of Crete. In accordance with their settled policy the Rhodians eagerly supported the Romans when these made war upon Philip V. of Macedon and Antiochus III. of Syria on behalf of the minor Greek states. In return for their more equivocal attitude during the Third Macedonian War they were deprived by Rome of some possessions in Lycia, and damaged by the partial diversion of their trade to Delos (167). Nevertheless during the two Mithradatic wars they remained loyal to the republic, and in 88 successfully stood a siege by the Pontic king. The Rhodian navy, which had dis- tinguished itself in most of these wars, did further good service on behalf of Pompey in his campaigns against the pirates and against Julius Caesar. A severe blow was struck against the city in 43 by C. Cassius, who besieged and ruthlessly plundered the people for refusing to submit to his exactions. Though Rhodes continued a free town for another century, its commercial prosperity was crippled and a series of extensive earthquakes after A.D. 155 completed the ruin of the city. In the days of its greatest power Rhodes became famous as a centre of pictorial and plastic art ; it gave rise to a school of eclectic oratory whose chief representative was Apollonius Molon, the teacher of Cicero; it was the birthplace of the Stoic philosopher Panaetius; the home of the poet Apollonius Rhodius and the historian Posidonius. Protogenes embellished the city with his paintings, and Chares of Lindus with the celebrated colossal statue of the sun-god, which was 105 ft. high. The colossus stood for fifty-six years, till an earthquake prostrated it in 224 B.C. Its enormous fragments continued to excite wonder in the time of Pliny, and were not removed till A.D. 656, when Rhodes was con- ouered by the Saracens, who sold the remains for old metal to a dealer, who employed nine hundred camels to carry them away. The notion that the colossus once stood astride over the entrance to the harbour is a medieval fiction. During the later Roman empire Rhodes was the capital of the province of the islands. Its history under the Byzantine rule is uneventf ul.but for some temporary occupations by the Saracens (653-658, 717-718), and the gradual encroachment of Venetian traders since 1082. In the I3th century the island stood as a rule under the control of Italian adventurers, who were, however, at times compelled to acknowledge the over- lordship of the emperors of Nicaea, and failed to protect it against the depredations of Turkish corsairs. In 1309 it was conquered by the Knights Hospitallers of St John of Jerusalem at the instiga- tion of the pope and the Genoese, and converted into a great fortress for the protection of the southern seas against the Turks. Under their mild and just rule both the native Greeks and the Italian residents were able to_carry on a brisk trade. But the piratical acts of these traders, in which the knights themselves sometimes joined, and the strategic position of the island between Constanti- nople and the Levant, necessitated its reduction by the Ottoman sultans. A siege in 1480 by Mahomet II. led to the repulse <•? Turks with severe losses; after a second investment, during which Sultan Suleiman I. is said to have lost 90,000 men out of a force of 200,000, the knights evacuated Rhodes under an honourable capitulation (1522). The population henceforth dwindled in con- sequence of pestilence and emigration, and although the island recovered somewhat in the i8th century under a comparatively lenient rule it was brought to a very low ebb owing to the severity of its governor during the Greek revolution. The sites of Lindus, lalysus, and Camirus, which in the most ancient times were the principal towns of the island, are clearly marked, and the first of the three is still occupied by a small town with a medieval castle, both of them dating from the time of the knights, though the castle occupies the site of the ancient acropolis, of the walls of which considerable remains are still visible. There are no ruins of any importance on the site of either lalysus or Camirus, but excavations at the latter place have produced valuable and interest- ing results in the way of ancient vases and other antiquities, which are now in the British Museum. Rhodes was again famous for its_ pottery in medieval times; this was a lustre ware at first imitated from Persian, though it afterwards developed into an independent style of fine colouring and rich variety of design. See Pindar, fill Olympian Ode; Diodorus v. 55-59, xiii.-xx. passim; Polybius iv. 46-52, v. 88-90, xvi. 2-9, xxvii.-xxix! passim; C. Torr, Rhodes in Ancient Times (Cambridge, 1885) Rhodes in Modern Times (Cambridge, 1887); C. Schumacher De republica Rhodiorum commentatio (Heidelberg, 1886); H. van Gelder, Geschichte der alien Rhodier (Hague, 1900); B. V. Head, Historia Numorum (Oxford, 1887), pp. 539-542; and Baron de Balabre, Rhodes of the Knights (1909). (E. H. B.; E.Ga.; M. O. B. C.) RHODESIA (so named after Cecil Rhodes), an inland country and British possession in South Central Africa, bounded S. and S.W. by the Transvaal, the Bechuanaland Protectorate and German South- West Africa; W. by Portuguese West Africa. N.W. by Belgian Congo; N.E. by German East Africa; E. by the British Nyatsaland Protectorate and Portuguese East Africa. It covers an area of about 450,000 sq. m., being larger than France, Germany and the Low Countries combined. It is divided into two parts of unequal size by the midoUe course of the Zambezi. Southern Rhodesia, with an area of 148,575 sq. m., consists of Matabeleland and Mashonaland, the western and eastern provinces, while the trans-Zambezi regions are divided into North-Western Rhodesia (or Barotseland) and North-Eastern Rhodesia. Physical Features. — Rhodesia forms part of the high tableland which constitutes the interior of Africa south of the Congo basin. Hydrographically the greater part of the country' belongs to the basin of the Zambezi (q.v.), but in the N.E. it includes the eastern headstreams of the Congo, and in the S. and S.E. it is drained by the tributaries of the Limpopo, the Sabi and the Pungwe. The Limpopo forms the boundary between Southern Rhodesia and the Transvaal. The north- western regions, drained by the upper Zambezi and its affluents, are described under BAROTSELAND, and North-Eastern Rhodesia, together with the adjacent Nyasaland Protectorate, under BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA. The highest portion of the tableland of Southern Rhodesia runs from the S.W. to the N.E. and forms a broad watershed between the tributaries of the Zambezi flowing north and the rivers flowing south and east. It is along this high plateau that the railway runs from Bulawayo to Salisbury and onwards to Portuguese East Africa. The eleva- tion of the railway varies from 4500 ft. to 5500 ft. There is a gradual sloping away of the plateau to the N.W. and S.E., so 260 RHODESIA that only a small portion of Southern Rhodesia is under 3000 ft. The eastern boundary, along Portuguese East Africa, forms the edge of the tableland; the height of the edge is accentuated by a series of ridges, so that the country here assumes a mountainous appearance, the grass-clad heights being reminiscent of the Cheviot Hills of Scotland or the lower Alps of Switzerland. Geology. — The geology of this region is very imperfectly known. Metamorphic rocks extend over immense areas, but these and the other formations are to a great extent hidden beneath superficial deposits. Conglomerates and banded ironstone rocks are found in the metamorphic areas around Bulawayo and the borders of Katanga; but to what extent these represent the different forma- tions older than the Karroo and newer than the Swaziland schists (see TRANSVAAL) has not been satisfactorily determined. Certain gold-bearing conglomerates are regarded as the equivalents of the Witwatersrand series, but the main sources of gold are the veins of quartz and igneous rocks developed in the metamorphic series. The Karroo formation is well represented, and covers extensive areas in the Zambezi basin. The Dwyka conglomerate RHODESIA 50216.1:15.000,000 English Miles appears to be developed in the Tuli district. The coal-bearing strata of Tuli and Wankies are certainly of Karroo age. They have yielded the fossil remains of fishes Acrolepis molyneuxi, the fresh- water mollusc Palaeomutela, a few reptilian bones, and species of Glossopteris among plants. The age of a widely distributed series of red-white sandstones, named by Molyneux the Forest Sandstone, remains uncertain. Molyneux considers them Tertiary, but it is not improbable that sandstones of various ages from Karroo to those of Recent date are represented. They contain numerous interbedded sheets of basalt, but it is doubtful if any of these are of so recent a date as Tertiary. Rocks of Karroo age occur round Lake Bangweulu, and contain numerous fossil plants and a few small shells. The age of the wide, thick sheet of basalt, through which the Zambezi has cut the Batoka gorge between the Victoria Falls and Wankies, remains uncertain.1 1 For geology see F. H. Hatch, " Notes on the Geology of Masho- naland and Matabeleland," Geol. Mag., 1895; A. J. C. Molyneux, " The Sedimentary Deposits of Rhodesia," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. lix. (1903) ; F. P. Mennel, " Geology of Rhodesia," British Association Handbook (Cape Town, 1905); G. W. Lamplugh, British Assoc. Rep., South African Meeting, 1905. Climate. — As Southern Rhodesia extends between 16° S. and 22° S., and is thus within the tropics, it might be expected that the climate would be trying for Europeans, but owing to the elevation of the country the temperature is rarely too high for comfort. Another factor that renders the climate equable is that the rainy season coincides with the summer months, and the winter months are dry. The nights are always cool, so that the climate approxi- mates to the ideal. On the high tableland which forms the great proportion of the country the temperature in the shade rarely reaches 100° and there is just sufficient frost in the winter to be useful to farmers. The winter months are June, July and August, and the hottest months are the spring months of September, October and November, just before the rams begin. A temperature of 1 10° is sometimes reached in the low-lying district of Tuli (elevation 1890 ft.) and in the Zambezi valley. There is a striking difference between the minimum temperatures on the ground and those registered 4 ft. from the ground. The latter rarely reach freezing-point, but the ground temperature is sometimes as low as 24°. Hoar frost is most noticeable in the vleis and low-lying areas. The period known as the rainy season extends from Sep- tember to March, but the greatest amount falls in the last three months of that period. The mean annual rainfall for various stations in the eastern half of Rhodesia ranges from 24 to 44 in., the greatest rainfall being along the eastern border. For the western half the mean ranges from 19 to 27 in., but in the south-west corner it is much drier, the rainfall so far recorded never reaching 1 8 in. There is a sufficiency of rain for all summer crops, but winter crops, such as wheat, must be assisted^ by irrigation. Malaria is prevalent in certain districts during the wet season, but this is now preventable and the country is very healthy, children, especially in towns and on the high veld, growing sturdily. The death-rate amongst Europeans is only about 15 per 1000. Fauna. — Rhodesia is rich in the larger grami- nivorous animals, especially in antelope, which number about twenty-five varieties, including kudu, eland, hartebeeste, roan, sable, wilde- beeste and impala. The most common are the duiker, the stembok and the rietbok. Other herbivorous animals found in the country are the buffalo, giraffe, zebra, elephant, hippopotamus, rhinoceros (black and white), warthog, and various baboons and monkeys. The buffalo is now rare, having been almost exterminated, by the rinder- pest in 1896. The carnivora include the lion, leopard, cheetah, and various wild cats, foxes, wolves, jackals and dogs. There are at least five varieties of the mongoose. Amongst the rodents are squirrels, dormice, rats (eleven kinds), the porcupine, the Cape hare and the rock hare. Of insectivora the ant-eater, the ant-bear, the hedgehog and various shrews may be mentioned. Bats number eleven varieties. Snakes are numer- ous, the most important being the python, the puff-adder and the cobra. Crocodiles and iguanas are found in most of the rivers, and chameleons and lizards are very common. Rhodesia abounds in beetles, butterflies and moths, and new varieties are frequently discovered in the wet season. Men- tion ought to be made of white ants (termites) and locusts. The ants are a serious pest, attack- ing all cut timber resting in or on the ground. ' They gradually envelop the dead wood in a mound of earth and consume it wholly, so that all poles and house-timber have to be carefully protected either by chemical preparations or by raising them clear from contact with the earth. The mounds which the white ants erect often reach a height of many feet. There are several kinds, the black-headed nipper ant, chiefly found in the west, being the most destructive. Locusts are particularly dreaded in their wingless state, when they clean off every green leaf, every bit of vegetation, as they march on in their hundreds of thousands. The rivers are not very plentiful in fish, but occasional sport is afforded by barbel, bream and tiger-fish. Birds to the number of about 400 varieties have been found in Rhodesia. The largest of these are the ostrich, the secretary-bird, the paauw, the koorhaan, cranes (three varieties), storks (four), vultures (six) and eagles (eight). The chief birds that attract sportsmen, besides x the paauw and the koorhaan already men- tioned, are the guinea-fowl (three kinds), partridge and francolin (seven kinds), wild goose, duck and teal. Some of the most in- teresting birds are the weaver-birds (eighteen), the ox-peckers, which find their food on the backs of cattle, the kingfishers (eight), the hornbills (five), the parrots, lovebirds, the polygamous widow birds — whose females are of insignificant appearance, but whose males develop a brilliant plumage and lengthy tails during the RHODESIA 261 breeding season, when they are on guard over their harems of from ten to fifte'en wives — the sunbirds, with their long curved beaks that search out the nectar of flowers, and the honey-guides, which, with their agitated " chuck, chuck," lead the wayfarer to bees' nests with expectation of joining in the plunder. The small birds of Rhodesia are usually very brilliantly coloured, the most dis- tinguished being what is known as the blue jay, with its bright, iridescent, light blue plumage. Flora. — The vegetation of the territory is luxurious and mainly subtropical, but in the lower valleys the flora assumes a tropical aspect. The country is well wooded and in this respect differs from the high tablelands farther south. The trees as a rule attain no greater height than about 20 ft., but in some districts, such as South Melsetter and Wankies, there are remains of forests of large timber. The small growth of the trees is said to be due to the annual veld fires, and it is noticeable that native trees that are protected attain a much greater height. As a rule the wood is either very hard or very soft, so that timber for building has still to be imported, although the existing timber is useful for mining purposes. One of the hardest woods is the so-called Rhodesian teak (native Ikusi), which is about 50% harder than real teak (Tectona grandis). The trees most commonly met with are mapane, used for poles; umkamba, resembling mahogany; m'lanji cedar, chiefly found along the eastern border; umsasa, used for firewood; impachla, the native wisteria. Among other trees are the baobab with enormous very soft trunk, the fruit being a large nut containing citrate of magnesia, which natives use to make a cooling drink; the umvagaz — or blood-wood — which issues a blood-coloured juice when cut, and the umkuna, or hissing tree, which hisses when an incision is made. The barks of the umSasa, the umhondo, and the umgosa are much used by natives for binding fibres in making huts and are also used for tanning. The bark of the baobab yields a fine fibre which natives use in making excellent game nets and fishing nets. The native fruit-bearing trees are the fig (many varieties), the mahobohobo or umjanje, resembling the loquat, the Kaffir plum, very sour and totally different from the Kaffir plum of Cape Colony, and the Kaffir orange. Among the shrubs the proteas, or sugar bushes, with their nectar-stored flowers, are the most frequent. The mimosa thorn, although more of the nature of a tree, grows in dense masses, chiefly in the western province. The period of the year when flowers begin to bloom is rather remarkable. After the long spell of dry weather, lasting from five to seven months, and before any rain has fallen, blooms appear all over the veld. Most of such flowers are those of bulbous plants or plants with large roots that have been stored with nourishment during the previous growing wet season. The flowers are sustained by this stock of food until the rains appear again to replenish the roots. Even grass sprouts green over the earth before the rains appear, and the hard-baked veld is pierced by the shoots of the gladiolus, the orchid, the asparagus, the solanum, the convolvulus and many other flowers. When the rains are far advanced, the annuals shoot rapidly and make a second ishow of bloom. A peculiarity of the early spring shoots on trees and shrubs is that they have not the green tints of the colder regions, but are all shades of brown and orange and red and yellow. One of the chief features of Rhodesia is the vast stretches of grass-covered veld, the grasses varying from a few inches to 15 ft. in height and numbering about 100 different varieties. Along the rivers are to be found palms, tree ferns, bananas, dracaenas and other hot climate plants. Rubber, indigo and cotton are indigenous and there are groves of lemon trees, but these were most probably introduced by early settlers. Tobacco, which grows luxuriantly, may also have been introduced. Inhabitants. — In Southern Rhodesia about half the European population, which in 1900 was approximately 16,500, is British born or born of British parents, and about one-third is South African born. There are about 11,500 males and 5000 females, and the population is equally divided between the urban and rural areas. In rural areas the chief occupations are mining and agriculture. Industrial pursuits, including mining, engage about 25% of the population, 8% are employed in agriculture, and 15% in commerce. Mashonaland has 7500 white inhabi- tants, and Matabeleland 9000. There are about 2000 Asiatics in Southern Rhodesia. The Natives of Rhodesia belong to the Bantu-Negro stock and are roughly divisible into two groups; those long settled in the country, and the Amazulu, who during the ipth century left Zululand and, passing through the more southern regions, overran Rhodesia and settled in Matabeleland. The Barotse (q.v.) are mainly settled in North-West Rhodesia. In Southern Rhodesia, in spite of incursions from Portuguese territory and from the north, the natives can be still clearly divided into Mashona and Matabele, living in the eastern and western pro- vinces respectively. The name Mashona is not used by the natives but is useful as distinguishing the allied tribes of the eastern division from the Matabele in the west. The languages of the Mashona tribes arc allied and are distinct from that of the Matabele (or Zulu), but it is uncertain whether these Mashona tongues should be regarded merely as different dialects, or .languages as different as those of the various nations of Europe (but see BANTU LANGUAGES). The tribes round Salisbury and extending as far as Marondella in the east and about 100 m. north are clearly branches of the Vasezuru people, that is, the people from " higher up," the " higher up " being a region in the south-east. Their history can be traced from about the beginning of the i8th century; but there is a great lack of tradition amongst this class of native, which is distinctly inferior in type to the Matabele in the west. Farther north there are the Makorikori and the Mabudja or Mabushla. It would appear that the country in which these people now dwell was formerly in the possession of the Barotse, and some of the present chiefs obtained their positions by per- mission of the Barotse. Previously, according to Portuguese documents of the i6th and I7th centuries, the Makaranga or Makalanga now located in the south round about Victoria had possession of the country as far north as the Zambezi. Their language is allied to that of the present inhabitants, but in many respects is widely different and of late has become more so owing to intercourse with the Matabele. Along the eastern border two more tribes can • be differentiated, namely, Umtasa's people in the north and those speaking the Chindawo language in the south. Their languages are merely variants of the language spoken in the Salisbury and Mazoe districts. All the tribes in the eastern province have very similar habits and customs. Their huts are circular with a wall a foot or two high, made of poles and daga (mud) surmounted by a conical thatched roof. They thus differ from the beehive huts of the Zulus. They are built indiscriminately together and are not surrounded by stockades. The whole family dwells in the same hut along with dogs, goats and fowls, and sometimes even with cattle, though there are usually separate kraals for their cattle. The kraals are as a rule filthy, but the inside of the hut is kept clean. There is a special place for a fire, and a raised portion of the mud floor on which to sleep, but no furniture. Their mealie fields are usually some distance from the place of abode, but their tobacco gardens are near their huts. Their main object in life seems to be to grow sufficient grain for food and beer. The grain they store in granaries, resembling small huts, placed on rocks or on stakes, out of the reach of white ants and secure from the depredations of animals. They amuse themselves occasionally by making earthenware pots which are very soft and easily broken, or by engaging in iron-work or brass-wire work for ornamentation. In the south they are quite clever in making water-tight baskets from rushes grown by the Sabi river. In their religious beliefs spirits play a great part. Above all there is a vague idea of a Supreme Being whom they call Mwari. They have a fixed belief in the spirits of their ancestors, the spirits of the witch-doctors, the spirits of the Matabele, the spirits of old women, the spirits of the foolish, the spirits of baboons, &c. Every occurrence is attributed to the influence of a spirit, and if the occurrence is an evil one a feast and dance of propitiation are held. Feasts of thanks- giving are also held on such occasions as the gathering of the first-fruits, the harvest festival, or on the return from a long and dangerous journey. Of the tribes already mentioned the most advanced are Umtasa's people and the Makaranga. The pro- bable connexion of the tribes now inhabiting Mashonaland with the architects of the ancient stone buildings which are scattered over the country is discussed in the section Archaeology. Of these ruins the most extensive are situated near Victoria and are known as Zimbabwe (q.v.). In the western province the Matabele, or rather Amandabele, are the descendants of the Zulus who trekked under the 262 RHODESIA leadership of the famous Mosilikatze up through the Trans vaal, whence they were driven by the Boers. Mosilikatz died in 1868, and his son Lobengula, after a fight with brother, assumed sway in 1870. His people were divid& into three main sections: the Abezansi (who were the aristo crats), the Abenhla and the Amaholi. The Amaholi or Ho! were the inhabitants of the land at the time of the invasion and thereafter were practically in the position o bondsmen and rarely allowed to possess cattle. The grea: spirit of the Holis was the Mlimo, who was practically th< spirit of the nation. Among the Holi tribes are the Aba shangwe, the Abanyai, the Batonke (near the Zambezi), the Abananzwa of the Wankie district, the Ababiro of the Tul district, and the Abasili, a nomadic tribe chiefly subsisting on game. There is a small tribe in the Belingwe district called the Abalemba, which would appear to have been in touch with the Arabs in early times. Their customs include circumcision anc the rejection of pork as food. The natives in Southern Rhodesia number about 700,000, and of these 10,000 work on the mines and 20,000 are engaged in farm, railway and household work under Europeans. Chief Towns. — Salisbury, which lies 4880 ft. above the sea, is the capital of Southern Rhodesia, being the seat of government, and is situated in the eastern province (Mashonaland). There are about 1700 white inhabitants and 3000 natives. It is the commercial centre for an extensive mining and farming district. The principal buildings include churches, public library, hospital, schools, banks, post office and numerous hotels. There are a con- siderable number of government offices, and the administrator and resident commissioner live here. The only industries are a brewery and a tobacco factory for grading and packing the tobaccos of the local growers. Bulawayo (g.f.), situated 4469 ft. above the sea, is the largest town and is in the western province, Matabeleland. It is 301 m. by rail S.W. of Salisbury, and 1362 m. N.E. of Cape Town. The popula- tion is some 4000 Europeans and about the same number of natives. The town has the advantage of a good pipe water supply and a service of electric light. It was the ancient capital of the Matabele king, Lobengula. There is a Government house which is occa- sionally occupied, and was the residence of Cecil Rhodes. It is from Bulawayo that the World's View, the burial-place of Rhodes in the Matoppo Hills, is usually visited. The other towns are Umtali, on the eastern border, pop. 800 whites, railway works, centre for numerous large and small gold mines; Gwelo, the central town, about midway between Salisbury and Bulawayo, 370 whites; Victoria and Melsetter in the south, centres of farming districts. Victoria, near which are the famous Zimbabwe ruins, is reached by mail cart (80 m.) from Selukwe, and Melsetter by mail cart (95 m.) from Umtali. There are also small townships at Hartley, Selukwe, Enkeldoorn and Gwanda. Bulawayo and Salisbury are managed by town councils, the other towns have sanitary boards. Communications. — The Rhodesian railway system connects the chief towns and mining centres with one another and all the other South African countries. The main line is a continuation of the railway from Cape Town through Kimberley and Mafeking. It runs from Mafeking in a general N.E. direction to Bulawayo, whence it goes N.W. to the Zambezi, which is crossed a little below the Victoria Falls. The bridging of the river was completed in April 1905. Thence the railway is continued N.E. (92 m.) to Kalomo, Barotseland, and onward to the Katanga district of Belgian Congo. The section from Kalomo to Broken Hill (261 m.) was completed in 1907, and the extension to the frontier of Belgian Congo (126 m.) in 1909. This main line forms the southern link in the Cape to Cairo railway and steamboat service. From Bulawayo a line goes N.E. by Gwelo to Salisbury and thence S.E. to the Portuguese port of Beira. From Bulawayo another line (120 m. long) runs S.E. to the West Nicholson Mine. From Gwelo a railway (40 m.) goes S.E. to Yankee Doodle, and from this there branches a line (50 m. long) in an easterly direction to Blinkwater. From Salisbury a line runs N.W. to Lomagundi (84 m.). The last-named has a 2 ft. gauge. The other railways are of the standard gauge of South Africa — 3 ft. 6 in. The distances from Bulawayo to the following places are: — Gwelo, 113 m. ; Salisbury, 301 m.; Umtali, 471 m. ; Beira, 675 m. ; Mafeking, 490 m. ; Kimberley, 713 m. ; Cape Town, 1362 m. ; Port Elizabeth, 1199 m.; East London, 1260 m.; Bloemfontein, 800 m. ; Johannesburg, 931 m.; Pretoria, 977 m. ; Lourenco Marques, 1307 m.; Durban, 1238 m. (the last four places all via Fourteen Streams, a junction 48 m. N. of Kimberley), and Victoria Falls, 282 m. About 4000 m. of roads have been built and are maintained by government. The telegraph and telephone system is very com- plete, there being for the whole of Rhodesia about 8000 m. of wires. This total includes the police telephone wires and part of the African Transcontinental system, and is served by about ninety telegraph offices. In Southern Rhodesia there are about eighty post offices. A post office savings bank was brought into operation on the 1st of January 1905. Over 2,500,000 letters, post-cards and parcels are despatched annually. Agriculture. — The country is well adapted for agriculture. Chief attention has been paid by farmers to the growing of maize, the annual produce being about half a million bushels. It is a very easily grown cereal, especially in such a fertile country as Rhodesia, and is extensively grown by natives, but the improved methods of the whites easily secure a yield of from twice to eight times that of the native. The average yield by European farmers is about eight bags of 200 ft per acre, but ten to fifteen bags is quite a common crop. Wheat, barley and oats are grown with success under irrigation in the winter time, but the moisture with attendant rust is too excessive for these crops in summer. Tobacco promises to be a great source of wealth to the territory. Both the Turkish and Virginian tobaccos have been raised and cured and put on the market, where they were easily disposed of. They are of better quality than those grown elsewhere in South Africa. In 1908 only about 500 acres were under cultivation, but there are large tracts of land suitable for this industry. Fruits of very extensive variety thrive in Rhodesia ; they include plums, bananas, grapes, guavas, paupaus, figs, loquats, pine-apples, Cape gooseberries, mulberries, tree tomatoes, rosellas, granadillas, all kinds of citrus fruits. The most flourishing are the citrus fruits and the Japanese plums, but in the higher altitudes pears and apples are also very successful. Vegetables of nearly all kinds can be grown, especially potatoes, tomatoes, asparagus, sweet potatoes, yams, &c. Coffee produces as much as 4 ft of beans to the shrub in certain parts. Cattle thrive well in Rhodesia, and stock-raising promises to be the chief agricultural industry of the future. During the early period of European occupation rinderpest and at a later date East Coast fever decimated the country, but the prevention of these diseases is now thoroughly understood and, since the rinderpest of 1896 swept away large herds, cattle have been increasing rapidly in number. There is hardly any portion of the territory which is not suitable for cattle, and the rapid natural increase indicates a speedy prosperity in cattle ranching. Goats and woolless sheep number about 800,000 in the territory. Donkeys and mules thrive, but horses are very liable to horse-sickness towards the end of the rainy season. Mining. — When Rhodesia was first opened up to European occupation, attention was immediately called to the large number of gold workings made by unknown former inhabitants of the :ountry. These workings were only carried on to a limited extent, jeing stopped probably by the presence of water and the lack of suitable machinery. European enterprise has resulted in the discovery of a large number of mines situated in widely scattered areas. The chief mines are the Globe and Phoenix, the Selukwe and the Wanderer in the Gwelo district; the Giant in the hartley district; the Jumbo in the Mazoe district; the Ayrshire n the Lomagundi district; the Penhalonga and the Rezende in .he Umtali district, while there are numerous smaller mines in the Gwanda, Insiza, Gwelo, Hartley and Umtali districts. The output of gold increased in value from £308,000 in 1900 to £2,623,000 in 1909, about one-third of this being produced by small workers whose individual output is not over 1500 oz. a month. As efforts lave been restricted mainly to extracting the ore indicated by ancient workings, it is probable that many gold reefs still await discovery. The mineral wealth of Rhodesia is very varied and ncludes silver, of which 262,000 oz. were produced in 1909; coal, 170,000 tons (1909), and lead, 965 tons. Extensive discoveries of chrome iron have been made in the Selukwe district. There is a steady export of this metal, of which the output in 1909 was over 25,000 tons. Besides these, small quantities of copper, wolframite and diamonds have been exported, while scheelite and asbestos lave been discovered in payable quantities. Commerce. — Taking the average for a series of years ending 908, the total imports amounted to about £1,500,000 per annum, :5% of which were manufactured articles, including £250,000 extile goods and wearing apparel, and £120,000 machinery. Im- ports of food and drink amounted to £330,000. In 1909 the mports amounted to £2,214,000, the chief items being food and [rink (£422,000), machinery, animals and cotton goods. Exports onsist almost entirely of minerals. In 1909 they were valued at '3,178,000. Included in the total is £342,000 goods imported and e-exported. Administration. — The administration of Rhodesia is carried n by the British South Africa Company under an order in ouncil of 1898, amended by orders in council of 1003 and 1905. The company is called upon to appoint for Southern Rhodesia n administrator or administrators. The company also ap- x>ints an executive council of not fewer than four members to dvise the administrator upon all matters of importance in dministration. An order in council of 1903 provided for a RHODESIA 263 legislative council consisting of the administrator, who presides, seven nominees of the company approved by the secretary of state, and seven members elected by registered voters (the number of registered voters in 1908 was 5291). In 1907 it was agreed to reduce the company's nominees by one, so that the elected members should form the majority of the council. The secretary of state appoints a resident commissioner, who sits on both executive and legislative councils without vote. The duty of the resident commissioner is to report to the high commissioner upon all matters of importance. Ordinances passed by the legislative council are submitted to the high commissioner for consent or otherwise, but may be disallowed by the secretary of state. For the administration of justice there is a High Court with two judges having civil and criminal jurisdiction. There are seven magistrates' courts throughout the territory. For the administration of native affairs there are appointed a secretary for native affairs, two chief native commissioners, twenty-eight native commissioners and six assistant native commissioners. Natives suffer no disabilities or restrictions which do not equally apply to Europeans except in respect of the supply of arms, ammunition and liquor. Native com- missioners may exercise jurisdiction in native affairs not ex- ceeding that exercisable by magistrates. The company has to provide land, usually termed Native Reserves, sufficient and suitable for occupation by natives and for their agricul- tural and industrial requirements. Revenue. — The administrative revenue of Southern Rhodesia was at first much less than the cost of administration. The figures for 1899-1900 were: revenue, £325,000; expenditure, £702,000. Since that date revenue has increased and expenditure decreased, and from 1905-6 (in which year the revenue exceeded £500,000) the cost of administration has been met out of revenue. For 1909-10 the revenue was approximately £600,000, the two main items being customs duty, £190,000, and native tax, £200,000. The native tax is £i per head for every adult male and los. for every wife after the first. Education. — Besides a few private schools, there were in 1909 34 schools for Europeans, 26 of which were wholly financed by government, the remainder being aided. The aided schools are as a rule connected with some religious body, and aid is given to the extent of half the salaries of the teachers and half the cost of school requisites. Loans are also given to assist in school building. A system of boarding grants has been instituted to enable children in the outlying districts to attend school. Education is not free except for poor children, but the fees in government schools do not exceed £6 a year. In 1910 several schools had reached the stage of preparing pupils for matriculation at the Cape University and similar examinations. The number of pupils in 1909 in European schools was 1212, being more than double what it had been four years previously. The education of natives is in the hands of various religious bodies, but financial aid is given by government to native schools which comply with certain easy conditions. In 1909, 80 native schools with an enrolment of 7622 pupils earned grants. Military Forces. — The military force in Southern Rhodesia is styled the British South African Police, and numbers about 40 officers, 400 non-commissioned officers and men, and 550 native police. The force is under a commandant-general, who, with the sub- ordinate officers, is appointed by the secretary of state, and is under the direct control and authority of the high commissioner. The commandant-general is paid by the British parliament. The offices of commandant-general and resident commissioner were com- bined in 1905. The Southern Rhodesia Volunteers, in two divisions, eastern and western, under command of colonels, number altogether 86 officers and 1700 non-commissioned officers and men. Medical. — There are, including cottage hospitals, ten hospitals in towns and townships, and thirteen district surgeries have been established. (G. Du.) Archaeology. — Between the Zambezi and the Limpopo, and extending from the coast to at least 27° E., may be found the traces of a large population which inhabited Southern Rhodesia and Portuguese East Africa in bygone times. Apart from numerous mines, some of which are being successfully re- worked at the present day, ruins of stone buildings have been found in several hundred distinct places. Few of these have been explored systematically, but investigations in 1905, though confined to a small number of sites, determined at least the main questions of date and origin. The fanciful theories of popular writers, who had ascribed these buildings to a remote antiquity, and had even been so audacious as to identify their founders with the subjects of King Solomon or of his contemporary the queen of Sheba, are now seen to be untenable. J. T. Bent's Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (1892) is now interesting only for its illustrations, and his theories are obsolete. Positive archaeological evidence demonstrates that the " Great Zimbabwe " itself, the most famous and the most imposing of the misnamed " Ruined Cities," was not built before medieval times, and that the earliest date which can be assigned to any of the sites explored is subse- quent to the nth century A.D. Moreover, the complete identity of custom, revealed no less by the details of the dwell- ings than by the type of the articles found within them, proves that the tribe that built these structures was one closely akin to if not actually identical with the present Bantu inhabitants of the country. These ruins, even when stripped of their false romance, are of extreme interest; but their nature and appearance have been much misunderstood, and the skill and intelligence re- quired for their erection have been grossly overestimated. It should be clearly stated, therefore, that the methods of the old Rhodesians evince their complete ignorance of all the devices employed in the architecture of civilized peoples. They have not attempted to solve the problems of supporting weight and pressure by the use of pillar, arch or beam; the ingenuity of the builders goes no further than the dexterous heaping up of stones. Indeed, their most finished and ela- borate work must be compared with nothing more ambitious than the dry-built walls which serve to enclose the fields in certain parts of England. The material is the local granite or diorite obtainable in the immediate neighbourhood. Stone- hewing has not been practised; and was unnecessary, since the natural flaking of the boulders provides an abundance of ready-made slabs which need only be detached from the parent rock and broken to the required size. At most the blocks thus obtained have been very roughly trimmed with one or two blows, and any apparent regularity in the fitting has been obtained merely by judicious selection. Mortar has seldom been used; the courses are never laid with any approach to exactness; walls merely abut on one another •without being bonded, and the same line often varies greatly in thickness at different parts. The main principle of the ground plan is invariably circular or elliptical, though it is carried out with a conspicuous lack of symmetry or exactness. Straight lines are unknown, and even accidental approximations to an angle are rare. This is eminently characteristic of the Bantu, whose huts are .commonly built in circular form. Indeed, it is the round Bantu hut which has been the original model for even the finest of these stone constructions. The connexion between the two, however, goes beyond mere resemblance. The stone walls are always accompanied by huts; they are mere parti- tions or ring-fences enclosing and structurally inseparable from platforms of clay or cement on which stand the remains of precisely the same dwellings that the Makalanga make at the present day. Buildings such as those at Dhlo Dhlo, Nana- tali and Khami in Matabeleland, or at Zimbabwe in southern Mashonaland, are merely fortified kraals; remarkable indeed as the work of an African people, but essentially native African in every detail, not excepting the ornamentation. The best-known and the most attractive of the Rhodesian ruins are those situated in the more central and southern region. In the north-east, however, the remains are even more numerous, though the single units are less remarkable. Over the whole of Inyanga and the Mazoe region are distri- buted hill-forts, pit-dwellings and intrenchments which are more primitive in character though of the same generic type as those found farther south. The inhabitants of these northern districts were occupied more in agriculture than in gold-mining, and one of the most striking features of their settlements is the 264 RHODESIA irrigation system. There are no aqueducts such as Europeans or Arabs might have built, but water furrows have been carried on admirably calculated gradients for miles along the hill-sides. The amount of labour which has been expended on the great villages between Inyanga and the Zambezi is astounding. On one site, the Niekerk Ruins, an area of fully 50 sq. m. is covered with uninterrupted lines of walls. It is an interesting question which may be solved by future explorations whether these settlements do not extend north of the Zambezi. In- trenchments like those of the Niekerk Ruins have been reported from the south-east of Victoria Nyanza, and Major Powell Cotton has published a photograph from the Nandi country which exhibits a structure precisely similar to the hill forts of Inyanga. (See also ZIMBABWE; MONOMOTAPA.) See D. Randall-Maclver, Mediaeval Rhodesia (London, 1906) ; R. N. Hall and W. G. Neal, The Ancient Ruins of Rhodesia (London, 1902); Zeitschrift fur Ethnologic, 1875 and 1876; Journal of the R.G.S., 1890, 1893, 1899, 1906; Journal of Anthropl. Inst., vols. xxxi., xxxv. (D. R.-M.) History. — There is evidence that from the loth or nth centuries onward the lands now forming Rhodesia were in- habited by Bantu-negroes who had made some progress in civilization and who traded with the Arab settlements at Sofala and elsewhere on the east coast (see Archaeology above). From the isth century, if not earlier, until about the close of the 1 8th century, a considerable part of this area was ruled by a hereditary monarch known as the Monomotapa, whose Zim- babwe (capital) was, in the earlier part of the period indicated, in what is now Mashonaland. Some of the Monomotapas during the i6th and i7th centuries entered into political and commercial relations with the Portuguese (see MONOMOTAPA and ZIMBABWE). The Monomotapa " empire " included many vassal states, and probably fell to pieces through intertribal fighting, which greatly reduced the number of inhabitants. In the early years of the ipth century the tribes appear to have lost all cohesion. The people were mainly agriculturists, but the working of the gold-mines, whence the Monomotapas had ob- tained much of their wealth, was not wholly abandoned. The modern history of the country begins with its invasion by the Matabele, an offshoot of the Zulus. Mosilikatze, their first chief, was a warrior and leader who served under the Zulu despot Chaka. Being condemned to death by Chaka, Mosilikatze fled, with a large division of the Zulu army. About 1817 he settled in territories north of the Vaal, not far from the site of Pretoria; and in 1836 a treaty of friendship was entered into with him by the governor of Cape Colony. In the same year a number of the " trek Boers " had crossed the Vaal river, and came in contact with the Matabele, who attacked and defeated them, capturing a large number of Boer cattle and sheep. In November 1837 the Boers felt themselves strong enough to assail Mosilikatze, and they drove him and his tribe north of the Limpopo, where they settled and occupied the country subsequently known as Matabeleland. In 1868 Mosilikatze died. Kuruman, son and recognized heir of the old chieftain, had disappeared years before, and though a Matabele who claimed to be the missing heir was brought from Natal he was not acknowledged by the leading indunas, who in January 1870 invested Lobengula, the next heir, with the chieftainship. Those Matabele who favoured the supposed Kuruman were defeated in one decisive battle, and thereafter Lobengula, whose kraal was at Bulawayo, reigned unchallenged. At this time the Matabele power extended north to the Zambezi, and eastward over the land occupied by the Mashona and other Makalanga tribes. North of the Zambezi the western districts were ruled by the Barotse ()«]Xi; aquopentammine salts (roseo-salts), [Rh(NHa)6-H2O]Xa; and pentammine salts (purpureo- salts), [Rh(NH,)lX]X2. (See S. F. Jorgensen, C. W. Blomstrand, Jour. prak. Chem., 1882, et seq.) The atomic weight of rhodium has been determined by S. F. Jorgensen (Jour, prakt. Chem., 1883, 27, p. 486), by the analysis of chlorpurpureo rhodium chloride, the mean value obtained being 103; whilst K. Seubert and K. Kobb6 (Ann., 1890, 260, p. 314), by analysis of the double chloride and sulphate, obtained as a mean value 1 02 -86. RHODOCHROSITE, a mineral species consisting of man- ganese carbonate, MnCOj, crystallizing in the rhombohedral system and isomorphous with calcite. It usually occurs as cleavable, compact or botryoidal masses, distinct crystals being somewhat rare; these often have the form of the primitive rhombohedron, parallel to the faces of which there are perfect cleavages. When pure, the mineral contains 47'7% °f manganese, but this is usually partly replaced by varying amounts of iron, and sometimes by calcium, mag- nesium, zinc, or rarely cobalt (cobalt-manganese-spar). With these variations in chemical composition the specific gravity varies from 3-45 to 3-60; the hardness is 4. The colour is usually rose-red, but may sometimes be grey to brown. The name rhodochrosite, from the Greek /SoSo-xpws (rose- coloured), has reference to the characteristic colour of the mineral: manganese-spar and dialogite are synonyms. It is found in mineral veins with ores of silver, lead, copper, &c., or in deposits of manganese ore. Crystals have been met with in the mines at Kapnik-B&nya and Nagyag near Deva in Transylvania and at Diez in Nassau, but by far the best specimens are from Colorado. The mineral is used to a limited extent in the manufacture of spiegeleisen and ferromanga'nese. RHODODENDRON. Classical writers, such as Dioscorides and Pliny, seem, from what can be ascertained, to have called the oleander (Nerium Oleander) by this name, but in modern usage it is applied to a large genus of shrubs and trees be- longing to the order of heaths (Ericaceae). No adequate distinction can be drawn between this genus and Azalea (q.v.) — the proposed marks of distinction, however applicable in particular cases, breaking down when tested more generally. The rhododendrons are trees or shrubs, never herbs, with simple, evergreen or deciduous leaves, and flowers in terminal clusters surrounded in the bud by bud-scales but not as a rule by true leaves. The flowers are remarkable for the frequent absence or reduced condition of the calyx. The funnel- or bell-shaped corolla, on the other hand, with its five or more lobes, is usually conspicuous, and in some species so much so as to render these plants greatly prized in gardens. The free stamens are usually ten, with slender filaments and anthers opening by pores at the top. The ovary is five- or many- celled, ripening into a long woody pod which splits from top to bottom by a number of valves, which break away from the central placenta and liberate a large number of small bran- like seeds provided with a membranous wing-like appendage at each end. The species are for the most part natives of the mountainous regions of the northern hemisphere, extend- ing as far south as the Malay Archipelago and New Guinea, but not hitherto found in South America or Australia. None are natives of Britain. They vary greatly in stature, some of the alpine species being mere pygmies with minute leaves and tiny blossoms, while some of the Himalayan species are moderate-sized trees with superb flowers. Some are 27° RHODONITE— RHONDDA epiphytal, growing on the branches of other trees, but not deriving their sustenance from them. The varieties grown in gardens are mostly grafted on the Pontic species (R. ponti- cum) and the Virginian R. catawbiense. The common Pontic variety is excellent for game-covert, from its hardiness, the shelter it affords, and the fact that hares and rabbits rarely eat it. Variety of colour has been infused by crossing or hybridizing the species first named, or their derivatives, with some of the more gorgeously coloured Himalayan-American varieties. In many instances this has been done without sacrifice of hardihood. Some of the finest hybrids for the open air, especially in favoured spots, are altaclerense (scarlet); Harrisi (rosy crimson); Kewense (rose); Luscombei (rose-pink); Mangiest (white); nobleanum (crimson), one of the first to flower after Christmas; praecox (rose- purple) ; and Shilsoni (crimson). There are almost countless colour variations of these, but one of the most exquisite of late years is that known as Pink Pearl, with large clear rosy-pink blossoms of great purity. What are termed greenhouse rhododendrons are derivatives from certain Malayan and Javanese species, and are consequently much more tender. They are characterized by the possession of a cylindrical (not funnel-shaped) flower-tube and other marks of distinction. The foliage of rhododendrons contains much tannin, and has been used medicinally. Whether the honey mentioned by Xenophon as poisonous was really derived from plants of this genus as alleged is still an open question. Cultivation. — The hardy evergreen kinds are readily propagated by seed, by layers, and by grafting. Grafting is resorted to only for the propagation of the rarer and more tender kinds. Loamy soil containing a large quantity of peat or vegetable humus is essential, the roots of all the species investigated being associated with a fungus partner (mycorhiza). An excess of lime or chalk in the soil proves fatal to rhododendrons and their allies sooner or later — a fact overlooked by many amateurs. The hardy deciduous kinds are valuable for forcing, and withstand cold-storage treatment well. The tender "Malayan and Javanese species thrive in warm green- house temperature, but are difficult to cultivate where the water is very alkaline. RHODONITE, a member of the pyroxene group of minerals, consisting of manganese metasilicate, MnSiOs, and crystallizing in the anorthic system. It commonly occurs as cleavable to compact masses with a rose-red colour; hence the name, from the Greek pbdov (a rose). Crystals often have a thick tabular habit; there are perfect cleavages parallel to the prism faces with an arigle of 87° 3iJ'. The hardness is s|-6|, and the specific 'gravity 3-4-3-68. The manganese is often partly replaced by iron and calcium, which may sometimes be present in considerable amounts; a greyish-brown variety containing as much as 20% of calcium oxide is called "bustamite"; " fowlerite " is a zinciferous variety containing 7 % of zinc oxide. Rhodonite is a mineral liable to alteration, with the formation of manganese carbonate, hydrous silicate or oxides. The compact material, which is cut and polished for ornamental purposes, is often marked in a striking manner by veins and patches of these black alteration products. At Syedelnikova, near Ekaterinburg in the Urals, compact material of a good colour occurs in a clay -slate and is extensively quarried: boulders of similar material found at Cummington in Massachusetts (" cummingtonite ") have also been worked as an ornamental stone. In the iron and manganese mines at Pajsberg near Filipstadt and Langban in Vennland, Sweden, small brilliant and translucent crystals (" pajsbergite ") and cleavage masses occur. Fowlerite occurs as large, rough crystals, somewhat resembling pink felspar, with franklinite and zinc ores in granular limestone at Franklin Furnace in New Jersey. RHOECUS, a Samian sculptor of the 6th century B.C. He and his son Theodorus were especially noted for their work in bronze. Herodotus says that Rhoecus built the temple of Hera at Samos. In the temple of Artemis at Ephesus was a marble figure of night by Rhoecus. His name has been found on a fragment of a vase which he dedicated to Aphrodite at Naucratis. His sons Theodorus and Telecles made a statue of the Pythian Apollo for the Samians. RHONDDA (formerly YSTRADYFODWG), an urban district and parliamentary division of Glamorganshire, South Wales. It is 12 m. long by about 4} m. across at' its widest part, and comprises two main valleys, named after their respective rivers, Rhondda Fawr (9! m.) and Rhondda Fach, or the lesser (6J m.), running S.E. and S.W. respectively till their junction at Porth, and thence the single valley for upwards of a mile farther down the boundary of the Pontypridd urban district at Trehafod. The valleys are narrow and tortuous, and their lateral boundaries are formed by steep hills varying in. height from about 560 ft. on either side of Trehafod to 1340 ft. on the N.E. of Maerdy in the lesser Rhondda and 1 742 ft. on the S.W. of Treherbert in the main valley, while the mountains at the upper end of the latter valley culminate in Carn Moesen(i9so ft.). Thetwo valleys are separated by the steep ridge of Cefn-rhondda, which ranges from 600 ft. high above Porth to 1690 ft. near the upper end of the district. There are a few tributary valleys of which Cwmparc, Clydach Vale and Cymmer are the chief. Though the urban district measures 23,884 acres, the area built upon is generally a narrow strip on either side of each river except at Treorky and Ton, where the valley of the Rhondda Fawr opens out a little. In 1877 the ancient parish of Ystradyfodwg (with the omission of the township of Rhigos, which lies beyond the mountains to the north) was formed into an urban district bearing the parish name, the area having previously been part of a rural district under the Pontypridd rural sanitary authority. In October 1879, portions of the parishes of Llanwonno and Llantrisant, comprising over 5000 acres, were added to the urban area, the whole being consolidated in 1894 into one civil parish. In 1897, the name of the urban district was changed into Rhondda. The Taff Vale railway runs up each of the two valleys from a junction at Porth (16 m. N.W. of Cardiff), and has five stations in the main valley and four in the lesser one. From Porth it runs to Pontypridd, whence there is communication with Cardiff, Barry and Newport. The Rhondda and Swansea Bay railway (authorized in 1882, opened in 1890, and now worked by the Great Western) connects the upper end of the main valley, where it has a station, Blaen-rhondda, with Port Talbot, Neath and Swansea (31 m. distant) by means of a line which has a tunnel 3443 yds. long. The district occupies almost the centre of the eastern division of the South Wales coal-field, and its coal, upon which the inhabitants are almost entirely dependent, is unsurpassed for its steam-raising properties. In common with other East Glamorgan coal it became commercially known as Cardiff coal from the fact that Cardiff was at first its only port of shipment. The development of the Rhondda coal-field was later in date than those of Aberdare and Merthyr, and it received its chief impetus from the American Civil War. Thus the population of the parish (excluding Rhigos), which was 576 in 1811, 951 in 1851 and 3035 in 1861, increased to 16,914 in 1871. When the bound- aries of the district were extended in 1879 the population of the enlarged area was calculated by the registrar-general to be 23,950 in 1871, but it reached 55,632 in 1881, and 113,735 in 1901, showing anincreaseof 104% in the previous twenty years. In 1901, 35-4% of the population of three years of age and upwards spoke English only, 11-4% spoke Welsh only, the remainder being bilingual. Ecclesiastically the parish of Ystradyfodwg was an ancient chapelry dependent on Llantrisant. The old parish church at Ton Pentre (in substitution for which a new church was built in 1893-94) served the whole parish till past the middle of the igth century. Between 1879 and 1900 the ancient parish (excluding Rhigos) was divided into seven ecclesiastical parishes, the six new ones being Llwyn-y-pia (1879), Tylorstown (1887), Ynyshir (1887), Treherbert (1893), Cwmparc (1898) and Ferndale (1900). The additional area brought into the urban district in 1879 comprises two other ecclesiastical parishes, Cymmer and Forth (1894), and Dinas and Penygraig (1901). These nine parishes, comprised in the urban district, have twenty churches and eighteen mission-rooms, with accommodation for about 12,000 persons. This area, together with Pontypridd, Glyntaff and Llanwonno, form the rural deanery of Rhondda in the archdeaconry and diocese of Llandaff. There were at the end of 1905 over one hundred and fifty nonconformist chapels and mission rooms, with accommodation for over 85,000 persons, of which provision nearly two-thirds was in chapels with Welsh services. There is a Roman Catholic church at Tonypandy. The public buildings include the council house and offices of the district council, erected in 1883-84 for the local board at Pentre, libraries and workmen's institutes at Ystrad (1895), and Cymrner (1893), Maerdy (1905), Dinas (1893), and Ferndale public halls, the property of a private company at Treherbert (1872), and Tonypandy (1891) and a county intermediate school at Forth. By means of a tunnel about 2100 yds. long water is obtained for the greater part of the main valley from the lake of Llyn Fawr on the Neath side of the mountain range which shuts in the valley on the north. This lake has been converted into a storage reservoir of about 167 million gallons capacity. The rest of the district is supplied from the Pontypridd Water Company's works above Maerdy in the lesser valley. The ancient parish (excluding Rhigos) was formed into a parliamentary constituency with one member in 1885. The present urban district substantially corresponds to the ancient territorial division of Glyn-rhondda, one of the four commotes of the cantred of Penychen, and subsequently, in Norman times, one of the twelve " members " of the lordship of Glamorgan. Its Welsh lords enjoyed a large measure of independence and had their own courts, in which Welsh law was administered down to I535> when the lordship was fully incorporated in the county of Glamorgan. On the ridge of Cefn-rhondda between the two valleys was the Franciscan monastery of Penrhys, famous for its image of the Virgin and for its holy well which attracted large pilgrimages. It was dissolved about 1415, probably owing to its having supported Glyndwr in his rebellion. Edward II. came here from Neath Abbey and was captured on the i6th of November 1326, either at Penrhys, or between it and Llantrisant. (D. LL. T.) RHONE (Fr. Rhone, Lat. Rhodanus), one of the most important rivers in Europe, and the chief of those which flow directly into the Mediterranean. It rises at the upper or eastern extremity of the Swiss canton of the Valais, flows between the Bernese Alps (N.) and the Lepontine and Pennine Alps (S.) till it expands into the Lake of Geneva, winds round the southernmost spurs of the Jura range, receives at Lyons its principal tributary, the Sa&ne, and then turns southward through France till, by many mouths, it enters that part of the Mediterranean which is rightly called the Golfe du Lion (sometimes wrongly the Gulf of Lyons) . Its total length from source to sea is 5045 m. (of which the Lake of Geneva claims 45 m.), while its total drainage area in 37,798 sq. m., of which 2772 sq. m. are in Switzerland (405 sq. m. of the Swiss portion being composed of glaciers), and its total fall 5898 ft. Its course (excluding the Lake of Geneva, q.v.) naturally falls into three divisions: (i) from its source to the Lake of Geneva, (2) from Geneva to Lyons, and (3) from Lyons to the Mediterranean. i. From its source to the lake the Rhone is a purely Alpine river, flowing through the great trench which it has cut for itself between two of the loftiest Alpine ranges, and which (save a bit at its north-west end) forms the Canton of the Valais. Its length is 1055 m., while its fall is 4679 ft. It issues as a torrent, at the height of 5909 ft., from the great Rhone glacier at the head of the Valais, the recent retreat of this glacier having proved that the river really flows from beneath it, and does not take its rise from the warm springs that are now at some distance from its shrunken snout. It is almost immediately joined on the left by the Mutt torrent, coming from a small glacier to the S.E., and then flows S.W. for a short distance past the well-known Gletsch Hotel (where the roads from the Grimsel and the Furka Passes unite). But about half a mile from the glacier the river turns S.E. and descends through a wild gorge to the more level valley, bending again S.W. before reaching the first village, Oberwald. It preserves this south-westerly direction till Martigny. The uppermost valley of the Rhone is named Goms (Fr. Conches), its chief village being Munster, while Fiesch, lower down, is well known to most Swiss travellers. As the river rolls on, it is swollen by mountain torrents, descend- ing from the glaciers on either side of its bed — so by the Geren (left), near Oberwald, by the Eginen (left), near Ulrichen, by the Fiesch (right), at Fiesch, by the Binna (left), near Grengiols, by the Massa (right), flowing from the great Aletsch glaciers, above Brieg. At Brieg the Rhone has descended 3678 ft. from its source, has flowed 28 m. in the open, and is already a consider- able stream when joined (left)by the Saltine, descending from the Simplon Pass. Its course below Brieg is less rapid than RHONE 271 before and lies through the alluvial deposits which it has brought down in the course of ages. The valley is wide and marshy, the river frequently overflowing its banks. Further mountain torrents (of greater volume than those higher up) fall into the Rhone as it rolls along in a south-westerly direction towards Martigny: the Visp (left), coming from the Zermatt valley, falls in at Visp, at Gampel the Lonza (right), from the Lotschen valley, at Leuk the Dala (right), from the Gemmi Pass, at Sierre the Navizen (left), from the Einfisch or Anniviers valley, at Sion, the capital of the Valais, the Borgne (left) from the Val d'Heiens; soon' the Rhone is joined by the Morge (right), flowing from the Sanetsch Pass, and the boundary in the middle ages between Episcopal Valais to the east and Savo- yard Valais to the west, and at Martigny by the Dranse (left), its chief Alpine tributary, from the Great St Bernard and the Val de Bagnes. At Martigny, about 50 m. from Brieg, the river bends sharply to the N.W., and runs in that direction to the Lake of Geneva. It receives the Salanfe (left), which forms the celebrated waterfall of Pissevache, before reaching the ancient town and abbey of St Maurice (gjm.). Henceforward the right bank is in the canton of Vaud (conquered from Savoy in 1475) and the left bank in that of the Valais (conquered similarly in 1536), for St Maurice marks the end of the historical Valais. Immediately below that town the Rhone rushes through a great natural gateway, a narrow and striking defile (now strongly fortified), which commands the entrance of the Valais. Beyond, the river enters the wide alluvial plain, formerly occupied by the south-eastern arm of the Lake of Geneva, but now marshy and requiring frequent '.' correction." ' It receives at Bex the Avancon (right), flowing from the glaciers of the Diablerets range, at Monthey the Vieze (left), from Champery and the Val d'llliez, and at Aigle the Grande Eau (right), from the valley of Ormonts-dessus. It passes by the hamlet of Port Valais, once on the shore of the lake, before expanding into the Lake of Geneva, between Villeneuve (right) and St Gingolph (left). During all this portion of its course the Rhone is not navigable, but a railway line runs along it from Brieg in about 72 m. to either Villeneuve or Le Bouveret. 2. On issuing at Geneva from the lake the waters of the Rhone are very limpid and blue, as it has left all its impurities in the great settling vat of the lake, so that Byron might well speak of the " blue rushing of the arrowy Rhone " (Childe Harold, canto iii. stanza 71). But about half a mile below Geneva this limpidity is disturbed by the pouring in of the 'turbid torrent of the Arve (left) , descending from the glaciers of the Mont Blanc range, the two currents for some distance refusing to mix. The distance from Geneva to Lyons by the tortuous course of the Rhone is about 124 m., the fall being only about 689 ft. The characteristic feature of this portion of the course of the Rhone is the number of narrow gorges or cluses through which it rushes, while it is forced by the southern spur of the Jura to run in a southerly direction, till, after rounding the base of that spur, it can flow freely westwards to Lyons. About 12 m. S. of Geneva the Rhone enters French territory, and henceforth till near Lyons forms first the eastern, then the southern boundary of the French department of the Ain, dividing it from those of Haute Savoie and Savoie (E.) and that of the Isere (S.). Soon after it becomes French the river rushes furiously through a deep gorge, being imprisoned on the north by the Credo and on the south by the Vuache, while the great fortress of 1'Ecluse guards this entrance into France. The railway pierces the Credo by a tunnel. In the narrowest portion of this gorge, not far from Bellegarde at its lower end, there formerly existed the famous Perte du Rhone (described by Saussure in his Voyages dans les Alpes, chapter xvii.), where for a certain distance the river disappeared in a subterranean channel; but this natural phenomenon has been destroyed, partly by blasting, and partly by the diversion of the water for th« use of the factories of Bellegarde. At Bellegarde the Valserine flows in (right), and then the river resumes its southerly direction, from which the great gorge had deflected it for a while. Some way below Bellegarde, between Le Pare and Pyrimont, the 272 RHONE— RHONGEBIRGE Rhone becomes officially " navigable," though as far as Lyons the navigation now consists all but wholly of the floating o: flat-bottomed boats, named rigues, laden chiefly with stone quarried from the banks of the river. Above Seyssel (n m from Bellegarde) the Usses (left) joins the Rhone, while just below that village the Fier (left) flows in from the Lake oi Annecy. Below the junction of the Fier the hills sink on either side, the channel of the river widens, and one may say that it leaves the mountains for the plains. At Culoz (415 m. by rail fro'm Geneva) the railway from Geneva to Lyons (105 m.) quits the Rhone in order to run west by a direct route past Amberieu. The Rhone continues to roll on southwards, but no longer (as no doubt it did in ancient days) enters the Lac du Bourget, of which it receives the waters through a canal, and then leaves it on the east in order to run along the foot of the last spur of the Jura. It flows past Yenne (left) and beneath the picturesque fortress (formerly a Carthusian monastery) of Pierre Chatel (right) before it attains the foot of the extreme southern spur of the Jura, at a height of 696 ft., not far from the village of Cordon, and just where the Guiers flows in (left) from the mountains of the Grande Chartreuse. This is nearly the last of the cluses through which the river has to make its way. The very last is at the Pont du Saut or Sault, a little S. of Lagnieu. The river now widens, but the neighbouring country is much exposed to inundations. It receives (right) its most important tributary in this part of its course, the Ain, which descends from the French slope of the Jura and is navigable for about 60 m. above its junction with the Rhone. Farther down the Rhone meanders for a time with shifting channels in a bed about 2 m. broad, but it gathers into a single stream before its junction with the Sa&ne, just below Lyons. The Sa6ne (q.v.), which has received (left) the Doubs, is the real continuation of the Rhone, both from a geographical and a commercial point of view, and it is by means of canals branching off from the course of the Saone that the Rhone communicates with the basins of the Loire, the Seine, the Rhine and the Moselle. In fact, up to Lyons, the Rhone (save when it expands into the Lake of Geneva) is a huge and very unruly mountain torrent rather than a great European river. 3. Below Lyons, however, the Rhone becomes one of the great historical rivers of France. It was up its valley that first Greek, then Latin civilization penetrated from the Medi- terranean to Lyons, as well as in the loth century the Saracen bandits from their settlement at La Garde Freinet, near the coast of Provence. Then, too, from Lyons downwards, the Rhone serves as a great medium of commerce by which central France sends its products to the sea. Its length from Lyons to the sea is some 230 m., though its fall is but 530 ft. But during this half of its course it can boast of having on its left bank (the right bank is very poor in this respect) such historical cities as Vienne, Valence, Avignon, Tarascon and Aries, while it receives (left) the Isere, the Drome and the Durance rivers, all formed by the union of many streams, and bringing down the waters that flow from the lofty snowy Dauphine Alps. The Ardeche is the only considerable affluent from the right. Near Aries, about 25 m. from the sea, and by rail 1755 m. from Lyons, the river breaks up into its two main branches, the Grand Rhone running S.E. and the Petit Rhone S.W.; they enclose between them the huge delta of the Camargue, which is cultivated on the banks of the river only, but elsewhere is simply a great alluvial plain, deposited in the course of ages by the river, and now composed of scanty pasturages and of great salt marshes. Between Lyons and the sea, the Rhone divides four departments on its right bank (Rh&ne, Loire, Ardeche and Card) from as many on its left bank (Isere, Dr&me, Vaucluse and Bouches du Rh6ne). Consult in general Ch. Lenthe'ric, Le Rhone — histoire d'un fleuve, 2 vols. (Paris, 1892). (W. A. B. C.) RHONE, a department of south-eastern France, formed in 1793 from the eastern portion of the department of Rhone-et- Loire, and comprising the old districts of Beaujolais, Lyonnais, Franc-Lyonnais, Forez and a small portion of Dauphin6. Pop. (1906) 858,907. Area, 1104 sq m. Rh6ne is bounded N. by the department of Sa&ne-et-Loire, E. by Ain and Isere and S. and W. by Loire. The Sa&ne and the Rhone form its natural boundary on the east. The department belongs almost entirely to the basin of the Rhone, to which it sends its waters by the Sa6ne and its tributary the Azergues, and by the Gier. The mountains which cover the surface of the department con- stitute the watershed between the Rhone and the Loire, and from north to south form four successive groups — the Beaujolais Mountains, the highest peak of which is 3320 ft.; the Tarare group; the Lyonnais Mountains (nearly 3000 ft.); and Mont Pilat, the highest peak of which belongs to the department of Loire. The lowest point of the department (460 ft. above sea- level) is at the egress of the Rhone. The meteorological con- ditions vary greatly with the elevation and exposure. Snow sometimes lies in the mountains from November to April, while at Lyons and in the valleys the mean temperature in winter is 36° F. and in summer 70°, the annual mean being 53°. The average rainfall is somewhat higher than is general over France owing to the amount of the precipitation on the hilly region. Good agricultural land is found in the valleys of the Sa&ne and Rhone, but for the most part the soil is stony and only moderately fertile. Wheat, oats, rye and potatoes are ex- tensively cultivated, but their importance is less than that of the vine, the hills of the Beaujolais on the right bank of the Saone producing excellent wines. Fruit trees, such as peaches, apricots, walnuts and chestnuts, grow well, but the wood in general is little more than copse and brushwood. Good pasture is found in the valleys of the Azergues and its affluents. Mines of iron-pyrites and coal and quarries of freestone are worked. The production of silk fabrics, the chief branch of manufacture, that of chemicals and machinery, together with most of the other industries of the department, are concentrated in Lyons (q.v.) and its vicinity. Tarare is a centre for the manufacture of muslin and embroidery. • Oullins has large railway workshops belonging to the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railway, and there are important glass works at Givors. Cotton- spinning and weaving are carried on in several localities. The products of its manufactures, together with wine and brandy, form the bulk of the exports of the department; its imports comprise chiefly the raw material for its industries. It is served by the Paris-Lyon railway. The Rhone and the Sa6ne and in the extreme south the canal of Givors are its navigable waterways. Lyons the capital is the seat of an archbishop and of a court of appeal and centre of an educational division (academic). The department is divided amongst the districts of the VII., VIII., XII., XIII. and XIV. army corps. There are two arrondissements (Lyons and Villefranche) subdivided into 29 cantons and 269 communes. The principal places besides Lyons are Givors, Tarare and Villefranche, which receive separate treatment. RHONGEBIRGE, or DIE RHON, a mountain-chain of central ermany, running in a north-westerly direction from the Bavarian province of Lower Franconia to the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau and the grand duchy of Saxe- Weimar, and divided by the Werra from the Thuringian Forest on the N. The other sides are bounded by the Fulda on the W. and the Sinn and Prankish Saab on the E. and S. Its length is 50 m., Dreadth 5-7 m., and its mean elevation 1900 ft. This district s divided into three groups — the southern, the high (Hohe) and the nearer (Vordere) Rhon. Of these the southern, a con- tinuation of the Spessart, largely consists of flat conical masses and reaches its highest point in the Heiliger Kreuzberg (2900 ft.). The Hohe Rhon, beginning immediately to the north-west of the latter mountain, is a high plateau of red sandstone, covered with fens and basalt peaks. It is a wild, dreary, inclement ract of country, covered with snow for six months in the year and visited by frequent fogs and storms. It is said of it that whoever desires to experience a northern winter can spare limself a journey to the North Cape or Siberia, and find it in lis native Rhon. There is little vegetation, and the inhabitants eke out a scanty sustenance from the cultivation of potatoes RHOXOLANI— RHUBARB 273 and flax. The highest inhabited place is Frankenhausen, lying at a height of 2350 ft. with 6383 inhabitants (1900). The nearer (Vordere) Rhon, forming the northern side of the range, is more attractive, with forests and deep and fertile valleys. See Lenk, Zur geologischen Kenntnis der sudlichen Rhon (WUrzburg, 1887); Scheidtweiler, Die Rhon und ihre wirthschaftlichen Verhdlt- nisse (Frankfort, 1887); and Daniel, Deutschland (sth ed., Leipzig, 1878). RHOXOLANI. a Sarmatian tribe defeated in the Crimea by Diophantus, general of Mithradates, c. 100 B.C., and by the Romans on the lower Danube c. A.D. 60, and also under M. Aurelius. They seem to have finally succumbed to the Goths. RHUBARB. This name is applied both to a drug and to a vegetable. i. The drug has been used in medicine from very early times, being described in the Chinese herbal Pen-king, which is believed to date from 2700 B.C. The name seems to be a corruption of Rheum barbarum or Reu barbarum, a designa- tion appliedjto the drug as early as the middle of the 6th century, and apparently identical with the prjov or pa of Dioscorides, described by him as a root brought from beyond the Bosporus. In the I4th century rhubarb appears to have found its way to Europe by way of the Indus and Persian Gulf to the Red Sea and Alexandria, and was therefore described as " East Indian " rhubarb. Some also came by way of Persia and the Caspian to Syria and Asia Minor, and reached Europe from the ports of Aleppo and Smyrna, and became known as " Turkey " rhubarb. Subsequently to the year 1653, when China first permitted Russia to trade on her frontiers, Chinese rhubarb reached Europe chiefly by way of Moscow; and in 1704 the rhubarb trade became a monopoly of the Russian government, in consequence of which the term " Russian " or " crown " rhubarb came to be applied to it. Urga was the great depot for the rhubarb trade in 1719, but in 1728 the depot was transferred to Kiachta. All rhubarb brought to the depot passed through the hands of the govern- ment inspector; hence Russian rhubarb was invariably good and obtained a remarkably high price. This severe super- vision naturally led, as soon as the northern Chinese ports were thrown open to European trade, to a new outlet being sought; and the increased demand for the drug at these ports resulted in less care being exercised by the Chinese in the collection and curing of the root, so that the rhubarb of good quality offered at Kiachta rapidly dwindled in quantity, and after 1860 Russian rhubarb ceased to appear in European commerce. Owing to the expense of carrying the drug across the whole breadth of Asia, and the difficulty of preserving it from the attacks of insects, rhubarb was formerly one of the most costly of drugs. In 1542 it was sold in France for ten times the price of cinnamon and four times that of saffron, and in an English price list bearing date of 1657 it is quoted at i6s. per Ib, opium being at that time only 6s. and scammony 125. per Ib. The dose of rhubarb is anything from \ up to 30 grams, according to the action which is desired. The British Pharmacopeia contains seven preparations, only one of which is of any special value. This is the Pulvis Rhei Compositus, or Gregory's powder, which is composed of 2 parts of rhubarb, 6 of heavy or light magnesia and I of ginger. The dose is 20 to 60 gr. Rhubarb is used in small doses — J to 2 gr.— as an astringent tonic, since it stimulates all the functions of the upper part of the alimentary canal. In many cases of torpid dyspepsia it is very efficient when combined with the subnitrate of bismuth and the bicarbonate of sodium. The more characteristic action of rhubarb, however, is purgation, which it causes in doses of 15 gr. and upwards. _ The action occurs within seven or eight hours, a soft, pulpy motion of a yellow colour being produced. The colour is due to the chrysa- robin, which is also the purgative constituent of the drug. Rhubarb is also a secretory cholagogue, increasing the amount of bile formed by the liver. The drug is apt to cause colic, and should therefore never be given alone. The'-ginger in Gregory's powder averts this unpleasant consequence of the aperient properties of rhubarb. The drug is peculiar in that the purgation is succeeded by definite constipation, said to be due to the rheotannic acid. This explana- tion is hardly satisfactory, however, since it is difficult to see how the rheotannic acid can be retained in the bowel during the process of purgation. Rhubarb has, therefore, definite indications and contra-indications. It is obviously worse than useless in the treatment of chronic constipation, which it only aggravates. On the other hand, it is very valuable in children and others, when diarrhoea has been caused by an unsuitable dietary. The drug removes the indigestible residue of the food and then gives the bowel rest. Rhubarb is also useful in the weaning of infants, since it is partly excreted in the maternal milk, and gives it a bitter taste which the baby dislikes. Some chrysarobin is absorbed and is excreted in the urine, which it slightly increases and colours a reddish brown. The colour IE discharged by the addition of a little dilute hydrochloric acid to the urine. The botanical source of Chinese rhubarb cannot be said to have been as yet definitely cleared up by actual identification of plants observed to be used for the purpose. Rheum palmatum, R. officinale, R. palmatum, var. tqnguticum, R. colinianum and R. Franzenbachii have been variously stated to be the source of it, but the roots produced by these species under cultiyation_ in Europe do not present the characteristic network of white veins exhibited by the best specimens of the Chinese drug. Chemistry. — The most important constituent of this drug, giving it its purgative properties and its yellow colour, is chrysarobin, CsoHsoOT, formerly known as rhein or chrysophan. The rhubarb of commerce also contains chrysophanic acid, a dioxymethyl anthra- quinone, Ci4H6(CH,)O2(OH)2, of which chrysarobin is a reduction product. Nearly 40% of the drug consists of calcium oxalate, which gives it the characteristic grittiness. There is also present rheotannic acid, which is of some practical importance. There are numerous other constituents, such as emodin, CuHjoO6, mucilage, resins, rheumic acid, CfflHi«O9, aporrhetin, &c. Production and Commerce. — Rhubarb is produced in the four northern provinces of China proper (Chih-li, Shan-se, Shen-se and Ho-nan), in the north-west provinces of Kan-suh, formerly included in Shen-se, but now extending across the desert of G_obi to the frontier of Tibet, in the Mongolian province of Tsing-hai, including the salt lake Koko-nor, and the districts of "Tangut, Sifan and Turfan, and in the mountains of the western provinces of Sze-chuen.1 Two of the most important centres of the trade are Sining-fu in the province of Kan-suh, and Kwanhien in Sze-chuen. From Shen-se, Kan-suh and Sze-chuen the rhubarb is forwarded to Hankow, and thence carried to Shanghai, whence it is shipped to Europe. Lesser quantities are shipped from Tien-tsin, and occasionally the drug is exported from Canton, Amoy, Fuh-chow and Ning-po. Very little is known concerning the mode of preparing the drug for the market. According to Mr Bell, who on a journey from St Petersburg to Peking had the opportunity of observing the plant in a growing state, the root is not considered to be mature until it is six years old. It is then dug up, usually in the autumn, and deprived of its cortical portion and smaller branches, and the larger pieces are divided in half longitudinally; these pieces are bored with holes and strung up on cords to dry, in some cases being previously subjected to a preliminary drying on stone slabs heated by fire underneath. In Bhutan the root is said to be hung up in a kind of drying room, in which a moderate heat is regularly maintained. The effect produced by the two drying processes is very different : when dried by artificial heat, the exterior of the pieces becomes hardened before the interior has entirely lost its moisture, and consequently the pieces decay in the centre, although the surface may show no change. These two_ varieties are technically known as kiln-dried and sun-dried; and it was on account of this differ- ence in quality that the Russian officer at Kiachta had every piece examined by boring a hole to its centre. European Rhubarb. — As early as 1608 Prosper Alpinus of Padua cultivated as the true rhubarb a plant which is now known as Rheum rhaponticum, a native of southern Siberia and the basin of the Volga. This plant was introduced into England through Sir Matthew Lister, physician to Charles I., who gave seed obtained by him in Italy to the botanist Parkinson. The culture of this rhubarb for the sake of the root was commenced in 1777 at Banbury, in Oxfordshire, by an apothecary named Hayward, the plants being raised from seed sent from Russia in 1762, and with such success that the Society of Arts awarded him a silver medal in 1 789 and a gold one in 1 794. The cultivation subsequently extended to Somersetshire, Yorkshire, and Middlesex, but is now chiefly carried on at Banbury. English rhubarb root is sold at a cheaper rate than the Chinese rhubarb, and forms a considerable article of export to America, and is said to be used in Britain in the form of powder, which is of a finenyellow colour than that of Chinese rhubarb. The Banbury rhubarb appears to be a hybrid between R. rhaponticum and R. undulatum — the root, according to E. Colin, not presenting the typical microscopic structure of the former. More recently very 1 According to Mr F. Newcombe, Med- Press and Circ., August 2, 1882, the Chinese esteem the Shen-se rhubarb as the best, that coming from Kanchow being the most prized of all; Sze-chuen rhubarb has a rougher surface and little flavour, and brings only about half the price; Chung-chi rhubarb also is greatly valued, while the Chi-chuang, Tai-huang and Shan-huang varieties are considered worthless. 274 RHYL— RHYME good rhubarb has been grown at Banbury from Rheum officinale, but these two varieties are not equal in medicinal strength to the Chinese article, yielding less extract— Chinese rhubarb afford- ing, according to H. Seier, 58%, English rhubarb 21 % and R officinale 17%. In France the cultivation of rhubarb was commenced in the latter half of the i8th century— R. com- pactum, R. palmatum, R. rhaponticum and R. undulatum being the species grown. The cultivation has, however, now nearly ceased, small quantities only being prepared at Avignon and a few other localities. . . , The culture of Rheum compactum was begun in Moravia in the beginning of the present century by Prikyl, an apothecary in Austerlitz, and until about fifty years ago the root was largely exported to Lyons and Milan, where it was used for dyeing silk. As a medicine 5 parts are stated to be equal to 4 of Chinese rhubarb. Rhubarb root is also grown at Auspitz in Moravia and at Ilmitz, Kremnitz and Frauenkirchen in Hungary; R. emodi is said to be cultivated for the same purpose in Silesia. Rhubarb is also prepared for use in medicine from wild species in the Himalayas and Java. 2. The rhubarb used as a vegetable consists of the leaf stalks of R. rhaponticum and its varieties, and R. undulatum. It is known in America as pie-plant. Plants are readily raised from seed, but strong plants can be obtained in a much shorter time by dividing the roots. Divisions or seedlings are planted about 3 ft. apart in ground which has been deeply trenched and manured, the crowns being kept slightly above the sur- face. Rhubarb grows freely under fruit-trees, but succeeds best in an open situation in rich, rather light soil. The stalks should not be pulled during the first season. If a top-dress- ing of manure be given each winter a plantation will last good for several years. Forced rhubarb is much esteemed in winter and early spring, and forms a remunerative crop. Forcing under glass or in a mushroom house is most satisfactory, but open-ground forcing may be effected by placing pots or boxes over the roots and burying in a good depth of stable litter and leaves. Several other species, such as R. palmatum, R. officinale, R. nobile and others, are cultivated for their fine foliage and handsome inflorescence, especially in wild gardens, margins of shrubberies and similar places. They succeed in most soils, but prefer a rich soil of good depth. They are propagated by seeds or by division. RHYL, a watering-place and urban district of Flint, N. Wales, practically equidistant by rail from Bangor (29^ m.) and Chester (30 m.), and 209 m. from London on the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 8473. It is situated near the mouth of the Clwyd. Formerly, like Llandudno, a small fishing village, the town has now all the appointments of a popular resort. In winter the gales often fill the streets to the depth of several feet, with drifts of sand from the sur- rounding dunes, which, however, are noted in summer for the dry and bracing air. The neighbouring country is inter- esting from its scenery and antiquities. Among the institu- tions of the town may be mentioned the Queen Alexandra Hospital (1902), and several hydropathic establishments and convalescent homes. The estuary harbours coasting vessels, and some shipbuilding is carried on. On the beach towards Prestatyn can be seen the remains of a submerged forest. RHYME, more correctly spelt RIME, from a Provencal word rim (its customary English spelling is due to a confusion with rhythm), a literary ornament or device consisting of an identity of sound in the terminal syllables of two or more words. In the art of versification it signifies the repetition of a sound at the end of two or more lines in a single composition. This artifice was practically unknown to the ancients, and, wher it occurs, or seems to occur, in the works of classic Greek anc Latin poets, it must be considered to be accidental. The natural tendency of the writer of verse unconsciously to repea a sound, however, is shown by the fact that there have been discovered nearly one thousand lines in the writings of Virgi where the final syllable rhymes with a central one, thus — Bella per Emathios plus quam civilia campos. It is more than doubtful, however, whether the difference o stress would not prevent this from sounding as a rhyme in an antique ear, and the phenomenon results more from th ontingencies of grammar than from intention on the part of he poet. Conscious rhyme belongs to the early medieval >eriods of monkish literature, and the name given to lines ivith an intentional rhyme in the middle is Leonine verse, he invention being attributed to a probably apocryphal monk ,eoninus or Leonius, who is supposed to be the author of a listory of the Old Testament preserved in the Bibliotheque Rationale of Paris. This " history " is composed in Latin erses, all of which rhyme in the centre. Another very famous joem in Leonine rhyme is the " De Contemptu Mundi " of Bernard of Cluny, which was printed at Bremen in 1595. Uiyme exists to satisfy the ear by the richness of repeated ound. In the beginnings of modern verse, alliteration, a epetition of a consonant, satisfied the listener. A further jrnament was discovered when assonance, a repetition of the •owel-sounds, was invented. Finally, both of these were com- dned to procure a full identity of sound in the entire syllable, and rhyme took its place in prosody. When this identity of iound occurs in the last syllable of a verse it is the typical end- •hyme of modern European poetry. Recent criticism has been nclined to look upon the African church-Latin of the age of Tertullian as the starting-point of modern rhyme, and it is >robable that the ingenuities of priests, invented to aid wor- shippers in hearing and singing long pieces of Latin verse in the ritual of the Catholic church produced the earliest conscious >oems in rhyme. Moreover, not to give too great importance ;o the Leonine hexameters which have been mentioned above, t is certain that by the 4th century a school of rhymed sacred poetry had come into existence, classical examples of which we still possess in the " Stabat Mater " and the " Dies Irae." [n the course of the middle ages, alliteration, assonance and end-rhyme held the field without a rival in vernacular poetry. There is no such thing, it may broadly be said, as medieval verse in which one or other of these distinguishing ornaments is not employed. After the I4th century, in the north of Europe, and indeed everywhere except in Spain, where asson- ance held a powerful position, end-rhyme became universal and formed a distinctive indication of metrical construction. It was not until the invention of Blank Verse (q.v.) that rhyme found a modern rival, and in spite of the successes of this instrument rhyme has held its own, at all events for non- dramatic verse, in the principal literature of Europe. Certain forms of poetry are almost inconceivable without rhyme. For instance, efforts have been made to compose rhymeless sonnets, but the result has been, either that the piece of blank verse produced is not in any sense a sonnet, or else that by some artifice the appearance of rhyme has been retained. In the heyday of Elizabethan literature a serious attempt was made in England to reject rhyme altogether, and to return to the quantitative measures of the ancients. The prime mover in this heresy was not a poet at all, but a pedantic grammarian of Cambridge, Gabriel Harvey (1545 ?-i63v6nk, from fxlv, to flow), the measured flow of movement, or beat, in verse, music or by analogy in other connexions, e.g. " rhythm of life." The early critic of prosody, Aristoxenus, distinguished as the three elements out of which rhythm is composed, the spoken word, Xe£w, the tune of music and song, /wXos, and the bodily motion, dvijaa ffunaTudi. The art of the early Greek poets was devoted to S har- monious combination of these three elements, language, instrument and gesture uniting to form perfect rhythm. Aris- toxenus proceeds to define the rhythm so produced as an arrange- ment of time-periods, TO.& xP°™v, but other early theorists make not the time but the syllable the measurement of poetic speech. Both music and poetry depend, and have depended from the earliest times, on rhythm. But in music melody and harmony have to be taken into consideration, whereas in poetry the rhythmical value of the tone is modified by the imaginative value and importance of the words themselves. In earliest times the fundamental unity of the two arts was constantly manifest, but as 'the world has progressed, and they have ramified into countless forms, the difference between them has been emphasized more and more. Rhythm in Verse. — Professor Jakob Minor has adduced a figure, valuable in helping us to realize what poetic rhythm is, when he remarks that to strike a bell twelve times, at exactly equal intervals, is to produce what may be called, indeed, a rhythmic effect, but not to awaken anything resembling the sensation of poetical rhythm. Into the idea of poetic rhythm enters an element of life, of pulse, of a certain inequality of time based upon an equality of tone. Rhythm ceases to be poetic rhythm if it is mechanical or lifeless. Aristotle, from whom a definition might be ex- pected, is very vague in dealing with the subject, and most of the old rhetorical writers darken counsel with statements that are obscure or irrational. The fact is that rhythm is an expression of the instinct for order in sound which naturally governs the human ear, and little practical know- ledge is gained by following Suidas when he says that rhythm is the father of metre, or Quintilian in his epigram that rhythm is male and metre is female. These definitions arise from a rhetorical desire to measure a delicate instinct by rule of three, and, as a matter of fact, Greek criticism on this subject often lost itself in arithmetical absurdities. It is sufficient to say that rhythm is the law which governs the even and periodical progress of sounds, in harmony with the exigencies of human emotion. For the passions, as expressed in verse, various movements are appropriate. Joy demands that the voice should leap and sing; sorrow that it should move solemnly and slowly; and poetry, which is founded on rhythm, requires that the movement of words should respond to this instinctive gradation of sounds. The finer the genius of the metrist the more exquisitely does his rhythm convey, as upon an instrument, the nature of the passion which burdens his verses. Ecstasy takes a quick, eager, rising movement: — " Give him the nectar! Pour out for the poet, Hebe, pour free! Quicken his eyes with celestial dew, That Styx the detested no more he may view. Mystery and suspense demand a faint, languid and throbbing movement: — " There is not wind enough in the air To move away the ringlet curl From the lovely lady's cheek — There is not wind enough to twirl The one red leaf, the last of its clan, That dances as often as dance it can." An overpowering sadness interprets itself in rhythm that is full and slow and emphatic: — " My genial spirits fail, And what can these avail To lift the smothering weight from off my breast? It were a vain endeavour, Though I should gaze for ever On that green light that lingers in the west : I may not hope from outward forms to win The passion ana the life, whose fountains are within." The rhythm so produced, intimately linked, almost beyond the disintegrating power of analysis, with human feeling, may depend either on accentuation or quantity. The latter forms the principle upon which all classic metre was composed, while the former is dominant in nearly every description of modem verse. Greek and Latin verse depends entirely upon the relation of syllables, long or short. It was a question of time with the ancients, of stress or weight with us. It is an error to say, as is often done, that ancient verse did not recognize accent, and that in modern verse there is no place for quantity. These state- ments are generally true, but there are various exceptions to both rules. Schiffer, in his Englische Melrik, specially points out that " long and short syllables have no constant length, no constant relation, but they depend on their place in the verse, and on the context; though they do not determine the rhythm of verse, they still act as regulators of our metre in a very im- portant degree." Pauses take an essential importance in the construction of modern rhythm, of the variety and vitality of which they are the basis. They are introduced for the purpose of relieving the monotony of successive equal groups of syllables. The pause often takes the place of a light syllable, and there are instances in the verse of Shakespeare and Milton where it is even allowed to fill up the space of a heavy syllable. But still more often the pause does not imply the dropping of a syllable at all, but simply dictates a break in the sound, equivalent to a break in the sense. The following extract from a " Psalm " in Crashaw's Steps to the Temple (1646), in which the pauses are numerous and energetic, will exemplify the variety of this artifice: — " On the proud banks of great Euphrates' flood, | There we sate | and there we wept : | Our harps | that | now | no music understood, | Nodding | on the willows slept | While | unhappy captiv'd I we Lovely Sion | thought on thee." In the blank verse of Milton the free use of pauses constitutes the principal element in the amazing metrical art of the poet, and is the source of the sublime originality of his music. In speaking of rhythm, it is customary to think of the formal rules which govern the fixed cadence of feet in poetry, but there is also a rhythm in prose, which imitates the measured movements of the body in stately speech. According to Renan, the rhythm of the ancient poetry of the Hebrews is solely founded on this prose movement, which differs, in fact, from that of modern European poetry merely in its undefined and indeterminate character. See I. Minor, Neuhochdeutsche Melrik (Strassburg, 1893); W. Christ, Die Melrik der Greichen (Leipzig, 1874); Roderick Benadix, Das Wesen des deutschen Rhythmus (Leipzig, 1862); Jakob Schiffer, Englische Melrik (Leipzig, 1895); Edwin Guest, History of English Rhythms (London, 1838; and ed., 1882); Theodore de Banville, Petit Traite de la poesie franfaise (Pans, 1881); F. B. Gummere, Handbook of Poetics (Boston, 1902). Rhythm in Music. — The rhythm of modem music began to develop through the attempts of learned medieval musicians to adapt the rhythms of spoken language to the necessities of choral singing; but before the process had gone far, certain much more ancient and powerful principles, always manifest in folk-song and dance, gained ascendancy, so that even the 278 RHYTHM simplest classical music has a rhythm for which no criteria of poetic metre can be made adequate. From the musical point of view, the rhythm of speech, whether in prose or verse, is very subtle and almost uniformly fluent. The metrical feet which constitute the details of poetic rhythm are musically very minute; and the exaggerated forms in which music represents them are many and varied. On the other hand, the groups of metrical feet which constitute any one kind of verse are of a uniformity which for music on a large scale would be intolerable. Artistic music is soon compelled to draw upon infinite resources of its own, which preserve an appropriate accentuation of the sense and feeling, while obliterating or hugely exaggerating the poet's rhythmic effects. Musical rhythm cannot be studied on a sound basis unless its radical divergences from speech- rhythm are recognized from the outset. In the earliest extant musical settings of poetry the treatment of accent and quantity was strictly arithmetical ; and purely aesthetic requirements were satisfied by ex post facto inference from the arithmetical laws, rather than treated as the basis of the laws. Accent, when translated into music, is a rhythmic sensation resembling the stress we put on the left foot in march- ing; while quantity rarely suggests any bodily movement at all, since it can correspond only to variations in the length of steps. Now in modern music a sense akin to that of bodily movement is of overwhelming importance. Changes of tempo, and of the grouping of musical beats, are incidents as obvious in their effect as changes in the pace of a running horse. One consequence is that the laws of musical accent are simple and cogent, while the laws of musical quantity, if such exist, are far beyond analysis. Fluent speech and energetic physical exercise cannot be carried on simultaneously by the same person; and hence the laws of quantity belong to speech rather than to dance. Before we could form adequate notions of the musical rhythms of classical Greece, we should need to settle, firstly, how far the dancing in Greek drama included movements other than ideal- ized dramatic gesticulation; secondly, how much bodily energy was involved in all dancing that may have gone beyond this; and lastly, how much dancing of any kind was executed by the singers while singing. What is certain is that ancient Greek musical rhythms were exact translations of verse rhythms, with the quantities interpreted arithmetically. The extant fragments of Greek music are, whether we have read them correctly or not, undoubtedly very different in rhythm from the system of discant on which European music of the 1 2th and i3th centuries first developed; but they resemble discant in so far as the modern sense of rhythm is absent and its place is supplied by a sense of the rhythmic expression of unusually slow and emphatic speech. In ordinary speech there is an important difference between long syllables and short; but it is not naturally regulated by an exact rhythm, and the art by which it is organized in verse admits (or indeed demands) considerable freedom on the part of the reciter in varying his pace within such limits as do not destroy the structure of the lines. But when a chorus is made to sing words, it must, if the words are to reach the hearer, sing them slowly; and moreover, it must sing them exactly together, unless, as in much classical music, it can repeat them until they are either understood or dismissed from the mind as a mere pretext for the employment of voices in a merely musical design. In any case, if a chorus is to sing well together, the contrast between short and long syllables must be placed on an arithmetical basis, the simpler the better. Now the sole function of ancient Greek music was to enhance the emotional effect of poetic words by regulating their rise and fall in a musical scale and their length in a metrical scheme; and it was natural and right that its rhythms should, though accurate, have no stronger ictus than those of the words. To make them as rigid and forcible as the rhythms of a non-vocal music would produce an effect as intolerable to a Greek ear as a schoolboy's worst jog-trotting scansion of poetry. We need not, then, imagine that the human sense of rhythm has suffered any mysterious change, when our best attempts at deciphering the extant fragments of ancient Greek music yield us a rhythm which scholars can explain by the structure of Greek verse, but which gives us no musical sense. Neither here nor in such strange harmonic phenomena as our complete inversion of medieval harmonic ideas as to the treatment of " perfect con- cords " (see HARMONY) do we find any principle involved which is not as true at the present day as it ever was. Ancient musical rhythm shared in the general qualities of that " Flatland " which we know ancient music to have been; modern musical rhythm, like harmony, belongs, as it were, to a three-dimensioned musical space with the vast artistic resources of a consistent perspective. Indeed, we need much the same kind of mental gymnastic in studying the origins of musical rhythm as we need for the much more abstruse subject of harmonic origins. The two subjects soon begin to show interaction. During the period of discant we find metrical conceptions already strongly modified by two purely musical factors. Firstly, the attempt to make voices produce a harmony from different simultaneous melodies (instead of from combinations conceived as disguised unison) brought with it the necessity for differences of length enormously larger than any possible metrical differences. The metrical influence, however, still so predominated, even in the i4th century, as to produce a rhythm based almost exclusively on what would now be called triple time. Secondly, that sense of bodily movement, for which the less clumsy term " dance- rhythm " is far too narrow, gained ground as the only means powerful enough to hold the various rhythms of the new and growing polyphony together. In the later stages of discant the old metrical conceptions struggled against the grain of the polyphony for awhile, only to succumb in a tangle of inextricable technicality: and the new art, which became coherent in the 1 5th century, disregarded poetic metre, with little or no loss in capacity to interpret words if the composer had leisure or desire to do so; since, after all, poetic rhythm in its highest forms has a subtle freedom which renders mechanical musical translation worse than useless, while the rhythmic swing of the lighter forms of poetry was soon discovered by the composers of the " Golden Age " to be practically identical with the refined dance-rhythm which they in their lighter moments idealized from folk-music.1 By the middle of the isth century polyphony attained such independence that the only rhythms which would hold the flow of independent melodious voices together were those in which a steadily duple or steadily triple rhythm (either of which might be subdivided by the other or by itself) could be felt as an absolutely regular musical tread. Such a rhythm is capable of expressing every poetic foot, either by the differ- ence of stress between notes or by a difference in their length. Moreover, emphasis may be obtained by the pitch of the note, or, again, by its harmonic significance. All these forms of emphasis combine and counteract each other in an infinite variety, till the sense of musical movement becomes as remote from crude dance-rhythm as it is from poetic metre. But though the part thus played by accent was already of para- mount importance in the " Golden Age " of music, it was not allowed to become evident to the ear except in the lighter and more coarse-grained art-forms. Its highest purpose was served as soon as the listener was able to lose all crude rhythmic impulses in a secure feeling that the mass of polyphonic harmony was held together by a general grouping of the rhythmic beats in fours or threes; and individual parts were at least as free to indulge in other rhythms across the main rhythm as they are in the most complex modern music, so long as the harmony was held together by the average grouping, or " time," as we now call it. Hence the rhythmic variety of 16th-century 1 It would be interesting and fruitful to consider how far the growing preference, In modern European languages, of accent to quantity, may not only have modified the conception of musical rhythm, but may itself have been enhanced by the rhythmic tend- encies of popular song, which had so great an influence on the learned music of the middle ages. And it can hardly be said that the subject of musical rhythm has yet been so clearly treated on these lines as to shed the light it seems capable of shedding upon many vexed questions in poetic rhythm. RHYTHM 279 music is exactly like the harmonic variety, and the limitations and waywardness of the one are no more archaic than those of the other. When the resources of later music and the treatment of instruments necessitated the publishing of music in score as well as in separate parts, it became necessary to guide the eye by drawing vertical lines (" bars ") at convenient distances. Hence the term " score " (Ger. Partitur, FT. partition). These divisions naturally coincided with the main rhythmic groups, and eventually became equidistant. This purely practical custom has co-operated with the great increase of rhythmic firmness necessary for the coherence of those large modern forms which decree the shape rather than the texture of the music, until our notions of rhythm may fairly be described as bar-ridden. And, since the vast majority of our musical rhythms absorb the utmost complexity of detail into the most square and symmetrical framework possible, we are taught to regard the " 4-bar period " as a normal (or even ultimate) rhythmic principle, instead of contenting ourselves with broader conceptions which treat symmetry and proportion in time as freely as they are treated in space. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that the bar indicates no universal musical principle. The havoc wrought by mechanical teaching on this point is incalculable, especially in the childish crudeness of current ideas as to the declamation of words in classical and modern music: ideas which mislead even some composers who might have been expected to know better. As rhythm is contemplated in larger measures, it becomes increasingly difficult to say where the sense of rhythm ends and the sense of proportion begins. The same melody that may be felt as a square and symmetrical piece of proportion in four-bar rhythm if it is taken slowly, will be equally rational as a single bar of " common time " (see below) if it is taken very quickly; and between these two extremes there may be insensible gradations. All that can be laid down is that com- posers are apt to use short bars where they demand constant strong accent, while long bars will imply smoother rhythms. For example, if the scherzo of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony were written in " instead of ! bars, then the passages now marked Ritmo di tre battute would have to appear in ! time, and so the changes of rhythm would be much more visible on paper. But the tendency to put a strong accent on the first beat of every bar would make this notation an undesirable substitute for Beethoven's, since it would lead to a neglect of the sub- ordinate accents (all of them bar-accents, as Beethoven writes them). The trio of this scherzo shows the opposite case in the fact that Beethoven first intended to write it in * time, but, in order to indicate a more tranquil flow at the same pace, doubled the quantity contained in a bar, substituting alia breve bars, each equal to two of the preceding J bars. The alteration produced a discrepancy in the metronome marks, which has always caused controversy among conductors, but the facts admit of only one interpretation. It is clear, then, that the only sound theory of musical rhythm will be that in which accent, beat, bar, and even form and proportion are relative terms. The kinds of time (i.e. rhythmic groups forming, as it were, invariable molecules in the structure of any continuous piece of music) that are used in all music from the 1 5th century onwards are nowadays classified as duple and triple, and each of these may be simple or compound. Simple time is that in which the normal subdivision of its beats is by two, whether the number of the beats themselves is duple or triple. Compound time is that in which the beats are regularly divided by three, which three subdivisions are reckoned as subordinate beats. The beats are in all kinds of time reckoned as halves, quarters, 8ths, i6ths or even 32nds of the standard note in modern music, the semibreve: and the time- signature placed at the beginning of a piece of music is really a fraction, of which the numerator expresses the number of beats in a bar, while the denominator expresses the size of a beat. Thus J signifies three crotchets in a bar. Compound time is expressed, not by using normal fractions of a semibreve as main beats and dividing them into triplets,1 but by using dotted beats. A dot after 1 Triplets are groups of three equal notes crowded into the time normally taken by two. Binary and ternary subdivision answer a note adds another half to its value, and so not only do we obtain the means of expressing a great variety of rhythmic effects (especi- ally quantitative effects of iambic and trochaic character) in all kinds of time, but we are able to use normal fractions of a semi- breve as the subordinate beats of compound time. Thus 5 is the compound time obtained by dotting the two crotchets of * time, and is thus totally different in accent and meaning from J time though that also contains six quavers in a bar. The most highly compound times in classical music are to be found in the last move- ment _of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. in. He begins by dividing bars of J into their usual compound time ,V He then divides the six half-beats of J time by three, producing \l (which he in- correctly calls ,1), and lastly he divides the 12 quarter-beats by 3, producing JJ (which he calls JJ). The special signatures C for 4 time, and C for * time are the last survivals of the time system of the middle ages (see MUSICAL NOTATION). That complicated system of mood, time and prolation was capable of expressing even more highly compound rhythms than our usual time-signatures, though the complexity was in most cases unreal, since the small rhythmic ictus of ecclesiastical polyphony renders little but the general distinction between duple and triple rhythm audible: especially as the more compound rhythms were not subdivisions but multiples, involving lengths better measurable by an eight-day clock than by human ears. The second Kyrie of Palestrina s Missa L'Homme Arme is one of the rare cases which remain both rhythmic and complex when transcribed in modern score.1 For genuine articulate complexity the ballroom scene in Mozart's Don Giovanni has never been surpassed. So real are its three simultaneous rhythms of minuet, contredanse and waltz that the persons on the stage actually dance to whichever suits their char- acter. Anomalous measures such as { and J time, whether divisible into alternations of I and I or not, are aesthetically best regarded not as rhythmic units, but as extreme- cases of unsym- metncal phrase-rhythm erected into a system for special effect. They tend, however, to group themselves into musical sentences of reactionary squareness; and the 5 movement of Tschaikovsky's Pathetic Symphony consists of twenty 8-bar periods (twenty-four, counting the repeats) before an unpaired 4-bar phrase is heard in the short coda. Even the last bar is not odd, though it is the I79th, for the rhythm ends with an unwritten iSoth bar of silence. There is, no doubt, a germ of truth in current doctrine as to the fundamental character of 4-bar phrase-rhythms, inasmuch as the human anatomy has a bilateral symmetry with either limb on one side slightly stronger than that on the other. This is probably the basis of our natural tendency to group rhythmic units in pairs, with a stress on the first of each pair; and hence, if our attention is drawn to larger groups, we put more stress on the first of the first pair than on the first of the second; and so with still greater groups, until our immediate and un- analysed sense of rhythm merges into a sense of proportion distributed through time with a clear consciousness of past, present and future. The point at which this merging takes every ordinary purpose of musical rhythm, "being capable of expres- sing clear distinctions far more minute than have ever been regu- lated in speech. It is impossible to pronounce a syllable in less than a tenth of a second; but it is easy to play 1 6 notes in a second on the pianoforte. (That is to say, musical rhythm continues to be measurable up to the point at which atmospheric vibrations coalesce in the ear as low musical notes!) In a series of such rapid notes a single break twice in a second would have a very obvious rhythmic effect directly measured by the ear. If the broken series were levelled into an even series of fourteen notes a second, the rhythmic effect would be entirely different, though the actual difference of pace would be only j"j of a second. The special sign for triplets is readily adapted to other subdivisions where necessary; but such adaptation generally indicates rather a freedom of declamatory rhythm than any abstruse arithmetical accuracy. Among the worst barbarisms in musical editing is the persistent reduction of Chopin's septoles, groups of 13 and other indeterminables, into mutton-cutlet frills._ A natural freedom in performance is as necessary for the minutiae of musical rhythm as it is in speech; but where all but the finest players fail is in basing this freedom on the superlative accuracy of the rhythmic notation of the great composers. 4 In the critical edition of Palestrina's complete works, vol. xii. p. 177 (Breitkppf and Hartel), the editor has violently simplified it. He is justified in using the ordinary <£ bars to hold the piece together, and he is not called upon to reproduce the riddles of the original notation ; but some secondary time signatures ought to have been added to indicate the strong swing of the tune in its conflicting shapes; and there is no justification, in a full score intended for scholars, in supplanting the true rhythm of the quintus by a rough practical compromise. 280 RHYTINA place depends on the extent to which these larger groups can dominate the details of the rhythm, and this again depends on the listener's capacity for grasping large and slow rhythms. In any case, the only " ultimate " rhythmic element is the tendency to mark off rhythmic beats into pairs, with a stress on the first of each pair. Where this tendency is resisted, the mind will follow the line of least resistance, which will vary according to the pace and detail of the music. Thus in rapid triple time it is easier to seek duple rhythm in the grouping of bars than in the details within the bars; but if the groups of bars are also triple, or irregular, the mind will fix on the first recurring salient feature for a secondary beat, regardless of inequality in length; rather than, so to speak, hop on one leg indefinitely. On this principle there is a distinct tendency in moderate and slow triple times to throw a secondary accent on the third beat; or sometimes on the second, as in the spring- ing step of the mazurka, where the spring gives energy to the first beat and the descent from it gives poise to the second. The tendency of small rhythmic groups to build themselves into large and square ones, such as 8-bar, i6-bar and even 32-bar periods, is doubtless important; but the converse tendency of large phrase-rhythms to break up in a tapering series is far more significant, since even in its most regular forms it not only produces more variety the further it goes, but always increases in obvious effect, until the subdivisions attain the minuteness (and therewith the expression) of speech rhythms. (A crude example of the device is Diabelli's waltz, on which Beethoven wrote his gigantic 33 variations. See VARIATIONS, where the point is illustrated by a diagram.) Regularly expanding rhythm, on the other hand, not only becomes imperceptible as it is carried further, but tends merely to make musical proportions resemble those of a chess-board. In great music the expanding principle is therefore always contrasted with or modified by the tapering principle, which can indeed exist simultaneously with it and with any other. For, to take only three categories, the harmonic changes of a passage may be designed in tapering rhythm while the melodic phrases expand, and the entries of instruments or parts occur on some third principle, regular or irregular. Such interplay need produce no feeling of complexity; indeed, it is an art most neglected by those composers who most rely on the effect of complex rhythm. It is the main discoverable source of that almost dramatic sense of movement that distinguishes the great musical styles from the academic methods which play for safety, and from the anti-academic novelties which end in monotony. Square rhythms become desirable at climaxes where physical energy dominates thought. Strong final cadences accordingly require that the last chord should fall on an accent; and if the pace is rapid the final chord will probably be not only on an accented beat but on an accented bar. Thus it is quite obvious that there is by a mere oversight one bar too many in the four bars of tremolo quavers at the end of the first movement of Beethoven's Fourth Symphony; for they are followed by an important bar leading to the last three chords, which chords can only mean (counting bars as beats) — " ONE, two, THREE " (" four " being silent and therefore unwritten). A fifth bar of tremolo would correct the rhythm in a more vigorous but more vulgar way by bringing the last chord onto " ONE " of the next imaginary group of four. The former correction is so obviously right that the imagination makes it in spite of the presence of the superfluous bar, which is instinctively ignored as an accidental prolongation of the tremolo. Where the composer writes in bars so short as to be permanently less than the phrases of the piece (as in Beethoven's scherzos), or in bars that are frequently longer than the phrases (as in most of Mozart's movements in slow or moderate common time) , it sometimes becomes impossible to construe the music without carefully calculating where the accents come; and this calculation is most easily made on the assumption that the strongest cadences bring the tonic chord on an accent. Thus, in Beethoven's Sonata in E flat, Op. 27, No. i, the first bar of the second movement must be preliminary and the first accent must come on the second bar, since the piece refuses to make sense in any other way. Indeed, Beethoven has written some notes twice over in order to bring his double- bars and repeat-marks where they will indicate the true rhythmic joints to the eye. (A double-bar is a mere graphic indication of some important sectional division, not necessarily rhythmic or even coincident with a normal bar-stroke.) Theorists, however, have developed a tendency to assume that all cadences must be strong. More than one critic has told us that the scherzo of Beethoven's Sonata, Op. 28, is in the same predicament as that of Op. 27, No. i; though it not only makes excellent sense with its cadences in the light and weak form in which they appear, but, when reconstrued on the " strong cadence " theory, entirely fails in its middle portion to uphold that theory or to make any other rhythmic sense. And when Professor Prout tells us that the overture to Figaro begins with a silent bar, and that Schubert's Impromptu in B flat is positively ungrammatical in its cadences unless it is entirely rebarred, and when Dr Riemann turns half the ritornello of a Bach con- certo from £ into f time, simply in order to make the sequences coincide with the hardest possible accents; then we can only protest that this is regulating musical aesthetics by criteria too crude for the aesthetics of bricklaying. An edition of Paradise Lost, in which the lines were so rearranged as to bring all punctua- tion marks (except perhaps commas) at the end of the line, would be on precisely the same level of ingenious barbarity. Few technical terms are entirely peculiar to the subject of musical rhythm; but some obvious terms of syntax, such as phrase, period and section are used with varying degrees of system by all writers on music; and the whole terminology of prosody has been annexed — with such success that we are told in Grove's Dictionary (article " Metre ") that " the theme of Weber's Rondo brillante in E flat (Op. 62) is in Anapaestic Tetrameter Brachycatalectic, very rigidly maintained." One important term has acquired a special significance in music: viz. Syncopation. It means a cross-accent of such strength as to equal or even suppress the main accent; but the use of the term is generally restricted to cases in which the cross- accent is produced by shifting the notes of a melody or a formula so that they fall between the beats instead of upon them. From what we have said as to the almost physical energy of musical rhythm it is obvious that such a phenomenon is of far greater effect and importance in music than it could possibly be in verse; and, to whichever subject the term may belong by priority, extreme caution is needed in extending any musical notion of it to the structure of poetry. (D. F. T.) RHYTINA, a name applied to the northern sea-cow (Rhylina gigas, or stelleri), a gigantic relative of the manati and dugong, which formerly inhabited Bering and Copper Islands, in the North Pacific, where it was discovered during Bering's voyage in 1741, and subsequently described by Steller, who accompanied that expedition as a naturalist. Bering's half-starved sailors soon reduced the numbers of these comparatively helpless creatures; and it was not long after — probably about the year 1768 — that the species, which was the sole representative of its genus, became completely exterminated. The Rhytina was the largest member of the order Sirenia, attaining a length of nearly twenty feet; and had a very thick, rugged, bark-like skin. The jaws, which are bent downwards to a moderate extent, are unprovided with teeth, but in life carried ridged horny plates. The tail was very deeply forked; and the flippers were short and truncated, lacking apparently the terminal joints of the digits. When first discovered, this Sirenian was extremely numerous in the bays of Bering Island, where it browsed upon the abundant sea-tangle. Its extirpation is due to the Russian sailors and traders who visited the island in pursuit of seals and sea-otters, and who subsisted on its flesh. Numbers of bones have been discovered in the soil of Bering and Copper Islands, from which more or less nearly perfect skeletons have been reconstructed, so that the osteology of this interesting animal is well represented in most of the larger museums. (R. L.*) RIANSARES— RIBADENEIRA 281 RIANSARES, AUGUSTIN FERNANDEZ MUNOZ, DUKE OF (1808 or 1810-1873), morganatic husband of Maria Christina, queen and regent of Spain, was born at Tarancon, in the province of Cuenca, in New Castile. His father was the keeper of an " estanco " or office for the sale of the tobacco of the govern- ment monopoly. He enlisted in the bodyguard, and attracted the attention of the queen. According to one account, he distinguished himself by stopping the runaway horses of her carriage; according to another, he only picked up her hand- kerchief; a third and scandalous explanation of his fortune has been given. It is certain that the queen married him privately, very soon after the death of her husband on the 29th of September 1833. By publishing her marriage, Maria Christina would have forfeited the regency; but her relations with Munoz were perfectly well known. When on the i3th of August 1836 the soldiers on duty at the summer palace, La Granja, mutinied and forced the regent to grant a constitution, it was generally, though wrongly, believed that they over- came her reluctance by seizing Munoz, whom they called her " guapo," or fancy man, and threatening to shoot him. When in 1840 the queen found her position intolerable and fled the country, Munoz went with her and the marriage was published, and on the overthrow of Espartero in 1843 the couple returned. In 1844 Queen Isabella II., who was now declared to be of age, gave her consent to her mother's marriage, which was publicly performed. Munoz was created duke of Riansares and made a knight of the Golden Fleece. By Louis Philippe, king of the French, he was created duke of Mont-Morot and Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. Until his wife was finally driven from Spain by the revolutionary movement of 1854, the duke is credibly reported to have applied himself to making a large fortune out of railway concessions and by judicious stock exchange speculations. Political ambi- tions he had none, and it is said that he declined the offer of the crown of Ecuador. All authorities agree that he was not only good-looking, but kindly and well-bred. He died five years before his wife at L'Adresse, near Havre, on the nth of September 1873. Several children were born of the marriage. RIAZ PASHA (c. 1835- ), Egyptian statesman, born about 1835, was of a Circassian family, but said to be of Hebrew extraction. Little is known of his early life save that until the accession of Ismail Pasha to the vice-royalty of Egypt in 1863 he occupied a humble position. Ismail, recognizing in this obscure individual a capacity for hard work and a strong will, made him one of his ministers, to find, to his chagrin, that Riaz was also an honest man possessed of a remarkable independence of character. When Ismail's financial straits compelled him to agree to a commission of inquiry Riaz was the only Egyptian of known honesty sufficiently intelligent and patriotic to be named as a vice-president of the com- mission. He filled this office with distinction, but not to the liking of Ismail. The khedive, however, felt compelled, when as a sop to his European creditors he assumed the position of a constitutional monarch, to nominate Riaz as a member of the first Egyptian cabinet. For the few months this government lasted (September 1878 to April 1879) Riaz was minister of the interior. When Ismail dismissed the cabinet and attempted to resume autocratic rule, Riaz had to flee the country. Upon the deposition of Ismail, June 1879, Riaz was sent for by the British and French controllers, and he formed the first ministry under the khedive Tewfik. His administration, marked by much ability, lasted only two years, and was overthrown by the agitation which had for figure-head Arabi Pasha (q.v.). The beginnings of this move- ment Riaz treated as of no consequence. In reply to a warning of what might happen he said, " But this is Egypt; such things do not happen; you say they have happened elsewhere, perhaps, but this is Egypt." On the evening of the pth of September 1881, after the military demonstration in Abdin Square, Riaz was dismissed; broken in health he went to Europe, remaining at Geneva until the fall of Arabi. After that event Riaz, subordinating his vanity to his patriotism, accepted office as minister of the interior under Sherif Pasha (q.v.). Had Riaz had his way Arabi and his associates would have been executed forthwith, and when the British insisted that clemency should be extended to the leaders of the revolt Riaz refused to remain in office, resigning in December 1882. He took no further part in public affairs until 1888, when, on the dismissal of Nubar Pasha (q.v.), he was summoned to form a government. He now understood that the only policy possible for an Egyptian statesman was to work in harmony with the British agent (Sir Evelyn Baring — afterwards Lord Cromer). This he succeeded in doing to a large extent, wit- nessing if not initiating the practical abolition of the coroie and many other reforms. The appointment of an Anglo-Indian official as judicial adviser to the khedive was, however, opposed by Riaz, who resigned in May 1891. In the February follow- ing he again became prime minister under Abbas II., being selected as comparatively acceptable both to the khedivial and British parties. In April 1894 Riaz finally resigned office on account of ill-health. Superior, probably, both intellectually and morally to his great rival Nubar, he lacked the latter's broad statesmanship as well as his pliability. Riaz's stand- point was that of the benevolent autocrat; he believed that the Egyptians were not fitted for self-government and must be treated like children, protected from ill-treatment by others and prevented from injuring themselves. In 1889 he was made an honorary G.C.M.G. A worthy tribute to Riaz was paid by Lord Cromer in his farewell speech at Cairo on the 4th of May 1907. " Little or no courage is now re- quired," said Lord Cromer, " on the part of a young Egyptian who poses as a reformer, but it was not always so. Ismail Pasha had some very drastic methods of dealing with those who did not bow before him. Nevertheless, some thirty years ago Riaz Pasha stood forth boldly to protest against the mal- administration that then prevailed in Egypt. He was not afraid to bell the cat.'' RIB (from O. Eng. ribb; the word appears in many Teutonic languages, cf. Gcr. Rippe, Swed. reb), in anatomy, the primary meaning, one of the series of elastic arched bones (costae) which form the casing or framework of the thorax (see SKELETON: Axial). The word is in meaning transferred to many objects resembling a rib in shape or function. In architecture, it is thus used of the arches of stone which in medieval work constitute the skeleton of the vault, and carry the shell or web. Although in the Roman vault the rib played an important element in its construction, it was generally hidden in the thickness of the vault and was made subservient to its geometrical surfaces. The Gothic masons, on the other hand, reversed the process, and not only made the vaulting surface subservient to the rib, but by mouldings rendered the latter a highly decorative feature. The principal ribs are the transverse (arc doubleau), the diagonal (arc ogive) and the wall rib (formeret). Those of less importance are the intermediate, the ridge and lierne ribs. The ridge-rib is one first introduced into the vault to resist the thrust of the intermediate ribs between the wall and diagonal ribs; it also served to mark the junction of the filling-in or web of vaults in those cases where the courses dipped toward the diagonal rib. (See VAULT.) A lierne rib (the term is borrowed from the French) is a short rib, introduced into the vaulting in the Early Perpendicular period, which coupled together the transverse and intermediate ribs; in the later period the " lierne " rib becomes one of the chief features of the " Stella " vault (see further VAULT). RIBADENEIRA, PEDRO A. (1527-1611), hagiologist, was born at Toledo on the ist of November 1527. As a lad he repaired to Rome for study, and there on the i8th of September 1540 was admitted by Ignatius Loyola, in his thirteenth year, as one of the Society of Jesus, which had not yet re- ceived papal sanction. He pursued his studies at Paris (1542) in philosophy and theology. Loyola, in 1555, sent him on a mission to Belgium; in pursuance of it he visited England in 282 RIBALD— RIBBON-FISHES 1558. A later result of his visit was his Historia Ecclesiastica del scisma del Reyno de Inglaterra (1588-1594), often reprinted, and used in later editions of N. Sander's De Origine et Pro- gressu Schismatis Anglicani. In 1560 he was made Provincial of the Society of Jesus in Tuscany, thence transferred as Pro- vincial to Sicily in 1563, again employed in Flanders, and from 1571 in Spain. In 1574 he settled in Madrid, where he died on the loth of September 1611. His most important work is the Life of Loyola (1572), which he was the first to write. In his first edition of the Life, as also in the second enlarged issue (1587), Ribadeneira affirmed that Loyola had wrought no miracle, except the foundation of his Society (thus making his claim parallel with that of Mahomet, whose only miracle, originally, was the Koran). In the process for the canonization of Loyola, a narrative published by Riba- deneira in 1609 exhibited miracles; and these are recorded in an abridgment of the Life by Ribadeneira (published post- humously in 1612) with a statement by Ribadeneira that he had known of them in 1572 but was not then satisfied of their proof. For this change of opinion he is taken to task by Bayle. That Ribadeneira was, though an able, a very credulous writer, is shown by his lives of the successors of Loyola in the general- ship of the Society, Lainez and Borgia; and especially by his Flos Sanctorum (1599-1610), a collection of saints' lives, entirely superseded by the labours of the Bollandists. His other works are numerous but of little moment, including his Tratado de la religion (1595), intended as a refutation of Machiavelli's Prince. See his autobiography in his Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu (1602 and 1608, supplemented by P.Alegambeand N.Sotwell in 1676) ; N. Antonio, Biotheca Hispana Nova (1788); Biographic Universelle (Michaud) (1842-1865). (A. Go.*) RIBALD, a word now only used in the sense of jeering, irreverent, abusive, particularly applied to the uses of low, offensive or mocking jests. It has an interesting early history, of which Du Cange (Gloss, s.v. Ribaldi) gives a full account. It is one of those words, like the Greek rvpavvos, an uncon- stitutional ruler, and the Latin latro, a hired soldier, mercenary, later robber, which have acquired a degraded and evil sig- nificance. The ribaldi were light-armed soldiers, on whom fell the duty of being first in attack, the enfans perdus or " for- lorn hope " of the armies of the French kings; thus Rigordus, in his contemporary history of the reign of Philip Augustus, for the year 1189, speaks of the Ribaldi . . . qui primes im- petus in expuguandis munitionibus facere consueverunl. Later we find the ribaldi among the rabble of camp-followers of an army, and Giovanni Villani, in his 16th-century Chronicle (n, 139), speaks of ribaldi et i raguazzi del hoste, and Froissart of the ribaux as the lowest ranks in an army. Ribaldus (ribaut) was thus a common name for everything ruffianly and aban- doned, and Matthew Paris (Ann. 1251) says: Fures, exules, fugilivi, excommunicati, quos omnes Ribaldos Francia vulgariter consuevit appellare. The name (ribaldae or ribaldi) was particu- larly applied to prostitutes, brothel-keepers and all who fre- quent haunts of vice, and there was at the French court from the 1 2th century an official, known as Rex Ribaldorum, king of the ribalds, changed in the reign of Charles VI. to Prae- posilus Hospitii Regis, whose duty was to investigate and hold judicial inquiry into all crimes committed within the precincts of the court, and control vagrants, prostitutes, brothels and gambling-houses. The etymology of the word has been much discussed, and no certainty can be arrived at. The termination — aid — points to a Teutonic origin, and connexion has been suggested with O.H.Ger. Hripd, M.H.Ger. Ribe, prostitute, with Ger. reiben, rub, or with rauben, rob. Neither Skeat nor the New English Dictionary find any relation to the English " bawd," procuress, pander. RIBAULT (or RIBAUT), JEAN (c. 1520-1565), French navigator, famous for his connexion with the early settlement of Florida, was born at Dieppe, probably about 1 520. Appointed by Admiral Coligny to the command of an expedition to prepare an asylum for French Protestants in America, Ribault sailed on the i8th of February 1562, with two vessels, and on the ist of May landed in Florida at St John's river, or, as he called it, Riviere de Mai. Having settled his colonists at Port Royal Harbour (now Paris Island, South Carolina), and built Fort Charles for their protection, he returned to France to find the country in the throes of the Civil War. In 1563 he appears to have been in England and to have issued True and Last Discoverie of Florida (Hakluyt Soc., vol. vii.). In April 1564 Coligny was in a position to despatch another expedition under Rene de Laudonniere, but meanwhile Ribault's colony had come to an untimely end — the unfortunate adventurers, destitute of sup- plies from home, having revolted against their governor and attempted to make their way back to Europe in a boat which was happily picked up, when they were in the last extremities, by an English vessel. In 1565 Ribault was again sent out to satisfy Coligny as to Laudonniere's management of his new settlement, Fort Caroline, on the Riviere de Mai. While he was still there the Spaniards, under Menendez de Aviles, though their country was at peace with France, attacked the French ships at the mouth of the river. Ribault set out to retaliate on the Spanish fleet, but his vessels were wrecked by a storm near Matanzas Inlet and he had to attempt to return to Fort Caroline by land. The fort had by this time fallen into the hands of the Spaniards, who had slaughtered all the colonists except a few who got off with two ships under Ribault's son. Induced to surrender by false assurances of safeguard, Ribault and his men were also put to the sword in October 1565. The massacre was avenged in kind by Dominique de Gourgues (d. 1583) two years later. See E. and E. Haag, La France protestante (1846-1859); and F. Parkman, Pioneers of France in the New World (new ed., 1899). RIBBECK, JOHANN CARL OTTO (1827-1898), German classical scholar, was born at Erfurt in Saxony on the 23rd of July 1827. Having held professorial appointments at Kiel and Heidelberg, he succeeded his tutor Ritschl in the chair of classical philology at Leipzig, where he died on the i8th of July 1898. Ribbeck was the author of several standard works on the poets and poetry of Rome, the most important of which are the following: Geschichte der romischen Dichtung (2nd ed., 1894-1900); Die romische Tragodie im Zeitalter der Republik (1875); Scaenicae Romanorum Poesis Fragmenta, including the tragic and comic fragments (3rd ed., 1897). As a textual critic he was distinguished by considerable rashness, and never hesitated to alter, rearrange or reject as spurious what failed to reach his standard of excellence. These tendencies are strikingly shown in his editions of the Epistles and Ars Poetica of Horace (1869), theSalires of Juvenal (1859) and in the supplementary essay Der echte und unechte Juvenal (1865). In later years, however, he became much more conservative. His edition of Virgil (2nd ed., 1894-1895), although only critical, is a work of great erudition, especially the Prolegomena. His biography of Ritschl (1879-1881) is one of the best works of its kind. The influence of his tutor may be seen in Ribbeck's critical edition of the Miles Gloriosus of Plautus, and Beitrage zur Lehre von den lateinischen Partikeln, a work of much promise, which causes regret that he did not publish further results of his studies in that direction. His miscellaneous Reden und Vortriige were published after his death (Leipzig, 1899). He took great interest in the monumental Thesaurus Linguae Latinae, and it was chiefly owing to his efforts that the government of Saxony was induced to assist its production by a considerable subsidy. Xhe chief authority for his life is Otto Ribbeck; tin BUd seines Lebens aus seinen Briefen (1901), ed. by Emma Ribbeck. RIBBON-FISHES (Trachypteridae), a family of marine fishes readily recognized by their long, compressed, tape-like body, short head, narrow mouth and feeble dentition. A high dorsal fin occupies the whole length of the back; an anal is absent, and the caudal, if present, consists of two fascicles of rays of which the upper is prolonged and directed upwards. The pectoral fins are small, the ventrals composed of several rays, or of one long ray only. Ribbon-fishes possess all the characteristics of fishes living at very great depths. They are RIBBONISM— RIBBONS 283 extremely fragile when found floating on the surface or thrown ashore, and rarely in an uninjured condition; the rays of their FIG. i. — Trachypterus taenia. fins especially, and the membrane connecting them, are of a very delicate and brittle structure. In young ribbon-fishes some of the fin-rays are prolonged in an extraordinary degree, and sometimes provided with appendages (see fig. 2). There FIG. 2. — Young Trachypterus. are only two genera in the family, Regalecus, the oar-fish, and Trachypterus. In the former the length of the body is about fifteen times its depth. The head likewise is compressed, short, resembling in its form that of a herring; the eye is large; the mouth is small, and provided with very feeble teeth. A long many-rayed dorsal fin, of which the very long anterior rays form a kind of high crest, extends from the top of the head to the end of the tail; the anal and perhaps the caudal fins are absent; but the ventrals (and by this the oar-fish is distinguished from the other ribbon-fishes) are developed into a pair of long filaments, which terminate in a paddle-shaped extremity, but are too flexible to assist in locomotion. The whole body is covered with a layer of silvery epidermoid sub- stance, which easily comes off and adheres to other objects. FIG 3. — Oar-fish. Oar-fishes are the largest deep-sea fishes known, the majority ol the specimens observed measuring 12 ft. in length; but some are recorded to have exceeded 20 ft. Their range in the great depths of the ocean seems to extend over all seas, but, however numerous they may be in the depths which are their home, it is only by ran accident that specimens reach the su'rface. Thus from the coasts o Great Britain only about twenty captures are known in the long space of a century and a half, and not more than thirteen from those of Norway. Oar-fishes have been considered by naturalists to havr given rise to some of the tales of " sea-serpents," but their size as well is the facility with which they are secured when observed render this solution of the question of the existence of such a creature im- probable. When they rise to the surface of the water they are either lead or in a helpless and dying condition. The ligaments and tissues :>y which the bones and muscles were held together whilst the fish ived under the immense pressure of great depths have then become oosened and torn by the expansion of the internal gases; and it is only with difficulty that the specimens can be taken entire out of the water, and preserved afterwards. Every specimen found has been more or less mutilated; and especially the terminal portion of the ail, which seems to end in a delicate tapering filament, has never >een perfect; — it is perhaps usually lost as a useless appendage at a much earlier period of the life of the fish. Of Trachypterus, specimens have been taken in the Atlantic, the Mediterranean, at Mauritius and in the Pacific. The species from the Atlantic has occurred chiefly on the northern coasts, Iceland, Scandinavia, Orkneys and Scotland. It is known as T. arcticus, in English the deal-fish; its Icelandic name is Vagmaer. Its length is 5 to 8 ft. Specimens seem usually to be driven to the shore by gales in winter, and are sometimes left by the tide. S. Nilsson, however, n Scandinavia observed a living specimen in two or three fathoms of water moving something like a flat-fish with one side turned obliquely upwards. RIBBONISM, the name given to an Irish secret-society movement, which began at the end of the i8th century in opposition to the Orangemen (q.v.), and which was represented ay various associations under different names, organized in odges, and recruited all over Ireland from the lowest classes of the people. The actual name of Ribbonism (from a green aadge worn by its members) became attached to the movement later, about 1826; and, after it had grown to its height about 1855, it declined in force, and was practically 'at an end in its old form when in 1871 the Westmeath Act declared Ribbonism illegal. See also under IRELAND: History. RIBBONS. By this name are designated narrow webs, properly of silk, not exceeding nine inches in width, used primarily for binding and tying in connexion with dress, but also now applied for innumerable useful, ornamental and symbolical purposes. Along with that of tapes, fringes and other small- wares, the manufacture of ribbons forms a special department of the textile industries. The essential feature of a ribbon loom is the simultaneous weaving in one loom frame of two or more webs, going up to as many as forty narrow fabrics in modern looms. To effect the conjoined throwing of all the shuttles and the various other movements of the loom, the automatic action of the power-loom is necessary; and it is a remarkable fact that the self-acting ribbon loom was known and extensively used more than a century before the famous invention of Cartwright. A loom in which several narrow webs could be woven at one time is mentioned as having been working in Dantzig towards the end of the i6th century. Similar looms were at work in Leiden in 1620, where their use gave rise to so much discontent and rioting on the part of the weavers that the states-general had to prohibit their use. The prohibition was renewed at various intervals throughout the century, and in the same interval the use of the ribbon loom was interdicted in most of the principal industrial centres of Europe. About 1676, under the name of the Dutch loom or engine loom, it was brought to London; and, although its introduction there caused some disturbance, it does not appear to have been pro- hibited. In 1745, John Kay, the inventor of the fly -shuttle, obtained, conjointly with Joseph Stell, a patent for im- provements in the ribbon loom; and since that period it has benefited by the inventions applied to weaving machinery generally. Ribbon-weaving is known to have been established near St Etienne (dep. Loire) so early as the nth century, and that town has remained the headquarters of the industry. During the Huguenot troubles, ribbon-weavers from St Etienne settled at Basel and there established an industry which in modern times has rivalled that of the original seat of the trade. Crefeld is the centre of the German ribbon industry, the manufacture of black velvet ribbon being there a specialty. In England Coventry is the most important seat of ribbon-making, which is also prose- cuted at Norwich and Leicester. 284 RIBEIRA— RIBERA RIBEIRA, a town of north-western Spain, in the province of Corunna, on the extreme south-west of the peninsula formed between the river of Muros y Noya and Arosa Bay. Pop. (1000) 12,218. Ribeira is in a hilly country, abounding in wheat, wine, fruit, fish and game. Its port is Santa Eugenia de Ribeira, on Arosa Bay. The population is chiefly occupied in agriculture, cattle-breeding and fisheries. RIBEIRO, BERNARDIM (1482-1552), the father of bucolic prose and verse in Portugal, was a native of Torrao in the Alemtejo. His father, Damiao Ribeiro, was implicated in the conspiracy against King John II. in 1484, and had to flee to Castile, whereupon young Bernardim and his mother took refuge with their relations Antonio Zagalo and D. Ignez Zagalo at the Quinta dos Lobos, near Cintra. When King Manoel came to the throne in 1495, he rehabilitated the families persecuted by his predecessor, and Ribeiro was able to leave his retreat and return to Torrao. Meanwhile D. Ignez had married a rich landowner of Estremoz, and in 1503 she was summoned to court and appointed one of the attendants to the Infanta D. Beatriz. Ribeiro accompanied her, and through her influence the king took him under his protection and sent him to the university of Lisbon, where he studied from 1506 to 1512. When he obtained his degree in law, the king showed him further favour by appointing him to the post of Escrivao da Camara, or secretary, and later by bestowing on him the habit of the military order by Sao Thiago. Ribeiro's poetic career commenced with his coming to court, and his early verses are to be found in the Cancioneiro Geral of Garcia de Resende (?.».). He took part in the historic Seroes do Pa$o, or palace evening 'entertainments, which largely consisted of poetical improvisations; there he met and earned the friendship of the poets Sa de Miranda (q.v.) and Christovao Falcao (q.v.), who became his literary comrades and the confidants of his romance, in which hope deferred and bitter disappointment ended in tragedy. Ribeiro had early conceived a violent passion for his cousin, D. Joanna Zagalo, the daughter of his protectress, D. Ignez; but, though she seems to have returned it, her family opposed her marriage to a singer and dreamer with small means and prospects, and finally compelled her to wed a rich man, one Pero Gato. When the latter met a violent death shortly afterwards, D. Joanna retired to a house in the country, and it is alleged that Ribeiro visited her, and that their amour resulted in the birth of a child. All we know positively, however, is that in 1521 the lady went into seclusion in the convent of St Clare at Estremoz, where she fell a victim to a violent form of insanity, and that she died there some years later. It is further alleged that Ribeiro's conduct had caused a scandal which led the king to deprive him of his office and exile him. But the loss of position and income can have added very little to the poignant grief of such a true lover and profound idealist as Bernardim Ribeiro. He had poured out his heart in five beautiful eclogues, the earliest in Portuguese, written in the popular octosyllabic verse; and now, hopeless of the future and broken in spirit, he decided to go to Italy, for a poet the land of promise. He started early in 1522, and travelled widely in the peninsula, and during his stay he wrote his moving knightly and pastoral romance Menina e Moi;a, in which he related the story of his unfortunate passion, personifying himself under the anagram of " Bimnarder," and D. Ignez under that of " Aonia." When he returned home in 1524, the new king, John III., restored him to his former post, and it is said that he paid a last visit to his love at St Clare's convent and found her in a fit of raving madness. This no doubt preyed on a mind already unhinged by trouble, and hastened the decline of his mental powers, which had already commenced. About 1534 a long illness supervened, and the years that elapsed between that year and his death may be described as the night of his soul. He was quite unable to fulfil the duties of his office, and in 1 549 the king bestowed upon him a pension for his support; but he did not live long to enjoy it, for in 1552 he died insane in All Saints Hospital in Lisbon. The Menina e Mo$a was not printed until after Ribeiro's death, and then first in Ferrara in 1554. On its appearance the book made such a sensation that its reading was forbidden, because, though it contained nothing heterodox, it disclosed a family tragedy which the allegory could not hide. It is divided into two parts, the first of which is certainly the work of Ribeiro, while as to the second opinion is divided, though Dr Theophilo Braga considers it genuine and explains its progressive lack of lucidity and order by the mental illness of the author. The first part has been ably edited by Dr Jose Pessanha (Oporto, 1891). Ribeiro's verses, including his five eclogues, which for their sincerity of feeling, simple diction and chaste form are unsurpassed in Portuguese literature, were reprinted in a limited ddition de luxe by Dr Xavier da Cunha (Lisbon, 1886). AUTHORITIES. — Visconde Sanches de Baena, Bernardim Ribeiro (Lisbon, 1895) ; Dr Theophilo Braga, Bernardim Ribeiro e o Bucolismo (Oporto, 1 897) , containing a full analysis of Ribeiro's novel (sometimes called the Saudades, though it is more commonly described, as here, by the initial words of the story, Menina e Mo$a). (E. PR.) RIBERA, GIUSEPPE (1588-1656), commonly called Lo SPAGNOLETTO, or the Little Spaniard, a leading painter of the Neapolitan or partly of the Spanish school, was born near Valencia in Spain, at Xativa, now named S. Felipe, on i2th January 1588. His parents intended him for a literary or learned career; but he neglected the regular studies, and entered the school of the Spanish painter Francisco Ribalta. Fired with a longing to study art in Italy, he somehow made his way to Rome. Early in the I7th century a cardinal noticed him in the streets of Rome drawing from the frescoes on a palace fagade; he took up the ragged stripling and housed him in his mansion. Artists had then already bestowed upon the alien student, who was perpetually copying all sorts of objects in art and in nature, the nickname of Lo Spagnoletto. In the cardinal's household Ribera was comfortable but dis- satisfied, and one day he decamped. He then betook himself to the famous painter Michelangelo da Caravaggio, the head of the naturalist school, called also -the school of the Tenebrosi, or shadow-painters, owing to the excessive contrasts of light and shade which marked their style. The Italian master gave every encouragement to the Spaniard, but not for long, as he died in 1609. Ribera, who had in the first instance studied chiefly from Raphael and the Caracci, had by this time acquired so much mastery over the tenebroso style that his performances were barely distinguishable from Caravaggio's own. He now went to Parma, and worked after the frescoes of Correggio with great zeal and efficiency: in the museum of Madrid is his " Jacob's Ladder," which is regarded as his chef-d'ceuvre in this manner. From Parma Spagnoletto returned to Rome, where he resumed the style of Caravaggio, and shortly after- wards he migrated to Naples, which became his permanent [home. Ribera was as yet still poor and inconspicuous, but a rich picture-dealer in Naples soon discerned in him all the stuff of a successful painter, and gave him his daughter in marriage. This was the turning-point in the Spaniard's fortunes. He painted a " Martyrdom of St Bartholomew," which the father- in-law exhibited from his balcony to a rapidly increasing and admiring crowd. The popular excitement grew to so noisy a height as to attract the attention of the Spanish viceroy, the Count de Monterey. From this nobleman and from the king of Spain, Philip IV., commissions now flowed in upon Ribera. With prosperity came grasping and jealous selfishness. Spagno- letto, chief in a triumvirate of greed, the " Cabal of Naples," his abettors being a Greek painter, Belisario Corenzio, and a Neapolitan, Giambattista Caracciolo, determined that Naples should be an artistic monopoly; by intrigue, terrorizing and personal violence on occasion they kept aloof all competitors. Annibale Caracci, tjie Cavalier d'Arpino, Guide, Domenichino, all of them successively invited to work in Naples, found the place too hot to hold them. The cabal ended at the time of Caracciolo's death in 1641. The close of Ribera's triumphant career has been variously related. If we are to believe Dominici, the historian of Nea- politan art, he totally disappeared from Naples in 1648 and RIBOT, A. F. J.— RIBOT, T. .85 was no more heard of — this being the sequel of the abduction by Don John of Austria, son of Philip IV., of the painter's beautiful only daughter Maria Rosa. But these assertions have not availed to displace the earlier and well-authenticated statement that Ribera died peaceably and wealthy in Naples in 1656. His own signature on his pictures is constantly " Jusepe de Ribera, Espanol." His daughter, so far from being disgraced by an abduction, married a Spanish nobleman who became a minister of the viceroy. The pictorial- style of Spagnoletto is extremely powerful. In his earlier style, founded (as we have seen) sometimes on Caravaggio and sometimes on the wholly diverse method of Correggio, the study of Spanish and Venetian masters can likewise be traced. Along with his massive and predominating shadows, he retained from first to last great strength of local colouring. His forms, though ordinary and partly gross, are correct; the impression of his works gloomy and startling. He delighted in subjects of horror. Salvator Rosa and Luca Giordano were his most distinguished pupils; also Giovanni Do, Enrico Fiammingo, Michelangelo Fracanzani, and Aniello Falcone, who was the first considerable painter of battle-pieces. Among Ribera's principal works should be named " St Januarius Emerging from the Furnace," in the cathedral of Naples; the " Descent from the Cross," in the Neapolitan Certosa, generally regarded as his masterpiece; the " Adoration of the Shepherds " (a late work, 1650), now in the Louvre; the " Martyrdom of St Bartholomew," in the museum of Madrid; the " Pieta," in the sacristy of S. Martino, Naples. His mythologic subjects are generally unpleasant — such as the " Silenus," in the Studj Gallery of Naples, and " Venus Lamenting over Adonis," in the Corsini Gallery of Rome. The Louvre contains altogether twenty-five of his paintings; the National Gallery, London, two — one of them, a " Peita," being an excellent though not exactly a leading specimen. He executed several fine male portraits; among others his own likeness, now in the collection at Alton Towers. He also produced twenty-six etchings, ably treated. For the use of his pupils, he drew a number of ele- mentary designs, which in 1650 were etched by Francisco Fernandez, and which continued much in vogue for a long while among Spanish and French painters and students. Besides the work of Dominici already referred to (1840-46), the Diccionario Historico of Cean Bermudez is a principal authority regarding Ribera and his works; also E. de Lalaing, " Ribera " (in Histoire de quatre grands peintres), 1888. (W. M. R.) RIBOT, ALEXANDRE FELIX JOSEPH (1842- ), French statesman, was born at St Omer on 7th February 1842. After a brilliant career at the university of Paris, where he was laureat of the faculty of law, he rapidly made his mark at the bar. He was secretary of the conference of advocates and one of the founders of the Sociele de legislation comparee. During 1875 and 1876 he was successively director of criminal affairs and secretary-general at the ministry of justice. In 1877 he made his entry into political life by the conspicuous part he played on the committee of legal resistance during the Broglie ministry, and in the following year he was returned to the chamber as a moderate republican member for Boulogne, in his native department of Pas-de-Calais. His impassioned yet reasoned eloquence gave him an influence which was increased by his articles in the Parlement in which he opposed violent measures against the unauthorized congregations. He devoted himself especially to financial questions, and in 1882 was reporter of the budget. He became one of the most prominent republican opponents of the Radical party, distinguishing himself by his attacks on the short-lived Gambetta ministry. He refused to vote the credits demanded by the Ferry cabinet for the Tongking expedition, and shared with M. Clemenceau in the overthrow of the ministry in 1885. At the general election of that year he was one of the victims of the Republican rout in the Pas-de-Calais, and did not re-enter the chamber till 1887. After 1889 he sat for St Omer. His fear of the Boulangist movement converted him to the policy of " Re- publican Concentration," and he entered office in 1890 as foreign minister in the Freycinet cabinet. He had an intimate acquaintance and sympathy with English institutions, and two of his published works — an address, Biographic de Lord Erskine (1866), and fiude sur I'acte du 5 awil 1873 pour I'itablisscmcnt .d'une cour supreme de justice en Angleterre (1874) — deal with English questions; he also gave a fresh and highly important direction to French policy by the understanding with Russia, which was declared to the world by the visit of the French fleet to Cronstadt in 1891, and which subsequently ripened into a formal treaty of alliance. He retained his post in the Loubet ministry (February-November 1892), and on its defeat became himself president of the council, retaining the direction of foreign affairs. The government resigned in March 1893 on the refusal of the chamber to accept the Senate's amendments to the budget. On the election of F61ix Faure as president of the Republic in January 1895, M. Ribot again became premier and minister of finance. On the loth of June he was able to make the first official announcement of a definite alliance with Russia. On the 3oth of October the government was defeated on the question of the Chemin de fer du Sud, and resigned office. The real reason of its fall was the mismanagement of the Madagascar expedition, the cost of which in men and money exceeded all expectations, and the alarming social conditions at home, as indicated by the strike at Carmaux. After the fall of the Meline ministry in 1898 M. Ribot tried in vain to form a cabinet of " conciliation." He was elected, at the end of 1898, president of the important commission on education, in which he advocated the adoption of a modern system of education. The policy of the Waldeck-Rousseau ministry on the religious teaching congregations broke .up the Republican party, and M. Ribot was among the seceders; but at the general election of 1902, though he himself secured re-election, his policy suffered a severe check. He actively opposed the policy of the Combes ministry and denounced the alliance with M. Jaures, and on the I3th of January 1905 he was one of the leaders of the opposition which brought about the fall of the cabinet. Although he had been most violent in denouncing the anti-clerical policy of the Combes cabinet, he now announced his willingness to> recognize a new regime to replace the Concordat, and gave the government his support in the establishment of the Associations cultuedes, while he secured some mitigation of the severities attending the separa- tion. He was re-elected deputy for St Omer in 1906. In the same year he became a member of the French Academy in succession to the due d'Audiffret-Pasquier; he was already a member of the Academy of Moral and Political Science. In justification of his policy in opposition he published in 1905 two volumes of his Discours poliliques. RIBOT, THEODULE (1823-1891), French painter, was born at Breteuil, in Eure, in 1823, and died at Bois Colomoes, near Paris, in September 1891. A pupil nominally of Glaize, but more really of Ribera, of the great Flemings and of Chardin, Theodule Ribot had yet conspicuously his own noble and personal vision, his own intensity of feeling and rich sobriety of performance. Beginning to work seriously at art when he was no longer extremely young, and dying before he was extremely old, Ribot crowded into some thirty or thirty-five years of active practice very varied achievements; and he worked in at least three mediums, oil paint, pencil or crayon draughtsmanship and the needle of the etcher. His drawings were sometimes " complete in themselves," and sometimes fragmentary but powerful preparations for painted canvases. The etchings, of which there are only about a couple of dozen, are of the middle period of his practice; they show a diversity of method as well as of theme; the work in the well-nigh Velazquez-like " Priere " — a group of girl children — contrast- ing strongly with that process almost of outline alone, which he employed in the brilliant little group of prints which record his vision of the character and humours of cooks and kitchen- boys. In etching, the method varied with .the theme — not with the period. It is quite otherwise with the paintings. Here the earlier work, irrespective of its subject, is the drier 286 RIBOT, T. A.— RICARDO and the more austere; the later work, irrespective of its subject, the freer and broader. But even in that which is quite early there is a curious and impressive intensity of conception and presentation. His visions of elderly women and young girls remain upon the memory. His women, wrinkled and worn, have had the experience of a hard and grinding world; his children, his young girls, are the quintessence of innocence and happy hopefulness, and life is a jest to his boys. His religious pieces, in which Ribera affected him, have conviction and force. Into portraits and into character studies, but more especially into genre subjects, Ribot was apt to introduce Still-life, and to make much of it. Herein, as in his sense of homeliness, he resembled Chardin. But again, Chardin-like, he painted Still-life for its own sake, by itself, and always with an extraordinary sense of the solidity and form, the texture and the hue, and, it must be added also, the very charm of matter. (F. WE.) RIBOT, THEODULE ARMAND (1830-1903), French psycho- logist, was born at Guingamp on the i8th of December 1839, and was educated at the Lycee de St Brieuc. In 1856 he began to teach, and was admitted to the Ecole Normale Superieure in 1862. In 1885 he gave a course of lectures on " Experi- mental Psychology " at the Sorbonne, and in 1888 was ap- pointed professor of that subject at the College of France. His thesis for his doctor's degree, republished in 1882, H&redite: etude psyckologique (sth ed., 1889), is his most important and best known book. Following the experimental and synthetic methods, he has brought together a large number of instances of inherited peculiarities; he pays particular attention to the physical element of mental life, ignoring all spiritual or non- material factors in man. In his work on La Psychologic anglaise coniemporaine (1870), he shows his sympathy with the sensationalist school, and again in his translation of Herbert Spencer's Principles of Psychology. Besides numerous articles, he has written on Schopenhauer, Philosophic de Schopenhauer (1874; 7th ed., 1896), and on the contemporary psychology of Germany (La Psychologie allemande contemporaine, 1879; i3th ed., 1898), also four little monographs on Les Maladies de la memoire (1881; I3th ed., 1898); De la volonlt (1883; i4th ed., 1899); De la personnalitl (1885; Sth ed., 1899); and La Psychologie de I' attention (1888), which supply useful data to the student of mental disease. Other works by him are: — La Psychologie des sentiments (1896); L' Evolution des idees generales (1897); Essai sur V imagination creatrice (1900); La Logique des sentiments (1904); Essai sur les passions (1906). Of the above the following have been translated into English: — English Psychology (1873); Heredity: a Psycho- logical Study of its Phenomena, Laws, Causes, and Consequences (1875); Diseases of Memory: An Essay in the Positive Psychology (1882); Diseases of the Will (New York, 1884); German Psychology of to-day, tr. J. M. Baldwin (New York, 1886) ; The Psychology of Atten- tion (Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1890); Diseases of Personality (Chicago, 1895); The Psychology of the Emotions (1897); The Evolution of General Ideas, tr. F. A. Welby (Chicago, 1899); Essay on the Creative Imagination, tr. A. H. N. Baron (1906). RICARD, LOUIS GUSTAVE (1823-1873), French painter, was born in Marseilles in 1823, and studied first under Auber in his native town, and subsequently under Coignet in Paris. The formation of his masterly, distinguished style in portraiture was, however, due rather to ten years' intelligent copying of the old masters at the Louvre and at the Italian galleries, than to any school training. He was a master of technique, and his portraits — about two hundred — reveal an extra- ordinary insight into the character of his sitters. Never- theless, for some time after his death his name was almost forgotten by the public, and it is only of quite recent years that he has been conceded the position among the leading masters of the modern French school which is his due. A portrait of himself, and one of Alfred de Musset, are at the Luxembourg Gallery. Among his best known works are the portrait of his mother, and those of the painters Fromentin, Heilbuth and Chaplin. See Gustave Ricard, by Camille Mauclair (Paris, Librairie de I'arf). RICARDO, DAVID (1772-1823), English economist, was born in London on the igth of April 1772, of Jewish origin. His father, who was of Dutch birth, bore an honourable character and was a successful member of the Stock Exchange. At the age of fourteen Ricardo entered his father's office, where he showed much aptitude for business. About the time when he attained his majority he abandoned the Hebrew faith and conformed to the Anglican Church, a change which seems to have been connected with his marriage to Miss Wilkinson, which took place in 1793. In consequence of the step thus taken he was separated from his family and thrown on his own resources. His ability and uprightness were known, and he at once entered on such a successful career in the pro- fession to which he had been brought up that at the age of twenty-five, we are told, he was already rich. He now began to occupy himself with scientific pursuits, and gave some atten- tion to mathematics as well as to chemistry and mineralogy; but, having met with Adam Smith's great work, he threw himself with ardour into the study of political economy. His first publication (1809) was The High Price of Bullion a Proof of the Depreciation of Bank Notes. This tract was an expansion of a series of articles which the author had con- tributed to the Morning Chronicle. It gave a fresh stimulus to the controversy, which had for some time been discontinued, respecting the resumption of cash payments, and indirectly led to the appointment of a committee of the House of Commons, commonly known as the Bullion Committee, to consider the whole question. The report of the committee asserted the same views which Ricardo had put forward, and recommended the repeal of the Bank Restriction Act. Not- withstanding this, the House of Commons declared in the teeth of the facts that paper had undergone no depreciation. Ricardo's first tract, as well as another on the same subject, attracted much attention. In 1811 he made the acquaintance of James Mill, whose introduction to him arose out of the publication of Mill's tract entitled Commerce Defended. Whilst Mill doubtless largely affected his political ideas, he was, on his side, under obligations to Ricardo in the purely economic field; Mill said in 1823 that he himself and J. R. M'Culloch were Ricardo's disciples, and, he added, his only genuine ones. In 1815, when the Corn Laws were under discussion, he published his Essay on the Influence of a Low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock. This was directed against a recent tract by Malthus entitled Grounds of an Opinion on the Policy of Restraining the Free Importation of Foreign Corn. The reasonings .of the essay are based on the theory of rent which has often been called by the name of Ricardo; but the author distinctly states that it was not due to him. " In all that I have said concerning the origin and progress of rent I have briefly repeated, and endeavoured to elucidate, the principles which Malthus has so ably laid down on the same subject in his Inquiry into the Nature and Progress of Rent." We now know that the theory had been fully stated, before the time of Malthus, by Anderson; it is in any case clear that it was no discovery of Ricardo. \Ricardo states in this essay a set of propositions, most of them deductions from the theory of rent, which are in substance the same as those afterwards embodied in the Principles, and regarded as characteristic of his system, such as that increase of wages does not raise prices; that profits can be raised only by a fall in wages and diminished only by a rise in wages; and that profits, in the whole progress of society, are determined by the cost of the production of the food which is raised at the greatest expense. It does not appear that, excepting the theory of foreign trade, anything of the nature of fundamental doctrine, as distinct from the special subjects of banking and taxation, is laid down in the Principles which does not already appear in this tract. We find in it, too, the same exclusive regard to the interest of the capitalist class, and the same identification of their interest with that of the whole nation, which are generally characteristic of his writings. RICASOLI 287 In the Proposals for an Economical and Secure Currency (1816) he first disposes of the chimera of a currency without a specific standard, and pronounces in favour of a single metal, with a preference for silver, as the standard. Ricardo's chief work, Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, appeared in 1817. The fundamental doctrine of this work is that, on the hypothesis of free competition, exchange value is determined by the labour expended in production, — a proposition not new, nor, except with considerable limitation and explanation, true, and of little practical use, as " amount of labour " is a vague expression, and the thing intended is incapable of exact estimation. Ricardo's theory of dis- tribution has been briefly enunciated as follows: " (i) The demand for food determines the margin of cultivation; (2) this margin determines rent; (3) the amount necessary to maintain the labourer determines wages; (4) the difference between the amount produced by a given quantity of labour at the margin and the wages of that labour determines profit." These theorems are too absolutely stated, and require much modification to adapt them to real life. His theory of foreign trade has been embodied in the two propositions: " (i) Inter- national values are not determined in the same way as domestic values; (2) the medium of exchange is distributed so as to bring trade to the condition it would be in if it were conducted by barter." A considerable portion of the work is devoted to a study of taxation, which requires to be considered as a part of the problem of distribution. A tax is not always paid by those on whom it is imposed; it is therefore necessary to determine the ultimate, as distinguished from the immediate, incidence of every 'form of [taxation. Smith had already dealt with this question; Ricardo develops and criticizes his results. The conclusions at which he arrives are in the main as follows: a tax on raw produce falls on the consumer, but will also diminish profits; a tax on rents on the landlord; taxes on houses will be divided between the occupier and the ground landlord; taxes on profits will be paid by the consumer, and taxes on wages by the capitalist. In 1819 Ricardo, having retired from business and become a landed proprietor, entered parliament as member for Portarlington. He was at first diffident and embarrassed in speaking, but gradually overcame these difficulties, and was heard with much attention and deference, especially when he addressed the House on economic questions. He probably contributed in a considerable degree to bringing about the change of opinion on the question of free trade which ulti- mately led to the legislation of Sir Robert Peel on that subject. In 1820 he contributed to the supplement of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (6th ed.) an " Essay on the Funding System." In this besides giving an historical account (founded on Dr Robert Hamilton's valuable work On the National Debt, 1813, 3rd ed., 1818) of the several successive forms of the sinking fund, he urges that nations should defray their expenses, whether ordinary or extraordinary, at the time when they are incurred, instead of providing for them by loans. In 1822 he published a tract On Protection to Agriculture, which is an able application to controversy of the general principles laid down in his systematic work. Its arguments and conclusions are therefore subject to the same limitations which those fundamental principles require. In his Plan for the Establishment of a National Bank, published posthumously in 1824, he proposes that the issue of the paper currency should be taken out of the hands of the Bank of England and vested in commissioners appointed by the government. The tract describes in detail the measures to be adopted for the introduction and working of the system. A certain step towards realizing the objects of his scheme, though on different lines from Ricardo's, was taken in Sir Robert Peel's act of 1844, by which the discount business of 'the bank was separated from the issue department. Ricardo died on the nth of September 1823, at bis seat (Gatcomb Park) in Gloucestershire, from a cerebral affection resulting from disease of the ear. James Mill, who was inti- mately acquainted with him, says (in a letter to Napier of November 1818) that he knew not a better man, and on the occasion of his death published a highly eulogistic notice of him in the Morning Chronicle. A lectureship on political economy, to exist for ten years, was founded in commemoration of him, M'Culloch being chosen to fill it. In forming a general judgment respecting Ricardo, we must have in view not so much the minor writings as the Principles, in which his economic system is expounded as a whole. By a study of this work we are led 'to the conclusion that he was an economist only, not at all a social philosopher in the wider sense, like Adam Smith or John Mill. He had great acuteness, but little breadth. For any large treatment of moral and political questions he seems to have been alike by nature and preparation unfitted; and there is no evidence of his having had any but the most ordinary and narrow views of the great social problems. He shows no trace of that hearty sympathy with the working classes which breaks out in several passages of the Wealth of Nations; we ought, perhaps, with Held, to regard it as a merit in Ricardo that he does not cover with fine phrases his deficiency in warmth of social sentiment. The idea of the active capitalist having any duties towards his employes never seems to occur to him; the labourer is, in fact, merely an instrument in the hands of the capitalist, a pawn in the game he plays. He first introduced into economics on a great scale the method of deduction from a priori assumptions. The con- clusions so arrived at have often been treated as if they were directly applicable to real life, and indeed to the economic phenomena of all times and places. But the truth of Ricardo's theorems is now by his warmest admirers admitted to be hypothetical only. Bagehot seems right in believing that Ricardo himself had no consciousness of the limitations to which his doctrines are subject. Be this as it may, we now see that the only basis on which these doctrines could be allowed to stand as a permanent part of economic science is that on which they are placed by Roscher, namely, as a stage in the preparatory work of the economist, who, beginning with such abstractions, afterwards turns from them, not in practice merely, but in the completed theory, to real life and men as they actually are or have been. The criticisms to which Ricardo's general economic scheme is open do not hold with respect to his treatment of the subjects of currency and banking. These form precisely that branch of economics into which moral ideas (beyond the plain pre- scriptions of honesty) can scarcely be said to enter, and where the operation of purely mercantile principles is most immediate and invariable. They were, besides, the departments of the study to which Ricardo's early training and practical habits led him to give special attention; and they have a lasting value independent of his systematic construction. Ricardo's collected works were published, with a notice of his life and writings, by J. R. M'Culloch in 1846. The Principles have been edited (with an introduction, biblio- graphy and notes) by E. C. K. Conner, 1891. See also Letters to H. Trower and Others, ed. J. Bonar and J. H. Hollander, 1809; Letters to J. R. M'Culloch, ed. J. H. Hollander, 1895; Letters to T. R. Malthus, ed. J. Bonar, 1887. A French translation of the Principles by Constancio, with notes by Say, appeared in 1818; the whole works, translated by Constancio and Fonteyraud, form vol. xiii. (1847) of the Collection des principaux economises, where they are accompanied by the notes of Say, Malthus, Sismondi, Rossi, &c. The Principlef was first " naturalized " in Germany, says Roscher (though another version by Von Schmid had pre- viously appeared), by Edward Baumstark in his David Ricardo's Grundgesetze der Volkswrthschaft und der Besteuerung ubersetzt und erldutert (1837), which Roscher highly commends, not only for the excellence of the rendering, but for the value of the explana- tions and criticisms which are added. RICASOLI, BETTING, BARON (1800-1880), Italian statesman, was born at Broglio on the ipth of March 1809. Left an orphan at eighteen, with an estate heavily encumbered, he was by special decree of the grand duke of Tuscany declared of age, and 288 RICCATI— RICCI entrusted with the guardianship of his younger brothers. In- terrupting his studies, he withdrew to Broglio, and by careful management disencumbered the family possessions. In 1847 he founded the journal La Patria, and addressed to the grand duke a memorial suggesting remedies for the difficulties of the state. In 1848 he was elected Gonfaloniere of Florence, but resigned on account of the anti-Liberal tendencies of the grand duke. As Tuscan minister of the interior in 1859 he promoted the union of Tuscany with Piedmont, which took place on"the 1 2th of March 1860. Elected Italian deputy in 1861 , he succeeded Cavour in the premiership. As premier he admitted the Garibal- dian volunteers to the regular army, revoked the decree of exile against Mazzini, and attempted reconciliation with the Vatican; but his efforts were rendered ineffectual by the non possumus of the pope. Disdainful of the intrigues of his rival Rattazzi, he found himself obliged in 1862 to resign office, but returned to power in 1866. On this occasion he refused Napoleon lll.'s offer to cede Venetia to Italy, on condition that Italy should abandon the Prussian alliance, and also refused the Prussian decoration of the Black Eagle because Lamarmora, author of the alliance, was not to receive it. Upon the departure of the French troops from Rome at the end of 1866 he again attempted to conciliate the Vatican with a convention, in virtue of which Italy would have restored to the Church the property of the suppressed religious orders in return for the gradual payment of £24,000,000. In order to mollify the Vatican he conceded the exequatur to forty-five bishops inimical to the Italian regime. The Vatican accepted his proposal, but the Italian Chamber proved refractory, and, though dissolved by Ricasoli, returned more hostile than before. Without waiting for a vote, Ricasoli resigned office and thenceforward practically disappeared from political life, speaking in the Chamber only upon rare occasions. He died at Broglio on the 23rd of October 1880. His private life and public career were marked by the utmost integrity, and by a rigid austerity which earned him the name of the " iron baron." In spite of the failure of his ecclesiastical scheme, he remains one of the most noteworthy figures of the Italian Risorgimento. See Tabarrini and Gotti, Lettere e documenti del barone Bettino Ricasoli, 10 vols. (Florence, 1886-1894); Passerini, Genealogia e storia della famiglia Ricasoli (ibid. 1861); Gotti, Vita del barone Bettino Ricasoli (ibid. 1894). (H. W. S.) RICCATI, JACOPO FRANCESCO, COUNT (1676-1754), Italian mathematician, was born at Venice on the 8th of May 1676, and died at Treviso on the isth of April 1754. He studied at the university of Padua, where he graduated in 1696. His favourite pursuits were scientific, and his authority on all questions of practical science was referred to by the senate of Venice. He corresponded with many of the European savants of his day, and contributed largely to the Acta Erudi- torum of Leipzig. He was offered the presidency of the academy of science of St Petersburg; but he declined, preferring the leisure and independence of life in Italy. Riccati's name is best known in connexion with his problem called Riccati's equation, published in the Acta Eruditorum, September 1724. A very complete account of this equation and its various transforma- tions was given by J. W. L. Glaisher in the Phil. Trans. (1881). After Riccati's death his works were collected by his sons and published (1758) in four volumes. His sons, Vincenzo (1707- 1775) and Giordano (1709-1790), inherited his talents. The former was professor of mathematics at Bologna, and published, among other works, a treatise on the infinitesimal calculus. Giordano was distinguished both as" a mathematician and an architect. RICCI, MATTED (1552-1610), Italian missionary to China, was born of a noble family at Macerata in the March of Ancona on the 7th of October 1552. After some education at a Jesuit college in his native town he went to study law at Rome, where in 1571, in opposition to his father's wishes, he joined the Society of Jesus. In 1577 Ricci and other students offered themselves for the East Indian missions. Ricci, without visiting his family to take leave, proceeded to Portugal. His comrades were Rudolfo Acquaviva, Nicolas Spinola, Francesco Pasio and Michele Ruggieri, all afterwards, like Ricci himself, famous in the Jesuit annals. They arrived at Goa in September 1578. After four years spent in India, Ricci was summoned to the task of opening China to evangelization. f Several fruitless attempts had been made by Xavier, and since his death, to introduce the Church into China, — as by Melchior Nunes of the Jesuit Society operating from Sanchian1 in 1555; by Caspar da Cruz, a Dominican, in that or the follow- ing year; by the Augustinians under Martin Herrada, 1575; and in 1579 by the Franciscans led by Pedro d'Alfaro. In 1571 a house of the Jesuits had been set up at Macao (where the Portuguese were established in 1557), but their attention was then occupied with Japan, and it was not till the arrival at Macao of Alessandro Valignani on a visitation in 1 582 that work in China was really taken up. For this object he had obtained the services first of M. Ruggieri and then of Ricci. After various disappointments they found access to Chow-king-fu on the Si- Kiang or West River of Canton, where the viceroy of the two provinces of Kwang-tung and Kwang-si then had his residence, and by his favour were able to establish themselves there for some years. Their proceedings were very cautious and tentative; they excited the curiosity and interest of even the more intelli- gent Chinese by their clocks, their globes and maps, their books of European engravings, and by Ricci's knowledge of mathe- matics, including dialling and the projection of maps. They conciliated some influential friends, and their reputation spread widely in China. This was facilitated by the Chinese system of transfer of public officers from one province of the empire to another, and in the later movements of the missionaries they frequently met with one -and another of their old acquaintances in office, who were more or less well disposed. Eventually troubles at Chow-king compelled them to seek a new home; and in 1589, with the viceroy's sanction, they migrated to Chang- chow in the northern part of Kwang-tung, not far from the well- known Meiling Pass. During his stay here Ricci was convinced that a mistake had been made in adopting a dress resembling that of the bonzes, a class who were the objects either of superstition or of contempt. With the sanction of the visitor it was ordered that in future the missionaries should adopt the costumes of Chinese literates, and, in fact, they before long adopted Chinese manners altogether. Chang-chow, as a station, did not prove a happy selection, but it was not till 1595 that an opportunity occurred of travelling northward. For some time Ricci's residence was at Nan-chang- fu, the capital of Kiang-si; but in 1598 he was able to proceed under favourable conditions to Nan-king, and thence for the first time to Peking, which had all along been the goal of his missionary ambition. But circumstances were not then pro- pitious, and the party had to return to Nan-king. The fame of the presents which they carried had, however, reached the court, and the Jesuits were summoned north again, and on the 24th of January 1601 they entered the capital. Wan-li, the emperor of the Ming dynasty, in those days lived in seclusion, and saw no one but his women and the eunuchs. But the missionaries were summoned to the palace; their presents were immensely ad- mired, and the emperor had the curiosity to send for portraits of the fathers themselves. They obtained a settlement, with an allowance for subsistence, in Peking, and from this time to the end of his life Ricci's estimation among the Chinese was constantly increasing, as was at the same time the amount of his labours. Visitors thronged the mission house incessantly; and inquiries came to him from all parts of the empire respecting the doctrines which he taught, or the numerous Chinese publications which he issued. This in itself was a greatxburden, as Chinese composition, if wrong impressions are to be avoided, demands extreme care and accuracy. As head of the mission, which now had four stations 1 The island (properly Chang-chuen) on which the Portuguese had a temporary settlement before they got Macao, and on which F. Xavier died in 1552. RICCI 289 in China, he also devoted much time to answering the letters of the priests under him, a matter on which he spared no pains or detail. New converts had to be attended to — always welcomed, and never hustled away. Besides these came the composition of his Chinese books, the teaching of his people and the maintenance of the record of the mission history which had been enjoined upon him by the general of the order, and which he kept well up to date. Thus his labours were wearing and incessant. In May 1610 he broke down, and after an illness of eight days died on the nth of that month. His colleague Pantoja applied to the emperor for a burying-place outside the city. This was granted, with the most honourable official testimonies to the reputation and character of Ricci; and a large building in the neighbourhood of the city was at the same time bestowed upon the mission for their residence. Ricci's work was the foundation of the subsequent success attained by the Roman Catholic Church in China. When the missionaries of other Roman Catholic orders made their way into China, twenty years later, they found great fault with the manner in which certain Chinese practices had been dealt with by the Jesuits, a matter in which Ricci's action and policy had given the tone to the mission in China — though in fact that tone was rather inherent in the Jesuit system than the outcome of individual character, for controversies of an exactly parallel nature arose two generations later in southern India, between the Jesuits and Capuchins, regarding what were called " Malabar rites." The controversy thus kindled in China burned for considerably more than a century with great fierceness.1 The chief points were (i) the lawfulness and expediency of certain terms employed by the Jesuits in naming God Almighty, such as Tien, " Heaven," and Shang-ti, " Supreme Ruler " or " Em- peror," instead of Tien-Chu, " Lord of Heaven," and in particular the erection of inscribed tablets in the churches, on which these terms were made use of;2 (2) in respect to the ceremonial offerings made in honour of Confucius, and of personal ancestors, which Ricci had recognized as merely " civil " observances; (3) the erection of tablets in honour of ancestors in private nouses; and (4), more generally, sanction and favour accorded to ancient Chinese sacred books and philosophical doctrine, as not really trespassing .on Christian faith. Probably no European name of past centuries is so well known in China as that of Li-ma-teu, the form in which the name of Ricci (Ri-cci Mat-tea) was adapted to Chinese usage, and by which he appears in Chinese records.3 The works which he composed in Chinese are numerous; a list of them (apparently by no means complete, however) will be found in Kircher's China Illustrata, and also in Abel Remusat's Nouveaux Me- langes Asialiques (ii. 213-15). They are said to display an aptitude for clothing ideas in a Chinese dress very rare and remarkable in a foreigner. One of the first which attracted 1 The list of the literature of this controversy occupies forty-one columns in M. Cordier's excellent Bibliographic de la Chine. * Compare Browning, The Ring and the Book, x., The Pope, 1589-1603. 3 The name comes forward prominently in the mouth of the emperor Kang-hi, in a dialogue which took place between him and Monsgr. Maigrot, the leader of the anti-Jesuit movement (mentioned in Browning's lines referred to above), at the summer residence in Tartary, August 1706 — a dialogue which the Jesuits have reported with not a little malice: — "Emperor, ' Tell me why dp the people call me Van-sui (10,000 years). The Most Reverend (i.e. Maigrot), ' To express their desire for your Majesty's long life.' Emp. ' Good. You see, then, Chinese words are not always to be taken literally. We pay cult to Confucius and to the dead to express our respect for them. How is that inconsistent with your religion? When did it begin to be so? Is it since Ly-Mattheu's time? Hast thou ever read Ly-Mattheu ? ' The Most Reverend, turning to P. Parenin, whispers, ' Who's he ? ' and learning that it was P. Matteo Ricci, . . . answered the emperor: ' I have not read that book.' Emp. ' Ly-Mattheu and his fellows came hither some two centuries ago; and before their time China never heard anything of the Incarna- tion, anything of Tien-chu, who had not become incarnate in this part of the world. Why then, if it was lawful to call God Tien before Ly-Mattheu's time, should it be improper now?] " — Epistola de Eventu Apostolicae Legationis, scripta a PP. Missionariis . . . ad Praepositum Generalem S. J., An. 1706, I Novembris. attention and reputation among Chinese readers was a Treatise upon Friendship, in the form of a dialogue containing short and pithy paragraphs; this is stated in the De Expeditione to have been suggested during Ricci's stay at Nan-chang by a conversa- tion with the prince of Kien-ngan, who asked questions regarding the laws of friendship in the West. In the early part of his residence at Peking, when enjoying constant intercourse with scholars of high position, Ricci brought out the Tien-chu shih-i, or " Veritable Doctrine of the Lord of Heaven," which deals with the divine character and attributes under eight heads. " This work," says A. Wylie, " contains some acute reasoning in support of the propositions laid down, but the doctrine of faith in Christ is very slightly touched upon. The teachings of Buddhism are vigorously attacked, whilst the author tries to draw a parallel between Christianity and the teachings of the Chinese literati." In 1604 Ricci completed the Erh-shih-wu yen, a series of short articles of moral bearing, but exhibiting little of the essential doctrines of Christianity. Chi-jen shih pien is another of his productions, completed in 1608, and consisting of a record of ten conversations held with Chinese of high position. The subjects are: (i) Years past no [longer ours; (2) Man a sojourner on earth; (3) Advantage of frequent contemplation of eternity; (4) Preparation for judgment by such contempla- tion; (5) The good man not desirous of talking; (6) Abstinence, and its distinction from the prohibition to take life; (7) Self- examination and self-reproof inconsistent with inaction; (8) Future reward and punishment; (9) Prying into futurity hastens calamity; (10) Wealth with covetousness more wretched than poverty with contentment. To this work is appended a translation of eight European hymns, with elucidations, written in 1609. Some of the characteristics thus indicated may have suggested the bitterness of attacks afterwards made upon Ricci's theology. An example of these is found in the work called Anecdotes sur I'ttat de religion dans la Chine (Paris, 1733-35), the author of which (Abbe Villers) speaks of the Tien-chu shih-i in this fashion: " The Jesuit was also so ill versed in the particulars of the faith that, as the holy bishop of Conon, Monsgr. Maigrot, says of him, one need merely read his book on the true religion to convince oneself that he had never imbibed the first elements of theology." . . . Ricci's pointed attacks on Buddhism, and the wide circulation of his books, called forth the opposition of the Buddhist clergy. One of the ablest who took their part was Chu-hang, a priest of Hang-chow, who had abandoned the literary status for the Buddhist cloister. He wrote three articles against the doctrine 9f the missionaries. These were brought to Ricci's notice in an ostensible tone of candour by Yu-chun-he, a high mandarin at the capital. This letter, with Ricci's reply, the three Buddhist declamations and Ricci's confutation, were published in a collected form by the Christian Sen-Kwang-K'e. Another work of Ricci's which attracted attention was the Hsi-kuofa, or " Art of Memory as practised in the West." Ricci was himself a great expert in memoria lechnica, and astonished the Chinese by his performances in this line. He also wrote or edited various Chinese works on geography, the celestial and terrestrial spheres, geometry and arithmetic. And the detailed history of the mission was drawn out by him, which after his death was brought home by P. Nicolas Trigault, and published at Augsburg, and later in a complete form at Lyons under the name De Expeditione Christiana apud Sinas Suscepla, ab Soc. Jesu, Ex P. Mat. Ricci ejusdem Societatis Commenlariis, Trigault himself adding many interesting notes on China and the Chinese. Among the scientific works which Ricci took into China was a set of maps, which at first created great interest, but afterwards disgust when the Chinese came to perceive the insignificant place assigned to the " Middle Kingdom," thrust, as it seemed, into a corner, instead of being set in the centre of the world like the gem in a ring. Ricci, seeing their dissatisfaction, set about constructing a map of the hemisphere on a great scale, so adjusted that China, with its subject states, filled the central XXIII. IO RICCIARELLI— RICE, J. 290 area, and, without deviating from truth of projection, occupied a large space in proportion to the other kingdoms gathered round it. All the names were then entered in Chinese calligraphy. This map obtained immense favour, and was immediately engraved at the expense of the viceroy and widely circulated. In the accompanying cut we have endeavoured to portray this map. The projection adopted is a perspective of the hemisphere as viewed from a point at the distance of one diameter from the surface, and situ- ated on the produc- tion of the radius which passes through the intersection of 115° E. long. (Green- wich) with 30° N. lat. Something near this must have been Li- ma-teu's projection. With a vertex much more distant the de- sired effect would be impaired, and with one nearer neither of the poles would be seen, whilst the exaggeration of China would have been too gross for a professed representation of the hemisphere. The chief facts of Ricci's career are derived from Trigault; some contemporary works on the rites controversy have also been consulted; in the notice of Ricci's Chinese writings valuable matter has been derived from Notes on Chinese Literature by A. Wylie (London and Shanghai, 1867). A number of Ricci's letters are extant in the possession of the family, and access to them was afforded to Giuseppe La Farina, author of the work called La China, considerate, nella sua Storia, &c. (Florence, 1843), by the Marchese Amico Ricci of Macerata, living at Bologna. La Farina's quotations contain nothing of interest. There is a curious Chinese account of Ricci published by Dr Breitschneider in the China Review, iv. 391 sq. (H. Y.) RICCIARELLI, DANIELE (1500-1566), Italian artist, gener- ally called, from the place of his birth, DANIELE DA VOLTERRA, studied painting under Sodoma and Peruzzi. Settling in Rome, he received abundant encouragement. His constant friend, Michelangelo, recommended him on all possible occasions, and he was commissioned to beautify with works of art a chapel in the church of the Trinita, to paint in the Farnese Palace, to execute certain decorations in the Palazzo de' Medici at Navona, and to begin the stucco work and the pictures in the Hall of the Kings. Towards the close of his life he turned his attention to statuary. His last work was a bronze horse intended for an equestrian statue of Henry II. of France. He died in 1 566. The principal extant works of Ricciarelli are at Rome. These are a " St John the Baptist " in the picture gallery of the Capitol, a " Saviour bearing the Cross " in the Palazzo Rospigliosi, and a " Descent from the Cross," his masterpiece, in the church of Trinita de Monti. There is also an " Elijah " at Volterra. RICCOBONI, MARIE JEANNE (1714-1792), whose maiden name was Laboras de Mezieres, was born at Paris in 1714. She married in 1735 Antoine Francois Riccoboni, a comedian and dramatist, from whom she soon separated. She herself was an actress, but did not succeed on the stage. Her works are Lettres de mistress Fanny Butler (1757); the remarkable Hisloire du marquis de Cressy (1758); Milady Juliette Catesby ( 1 7 59-1 760) , like her other books, in letter form ; Ernestine ( 1 798) , which La Harpe thought her masterpiece; and three series of Lettres in the names of Adelaide de Dammartin (comtesse de Sancerre) (2 vols., 1766), Elizabeth Sophie de Valliere (2 vols., 1772), and Milord Rivers (2 vols., 1776). She obtained a small pension from the crown, but the Revolution deprived her of it, and she died on the 6th of December 1792 in great indigence. Besides the works named, she wrote a novel (1762) on the subject of Fielding's Amelia, and supplied in 1765 a continuation (but not the conclusion sometimes erroneously ascribed to her) of Marivaux's unfinished Marianne. All Madame Riccoboni's work is clever, and there is real pathos in it. But it is among the most eminent examples of the "sensi- bility " novel, of which no examples but Sterne's have kept their place in England, and that not in virtue of their sensibility. A still nearer parallel may be found in the work of Mackenzie. Madame Riccoboni is an especial offender in the use of mechanical aids to impressiveness — italics, dashes, rows of points and the like. The principal edition of her complete works is that of Paris (6 vols., 1818). The chief novels appear in a volume of Garnier's Biblio- thbque amusante (Paris, 1865). See Julia Kavanagh, French Women of Letters (2 vols., 1862), where an account o? her novels is given; J. Fleury, Marivaux et le marivaudage (Paris, 1881); J. M. Qu6rard, La France litteraire (vol. vii., 1835); and notices by La Harpe, Grimm and Diderot prefixed to her (Euvres (9 vols., Paris, 1826). RICE, EDMUND IGNATIUS (1762-1844), Irish philan- thropist, founder of the " Irish Christian Brothers," was born at Westcourt, near Callen, Kilkenny, on the ist of June 1762. He entered the business of his uncle, an export provision merchant in Waterford, in 1779 and succeeded him in 1790. In 1796 he established an organization for visiting and relieving the poor, and in 1802 began to educate the poor children of Waterford, renting a school and supporting two teachers. In 1803 he gave up his business and, joined by a number of friends, began to systematize his plans. Others, like-minded, opened schools at Dungarvan and Carrick-on-Suir. The little society numbered nine in 1808, and meeting at Waterford took religious vows from their bishop, assumed a " habit " and adopted an addi- tional Christian name, by which, as by the collective title " Christian Brothers," they were thenceforth known. Schools were established in Cork (1811), Dublin (1812), and Thurles and Limerick (1817). In 1820 Pope Pius VII. issued a brief sanctioning the order of " Religious Brothers of the Christian Schools (Ireland)," the members of which were to be bound by vows of obedience, chastity, poverty and perseverance, and to give themselves to the free instruction, religious and literary, of male children, especially the poor. The heads of houses were to elect a superior general, and Rice held this office from 1822 to 1838, during which time the institution extended to several English towns (especially in Lancashire), and the course of instruction grew out of the primary stage. Rice died on the '29th of August 1844. The Irish Christian Brothers have some hundred houses in Ireland with 300 attached schools and over 30,000 pupils. There are also industrial schools and orphanages, and the institute has branches in Australia, India, Gibraltar and Newfoundland. RICE, JAMES (1843-1882), English novelist, was born at Northampton on the 26th of September 1843. Educated at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he graduated in law in 1867, he was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1871. In the meantime (1868) he had bought Once a Week, which proved a losing venture for him, but which brought him into touch with Walter Besant, a contributor [see Besant's preface to the Library Edition (1887) of Ready-money Mortiboy}. There ensued a close friendship and a literary partnership between the two men which lasted ten years until Rice's death, and resulted in a large number of successful novels. The first of them, published anonymously, Rice being responsible for the central figure and the leading situation, was Ready-money Morti- boy (1782), dramatized by them later and unsuccessfully produced at the Court Theatre in 1874. In rapid succession followed My Little Girl (1873); With Harp and Crown (1874); This Son of Vulcan (1876); The Golden Butterfly (1876), the most popular of their joint productions; The Monks of Thelema (1878); By Celia's Arbour (1878); The Seamy Side (1880); The Chaplain of the Fleet (1881); Sir Richard Whiltington (1881), and a large number of short stories, some of them reprinted in The Case of Mr Lucraft, &c. (1876), 'Twas in Trafalgar's Bay, &c. (1879), and The Ten Years' Tenant, &c. (1881). James Rice died at Redhill on the 26th of April 1882. RICE— RICH, B. 291 RICE (Greek opiifa, Latin oryza, French riz, Italian riso, Spanish arros, derived from the Arabic), a well-known cereal, botanical name Oryza saliva. According to Roxburgh, the great Indian botanist, the cultivated rice with all its numerous varieties has originated from a wild plant, called in India Newaree or Nivara, which is indigenous on the borders of lakes in the Circars and elsewhere in India, and is also native in tropical Australia. The rice plant is an annual grass with long linear glabrous leaves, each provided with a long sharply pointed ligule. The spikelets are borne on a compound or branched spike, erect at first but afterwards bent downwards. Each spikelet contains a solitary flower with two outer small barren glumes, above which is a large tough, com- pressed, often awned, flowering glume, which partly encloses the somewhat similar pale. Within these are six stamens, a hairy ovary surmounted by two feathery styles which ripens into the fruit (grain), and which is invested by the husk formed by the persistent glume and pale. The cultivated varieties are extremely numerous, some kinds being adapted for marshy land, others for growth on the hill- sides. The cultivators make two principal divisions according as the sorts are early or late. Rice has been cultivated from time immemorial in tropical countries. According to Stanislas Julien a ceremonial ordinance was established in China by the emperor Chin-nung 2800 years B.C., in accordance with which the emperor sows the rice himself while the seeds of four other kinds may be sown by the princes of his family. This fact , joined to other considerations, induced Alphonse de Candolle to consider rice as a native of China. It was very early cultivated in India, in some parts of which country, as in tropical Australia, it is, as we have seen, indigenous. It is not mentioned in the Bible, but its culture is alluded to in the Talmud. There is proof of its culture in the Euphrates valley and in Syria four hundred years before Christ. Crawfurd, on philological grounds, considers that rice was introduced into Persia from southern India. The Arabs carried the plant into Spain. Rice was first cultivated in Italy near Pisa in 1468. It was not introduced into S. Carolina until 1700, and then, it is said, by accident, although at one time the southern United States furnished a large proportion of the rice introduced into commerce. Rice sports into far more varieties than any of the corns familiar to Europeans; for some varieties grow in the water and some on dry land; some come to maturity in three months, while others take four and six months to do so. A very full account of the cultivation of rice in India will be found in Sir George Watt's Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. Rice constitutes one of the most important articles of food in all tropical and subtropical countries, and is one of the most prolific of all crops. The rice yields best on low lands subject to occasional inundations, and thus enriched by alluvial deposits. An abundant Rice {Oryza saliva). A, spikelet (enlarged) ; B, bearded variety; C, spikelet of B (enlarged). rainfall during the growing season is also a desideratum. Rice is sown broadcast, ana in some districts is transplanted after a fort- night or three weeks. No special rotation is followed : indeed the soil best suited for rice is ill adapted for any other crop. In some cases little manure is employed, but in others abundance of manure is used. No special tillage is required, but weeding and irrigation are requisite. Rice in the husk is known as " paddy." On cutting across a grain of rice and examining it under the microscope, first the flattened and dried cells of the husk are seen, and then one or two layers of cells elongated in a direction parallel to the length of the seed, which contain the gluten or nitrogenous matter. Within these, and forming by far the largest part of the seed, are large polygonal cells filled with very numerous and very minute angular starch grains. Rice is not so valuable as a food as some other cereals, inasmuch as the proportion of nitrogenous matter (gluten) is less. Payen gives only 7 % of gluten in rice as compared with 22 % in the finest wheat, 14 in oats and 12 in maize. The percentage of potash in the ash is as 1 8 to 23 in wheat. The fatty matter is also less in proportion than in other cereals. Rice, therefore, is chiefly a farinaceous food, and requires to be combined with fatty and nitrogenous substances, such as milk or meat gravy, to satisfy the requirements of the system. A large proportion of the rice brought to Europe is used for starch-making, and some is taken by distillers of alcohol. Rice is also -the source of a drinking spirit in India, known as arrack, and the national beverage of Japan — sakd — is prepared from the grain by means of an organic ferment. RICE PAPER. The substance' which has received this name in Europe, through the mistaken notion that it is made from rice, consists of the pith of a small tree, Aralia papyri/era, which grows in the swampy forests of Formosa. The cylindrical core of pith is rolled on a hard flat surface against a knife, by which it is cut into thin sheets of a fine ivory-like texture. Dyed in various colours, rice paper is extensively used for the preparation of artificial flowers, while the white sheets are employed by native artists for water-colour drawings. RICH, BARNABE (c. 1540-1617), English author and soldier, was a distant relative of Lord Chancellor Rich. He fought in the Low Countries, rising to the rank of captain, and afterwards served in Ireland. He shared in the colonization of Ulster, and spent the latter part of his life near Dublin. In the intervals of his campaigns he produced many pamphlets on political questions and romances. In 1606 he was in receipt of a pension of half a crown a day, and in 1616 he was presented with a gift of £100 as being the oldest captain in the service. He died on the loth of November 1617. His best-known work is Riche his Farewell to Militarie Profession containing verie pleasaunt discourses fit for a peaceable tyme (1581). Of the eight stories contained in it, five, he says, " are forged only for delight, neither credible to be believed, nor hurtful to be perused." The three others are translations from the Italian. He claims as his own invention the story of Apolonius and Silla, the second in the collection, from which Shakespeare took the plot of Twelfth Night. It is, however, founded on the tale of Nicuola and Lattantio as told by Matteo Bandello. The eighth, Phylotus and Emilia, a complicated story arising from the likeness and disguise of a brother and sister, is identical in plot with the anonymous play, Philotus, printed in Edinburgh in 1603. Both play and story were edited for the Bannatyne Club in 1835. In the conclusion to his collection Rich tells a story of a devil named Balthaser, who possesses a king of Scots, prudently changed after the accession of James I. to the " Grand Turk." The Strange and Wonderful Adventures of Don Simonides (1581), with its sequel (1584), is written in imitation of Lyly. Among his other romances should be mentioned The Adventures of Brusanus, prince of Hungaria (1592). His authenticated works number twenty-four, and include works on Ireland, the troubles of which were, according to him, due to the religion of the people and to the lack of consistency and firmness on the part of the English government. Such are: Attarme to England (1578); A New Description of Ireland (1610); The Irish Hubbub, or the English Hue and Crie (1617), in which he also inveighs against the use of tobacco. See " Introduction ". to the Shakespeare Society's reprint oT Riche his Farewell (1846); P. Cunningham's "Introduction" to Rich's Honesty of this Age (reprinted for the Percy Society, 1844); and the life by S. Lee in the Dictionary of National Biography. 292 RICH, CLAUDIUS JAMES (1787-1821), English traveller and scholar, was born near Dijon on the 28th of March 1787. His youth was spent at Bristol. He early developed a gift for languages, becoming familiar not only with Latin and Greek but also with Hebrew, Syriac, Persian, Turkish and other Eastern tongues. In 1804 Rich went to Constantinople, where, and at Smyrna, he stayed some time, perfecting himself in Turkish. Proceeding to Alexandria as assistant to the British consul-general there, he devoted himself to Arabic and its various dialects, and made himself master of Eastern manners and usages. On leaving Egypt he travelled by land to the Persian Gulf, disguised as a Mameluke, visiting Damascus, and entering the great mosque undetected. At Bombay, which he reached in September 1807, he was the guest of Sir James Mackintosh, whose eldest daughter he married in January 1808, proceeding soon after to Bagdad as resident. There he began his investigations into the geography, history and anti- quities of the district. He explored the remains of Babylon, and projected a geographical and statistical account of the pashalic of Bagdad. The results of his work at Babylon appeared first in the Vienna serial Mines de I' orient, and in 1815 in England, under the title Narrative of a Journey to the Site of Babylon in 1811. In 1813-14 Rich spent some time in Europe, and on his return to Bagdad devoted himself to the study of the geography of Asia Minor, and collected much information in Syrian and Chaldaean convents concerning the Yezidis. During this period he made a second excursion to Babylon, and in 1820 undertook an extensive tour to Kurdistan — from Bagdad north to Sulimania, eastward to Sinna, then west to Nineveh, and thence down the Tigris to Bagdad. The narrative of this journey, which contained the first accurate knowledge (from scientific observation) regarding the topography and geography of the region, was published by his widow under the title, Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan and on the site of Ancient Nineveh, &c. (London, 1836). In 1821 Rich went to Basora, whence he made an excursion to Shiraz, visiting the ruins of Persepolis and the other remains in the neighbourhood. At Shiraz he died of cholera on the 5th of October 1821. His fine collec- tions of manuscripts and coins was purchased by the British Museum. RICH, JOHN (1692-1761-), English actor, the "father of English pantomime," was the son of Christopher Rich (d. 1714), the manager of Drury Lane, with whose quarrels and tyrannies Colley Gibber's Apology is much occupied. John Rich opened the new theatre in Lincoln's Inn Fields left unfinished by his father, and here, in 1716, under the stage name of Lun, he first appeared as Harlequin in an unnamed entertainment which developed into an annual pantomine (q.v.) . By this departure he made successful headway in his competition with the stronger company at Drury Lane, including Gibber, Wilks and Booth. Rich was less happy in his management of Covent Garden, which he opened in 1733, until Garrick's arrival (1746), when a most prosperous season ensued, followed by a bad one when Garrick went to Dury Lane. During Rich's management occurred the rival performances of Romeo and Juliet— Barry and Mrs Gibber at Covent Garden, and Garrick and Miss Bellamy at Dury Lane — and the subsequent competition between the two rival actors in King Lear. Rich died on the 26th of Nov- ember 1761. Garrick's lines show that his acting was panto- mime pure and simple, without words:— " When Lun appeared, with matchless art and whim, He gave the power of speech to every limb : Tho' masked and mute, conveyed his quick intent, And told in frolic gesture what he meant." RICH, PENELOPE, LADY (c. 1562-1607), the Stella of Sir Philip Sidney's Astrophel and Stella, was the daughter of Walter Devereux, ist Earl of Essex. She was a child of fourteen when Sir Philip Sidney accompanied the queen on a visit to Lady Essex in 1576, on her way from Kenilworth, and must have been frequently thrown into the society of Sidney, in consequence of the many ties between the two families. Essex died at Dublin in September 1576. He had sent a message to Philip RICH, C. J.— RICH, R. Sidney from his death-bed expressing his desire that he should marry his daughter, and later his secretary wrote to the young man's father, Sir Henry Sidney, in words which seem to point to the existence of a very definite understanding. Penelope's great-grandmother was a sister of Anne Boleyn, and she and her brother Robert were therefore distantly connected with Elizabeth. Perhaps the marriage of Lady Essex with the earl of Leicester, which destroyed Sidney's prospects as his uncle's heir, had something to do with the breaking off of the proposed match with Penelope. Her relative and guardian, Henry Hastings, earl of Huntingdon, secured Burghley's assent in March 1581 for her marriage with Robert Rich, 3rd Baron Rich. Penelope is said to have protested in vain against the alliance with Rich, who is represented as a rough and overbearing husband. The evidence against him is, however, chiefly derived from sources as interested as Sir Philip Sidney's violent denuncia- tion in the twenty-fourth sonnet of Astrophel and Stella, " Rich fooles there be whose base and filthy hart." Sidney's serious love for Penelope appears to date from her marriage with Rich. The earlier sonnets are in praise of her beauty, or treat of the conventional topic of the struggle between reason and love, while the later ones are marked by unmistakable passion. The eighth song of Astrophel and Stella narrates Stella's refusal to accept Sidney as a lover. Lady Rich was the mother of six children by her husband when she contracted in 1595 an open liaison with Charles Blount, 8th Lord Mountjoy, a brilliant courtier and favourite of Elizabeth, to whom she had long been attached. Rich took no steps against his wife during her brother's lifetime, and she nursed him through an illness in 1600, but they obtained a legal separation in 1601, and Mountjoy acknowledged her five children born after 1595. Mountjoy was created earl of Devonshire on the accession of James I., and Lady Rich was in high favour at court. In 1605, however, they legitimized their connexion by a marriage celebrated by William Laud, the earl's chaplain. This proceeding, carried out in defiance of canon law, was followed by the disgrace of both parties, who were banished from court. Devonshire died on the 3rd of April 1606, and his wife within a year of that date. Her eldest son by Lord Rich, who became earl of Warwick in. 1618, was Robert Rich, 2nd earl of Warwick (1587-1658). The second, Henry Rich, earl of Holland, was beheaded in 1649 for his share in the second Civil War. Her eldest son by Mount joy,Mount joy'Blount, Baron Mountjoy and earl of Newport (c. 1597-1665) also figured in the Civil War. See the editions of Astrophel and Stella by Dr A. B. Grosart, E. Arber and A. W. Pollard; also the various lives of Sir Philip Sidney, and Mrs Aubrey Richardson's Famous Ladies of the English Court (London, 1899). John Ford's Broken Heart has been alleged to have been founded on the history of Lady Rich. Richard Barn- field dedicated his Affectionate Shepherd (1594) to her; Bartholomew Yonge his Diana of George of Montemayor (1598); and sonnets are addressed to her by John Davies of Hereford and by Henry Constable. RICH, RICHARD (fl. 1610), English soldier and adventurer, the author of Newes from Virginia, sailed from England on the 2nd of June 1609 for Virginia, with Captain Christopher Newport and the three commissioners entrusted with the foundation of the new colony. In his verse pamphlet he relates the adventures undergone by the expedition, and describes the resources of the new country, with the advantages offered to colonists. The title runs: Newes from Virginia. • The lost Flocke Triumphant. With the happy Arrivall of that famous and worthy Knight Sr. Thomas Gates: and the well- reputed and valiant Captaine Mr Christopher Newport, and | others, into England. With the maner of their distresse in the Hand of Devils (otherwise called Bermoothawes) , where they remayned 42 weeks, and builded two Pynaces, in which they returned into Virginia. By R. Rich, Gent., one of the Voyage (1610)." The only known copy of this tract is in the Huth Library. A reprint edited by J. O. Halliwell-Phillips appeared in 1865 (another ed., 1874). The adventures related by Rich are supposed to have been in Shakespeare's mind when he wrote The Tempest. Another tract by Rich mentioned in the Stationers' Register, Good Speed to Virginia, is unknown. RICH, BARON— RICHARD OF CANTERBURY 293 RICH, RICHARD, IST BARON RICH (i490?-is67), lord chan- cellor, was born of a Hampshire family about 1490, in the parish of St Laurence Jewry, London. His great-grandfather, Richard Rich, was a wealthy mercer and sheriff of the city of London in 1441. Probably Lord Rich's father was also a mercer, but he sent his son to the Middle Temple, where Sir Thomas More was among his acquaintances. More told him at the time of his trial that he was reputed light of his tongue, a great dicer and gamester, and not of any commendable fame; but he was a commissioner of the peace in Hertfordshire in 1528, and in the next autumn became reader at the Middle Temple. Other preferments followed, and in 1533 he was knighted and became solicitor-general, in which capacity he was to act under Thomas Cromwell as a " lesser hammer " for the demolition of the monasteries, and to secure the operation of Henry VIII. 's act of supremacy. He had an odious share in the trials of Sir Thomas More and Bishop Fisher. In both cases he made use in his evidence against the prisoner of admissions made in a professedly friendly conversation, and in More's case the words he had used were misreported and received a miscon- struction that could hardly be other than wilful. More ex- pressed his opinion of the witness in open court with a candour that might well have dismayed Rich. Rich became the first chancellor (April 19, 1536) of the Court of Augmentations established for the disposal of the monastic revenues. His own share of the spoil, acquired either by grant or purchase, included Leez (Leighs) Priory and about a hundred manors in Essex. He was Speaker of the House of Commons in the same year, and advocated the king's policy. In spite of the share he had taken in the suppression of the monasteries, and of the part he was to play under Edward VI., his religious convictions remained Roman Catholic. His testimony helped the con- viction of Thomas Cromwell, and he was a willing agent in the Catholic reaction which followed. Anne Askew stated that the Chancellor Wriothesley and Rich screwed the rack at her torture with their own hands. Rich was one of the executors of the will of Henry VIII., on which so much suspicion has been thrown, and on the 26th of February 1548 he became Baron Rich of Leez. In the next month he succeeded Wriothesley as chancellor, an office in which he found full scope for the business and legal ability he undoubtedly possessed. He supported Protector Somerset in his subversive reforms in church matters, in the prosecution of his brother Lord Seymour of Sudeley, and in the rest of his policy until the crisis of his fortunes in October 1549, when he deserted to Warwick (afterwards Northumberland), and pre- sided over -the trial of his former chief. His daughter had married Warwick's son, and both men were at heart no friends to the reformed religion. Nevertheless, Rich took part in the prosecution of bishops Gardiner and Bonner, and in the harsh treatment accorded to the Princess Mary. Possibly this harshness was exaggerated, for Mary on her accession showed no ill-will to Rich. He retired from the chancellorship on the ground of ill-health in the close of 1551, at the time of the final breach between Northumberland and Somerset. He was now sixty years old, and there is no reason to suspect the sincerity of his plea. There is an improbable story, however, to the effect that Rich warned Somerset of his danger in the Tower, and that the letter was delivered by mistake to the duke of Norfolk, who handed it to Northumberland. Lord Rich took an active part in the restoration of the old religion in Essex under the new reign, and was one of the most active of persecutors. His reappearances in the privy council were rare during Mary's reign; but under Elizabeth he served on a commission to inquire into the grants of land made under Mary, and in 1566 was sent for to advise on the question of the queen's marriage. He died at Rochford, Essex, on the i2th of June 1567, and was buried in Felsted church. In Mary's reign he had founded a chaplaincy with provision for the singing of masses and dirges, and the ringing of bells in Felsted church. To this was added a Lenten allowance of herrings to the in- habitants of three parishes. These donations were transferred in 1564 to the foundation of a grammar-school at Felsted for instruction, primarily for children born on the founder's manors, in Latin, Greek and divinity. The patronage of the school remained in the family of the founder until 1851. By his wife Elizabeth Jenks, or Gynkes, he had fifteen children. The eldest son Robert (iS37?-is8i), second Baron Rich, supported the Reformation, and his grandson Robert, third lord, was created earl of Warwick in 1618. The chief authorities are the official records of the period covered by his official life, calendared in the Rolls Series. See also A. F. Pollard, England under Protector Somerset (1900) ; P. Morant, History of Essex (2 vols., 1768) ; R. W. Dixon, History of the Church of England (6 vols., 1878-1902); and lives in J. Sargeaunt's History of Felsted School (1889), Lord Campbell's Lives of the Lord CKdnceUors (1845-69), and C. H. &T. Cooper's Athenae Cantabrigienses (2 vols., 1858-61). RICHARD, ST, of Wyche (c. 1197-1253), English saint and bishop, was named after his birthplace, Droitwich in Worcester- shire. Educated at Oxford, he soon began to teach in the university, of which he became chancellor, probably after he had studied in Paris and in Bologna. About 1235 he became chancellor of the diocese of Canterbury under Archbishop Edmund Rich, and he was with the archbishop during his exile in France. Having returned to England some time after Edmund's death in 1240 he became vicar of Deal and chancellor of Canterbury for the second time. In 1244 he was elected bishop of Chichester, being consecrated at Lyons by Pope Innocent IV. in March 1245, although Henry III. refused to give him the temporalities of the see, the king favouring the candidature of Robert Passelewe (d. 1252). In 1246, however, Richard obtained the temporalities. The new bishop showed much eagerness to reform the manners and morals of his clergy, and also to introduce greater order and reverence into the services of the church. His term of office was also marked by the favour which he showed to the Dominicans, a house of this order at Orleans having sheltered him during his stay in France, and by his earnestness in preaching a crusade. He died at Dover in April 1253. It was generally believed that miracles were wrought at his tomb in Chichester cathedral, which was long a popular place of pilgrimage, and in 1262 he was canonized at Viterbo by Pope Urban IV. Richard furnished the chronicler, Matthew Paris, with material for the life of Edmund Rich, and instituted the offerings for the cathedral at Chichester which were known later as " St Richard's pence." His life by his confessor, Ralph Bocking, is published in the Ada Sanctorum of the Bollandists, where a later and shorter life by John Capgrave is also to be found. RICHARD (d. 1 184), archbishop of Canterbury, was a Norman, who became a monk at Canterbury, where he acted as chaplain to Archbishop Theobald and was a colleague of Thomas Becket. In 1173, more than two years after the murder of Becket, it was decided to fill the vacant archbishopric of Canterbury; there were two candidates, Richard, at that time prior of St Martin's, Dover, and Odo, prior of Canterbury, and in June Richard was chosen, although Odo was the nominee of the monks. Objections were raised against this election both in England and in Rome, but in April 1174 the new archbishop was consecrated at Anagui by Pope Alexander III., and he returned to England towards the close of the year. The ten years during which Richard was archbishop were disturbed by disputes with Roger, archbishop of York, over the respective rights of the two sees, and in 1175, at a council held in London, there was a free fight between their partisans. Henry II. arranged a truce for five years between the rival prelates, but Richard was soon involved in another quarrel, this being with Roger, abbot of St Augustine's, Canterbury, whose action also trenched upon the privileges of the archbishop. Richard was more acceptable to Henry II. than Becket had been; he attended the royal councils, and more than once he was with the king in Normandy. Henry probably preferred him because he insisted less on the rights of the clergy than his great predecessor had done; but the monastic writers and the followers of Becket regarded this attitude as a sign of weakness. Richard died at Rochester on the i6th of February 1184 and was 294 RICHARD OF CORNWALL— RICHARD I. buried in his cathedral. See the article by W. Hunt in the Diet. Nat. Biog. vol. xlviii. (1896); and W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury. RICHARD, earl of Cornwall and king of the Romans (1200- 1272), was the second son of the English king John by Isabella of Angouleme. Born in 1209, Richard was the junior of his brother, Henry III., by fifteen months; he was educated in England and received the earldom of Cornwall in 1225. From this date to his death he was a prominent figure on the political stage. In the years 1225-27 he acted as governor of Gascony; between 1227 and 1238, owing to quarrels with his brother and dislike of the foreign favourites, he attached himself to the baronial opposition and bade fair to become a popular hero. But in 1240 he took the command of a crusade in order to escape from the troubled atmosphere of English politics. He was formally reconciled with Henry before his departure; and their amity was cemented on his return by his marriage with Sancha of Provence, the sister of Henry's queen (1243). Henceforward Richard, though by no means blind to the faults of the govern- ment, was among the most constant supporters of Henry III. While affecting to remain neutral in the quarrels of the barons with the Poitevins and Savoyards he constantly assisted the king with loans, and thus enabled him to withstand the pressure of the Great Council for reform. In 1257 a bare majority of the German electors nominated Richard as king of the Romans, and he accepted their offer at Henry's desire. He was elected partly on account of his wealth, but also because his family connexion with the Hohenstauf en and his friendly relations with the papacy made it probable that he would unite. all German parties. In the years 1257-68 Richard paid four visits to Germany. He obtained recognition in the Rhineland, which was closely connected with England by trade relations. Otherwise, how- ever, he was unsuccessful in securing German support. In the English troubles of the same period he endeavoured to act as a mediator. On the outbreak of civil war in 1264 he took his brother's side, and his capture in a windmill outside Lewes, after the defeat of the royalist army, is commemorated in the earliest of English vernacular satires; he remained a prisoner till the fall of Montfort. But after Evesham he exerted himself, not without success, to obtain reasonable terms for those who had suffered from the vengeance of the royalist party. He died on the 2nd of April 1272. His end is said to have been hastened by grief for his eldest son, Henry of Almain, who had been murdered in the previous year by the sons of Simon de Montfort at Viterbo. The earldom of Cornwall passed to Richard's eldest surviving son Edmund, who was guardian of England from 1286 to 1289. On Edmund's death, in October 1300, it became extinct. Authorities. — The original sources and general works of reference are the same as for the reign of Henry III. G. C. Gebauer's Leben und Thaten Herrn Richards von Cornwall (Leipzig, 1744), H. KocrTs Richard von Cornwall, 1209-1257 (Strassburg, 1888), and A. Busson's Doppelwahl des Jahres, 1257 (Munster, 1866) are useful monographs. (H. W. C. D.) RICHARD I. (1157-1199), king of England, nicknamed " Cceur de Lion " and " Yea and Nay," was the third son of Henry II. by Eleanor of Aquitaine. Born in September 1157, he received at the age of eleven the duchy of Aquitaine, and was formally installed in 1172. In his new position he was allowed, probably from regard to Aquitanian susceptibilities, to govern with an independence which was studiously denied to his brothers in their snares of the Angevin inheritance. Yet in 1173 Richard joined with the young Henry and Geoffrey of Brittany in their rebellion; Aquitaine was twice invaded by the old king before the unruly youth would make submission. •Richard was soon pardoned and reinstated in his duchy, where he distinguished himself by crushing a formidable revolt (1175) and exacting homage from the count of Toulouse. In a short . time he was so powerful that his elder brother Henry became alarmed and demanded, as heir-apparent, that Richard should do him homage for Aquitaine. Richard having scornfully rejected the demand, a fratricidal war ensued; the young Henry invaded Aquitaine and attracted to his standard many of Richard's vassals, who were exasperated by the iron rule of the duke. Henry II. marched to Richard's aid; but the war terminated abruptly with the death of the eldei prince (1183). Richard, being now the heir to England and Normandy, was invited to renounce Aquitaine in favour of Prince John. The proposal led to a new civil war;- and, although a temporary compromise was arranged, Richard soon sought the help of Philip Augustus, to whom he did homage for all the continental possessions in the actual presence of his father (Conference of Bonmoulins, i8th of November 1188) In the struggle which ensued the old king was overpowered, chased ignominiously from Le Mans to Angers, and forced to buy peace by conceding all that was demanded of him; in particular the immediate recognition of Richard as his successor./'"' But the death of Henry II. (i 189) at, once dissolved the friend- ship between Richard and Philip. Not only did Richard continue the continental policy of his father, but he also re- fused to fulfil his contract with Philip's sister, Alais, to whom he had been betrothed at the age of three. An open breach was only delayed by the desire of both kings to fulfil the crusading vows which they had recently taken. Richard, in particular, sacrificed all other interests to this scheme, and raised the necessary funds by the most reckless methods. He put up for auction the highest offices and honours; even remitting to William the Lion of Scotland, for a sum of 15,000 marks, the humiliating obligations which Henry II. had im- posed at the treaty of Falaise. It is true that Richard indemni- fied himself on his return by resuming some of his most important grants and refusing to return the purchase money; but it is improbable that he had originally planned this re- pudiation of his ill-considered bargains. By such expedients he raised and equipped a force which may be estimated at 4000 men-at-arms and as many foot-soldiers, with a fleet of 100 transports (1191). Richard did not return to his dominions until 1194. But his stay in Palestine was limited to sixteen months. On the outward journey he wintered in Sicily, where he employed himself in quarrelling with Philip and in exacting satisfaction from the usurper Tancred for the dower of his widowed sister, Queen Joanna, and for his own share in the inheritance of William the Good. Leaving Messina in March 1191, he inter- rupted his voyage to conquer Cyprus, and only joined the Christian besiegers of Acre in June. The reduction of that stronghold was largely due to his energy and skill. But his arrogance gave much offence. After the fall of Acre he in- flicted a gross insult upon Leopold of Austria; and his relations with Philip were so strained that the latter seized the first pretext for returning to France, and entered into negotiations with Prince John (see JOHN, king of England) for the partition of Richard's realm. Richard also threw himself into the disputes respecting the crown of Jerusalem, and supported Guy of Lusignan against Conrad of Montferrat with so much heat that he incurred grave, though unfounded, suspicions of complicity when Conrad was assassinated by emissaries of the Old MaA of the Mountain. None the less Richard, whom even the .French crusaders accepted as their leader, upheld the failing cause of the Prankish Christians with valour and tenacity. He won a brilliant victory over the forces of Saladin at Arsuf (1191), and twice led the Christian host within a few miles of Jerusalem. But the dissensions of the native Franks and the crusaders made it hopeless to continue the -struggle ; and Richard was alarmed by the news which reached him of j John's intrigues in England and Normandy. Hastily patching up a truce with Saladin, under which the Christians kept the coast-towns and -received free access to the Holy Sepulchre, Richard started on his return (9th October 1192). His voyage was delayed by storms, and he appears to have been perplexed as to the safest route. The natural route over- land through Marseilles and Toulouse was held by his enemies; that through the empire from the head of the Adriatic was little safer, since Leopold of Austria was on the watch for him. Having adopted the second of these alternatives, he was cap- ; RICHARD II. 295 tured at Vienna in a mean disguise (December 2oth, 1192) and strictly confined in the duke's castle of Diirenstein on the Danube. His mishap was soon known to England, but the regents were for some weeks uncertain of his whereabouts. This is the foundation for the tale of his discovery by the faithful minstrel Blondel, which first occurs in a French romantic chronicle of the next century. Early in 1193 Leopold surrendered his prize, under compulsion, to the emperor Henry VI., who was aggrieved both by the support which the Plantagenets had given to the family of Henry the Lion and also by Richard's recognition of Tancred in Sicily. Al- though the detention of a crusader was contrary to public law, Richard was compelled to purchase his release by the payment of a heavy ransom and by doing homage to the emperor for England. The ransom demanded was 150,000 marks; though it was never discharged in full, the resources of England were taxed to the utmost for the first instalments; and to this occasion we may trace the beginning of secular taxation levied on movable property. -^ Richard reappeared in England in March 1194; 4>ut his stay lasted only a few weeks, and the remainder of his reign was entirely devoted to his continental interests. He left England to be governed by Hubert Walter (q.v.*), and his personal authority was seldom asserted except by demands for new subsidies. The rule of the Plantagenets was still popular in Normandy and Aquitaine; but these provinces were unable or unwilling to pay for their own defence. Though Richard proved himself consistently the superior of Philip in the field, the difficulty of raising and paying forces to resist the French increased year by year. Richard could only stand on the defensive; the keynote of his later policy is given by the building of the famous Chateau Gaillard at Les Andelys (1196) to protect the lower courses of the Seine against in- vasion from the side of France. He did not live to see the futility of such bulwarks. In 1199 a claim to treasure-trove embroiled him with the viscount of Limoges. He harried the Limousin and laid siege to the castle of Chalus; while directing an assault he was wounded in the shoulder by a crossbow bolt, and, the wound mortifying from unskilful treatment or his own want of care, he died on the 6th of April 1199. He was buried by his own desire at his father's feet in the church of Fontevrault. Here his effigy may still be seen.1 Though contemporary, it does not altogether agree with the portraits on his Great Seal, which give the impression of greater strength and even of cruelty. The Fontevrault bust is no doubt idealized. The most accomplished and versatile representative of his gifted family, Richard was, in his lifetime and long after- wards, a favourite hero with troubadours and romancers. This was natural, as he belonged to their brotherhood and himself wrote lyrics of no mean quality. But his history shows that he by no means embodied the current ideal of chivalrous ex- cellence. His memory is stained by one act of needless cruelty, the massacre of over two thousand Saracen prisoners at Acre; and his fury, when thwarted or humbled, was ungovernable. A brave soldier, an experienced and astute general, he was never happier than when engaged in war. As a ruler he was equally profuse and rapacious. Not one useful measure can be placed to his credit; and it was by a fortunate accident that he found, in Hubert Walter, an administrator who had the skill to mitigate the consequences of a reckless fiscal policy. Richard's wife was Berengaria, daughter of Sancho VI., king of Navarre, whom he married in Cyprus in May 1191. She was with the king at Acre later in the same year, and during his imprisonment passed her time in Sicily, in Rome and in France. Husband and wife met again in 1195, and the queen long survived the king, residing chiefly at Le Mans. She died 1 The remains of Richard, together with those of Henry II. and his queen Eleanor, were removed in the 1 7th century from their tombs to another part of the church. They were rediscovered in 1910 during the restoration of the abbey undertaken by the French government. soon after 1230. Berengaria founded a Cistercian monastery at Espau. AUTHORITIES. — The more important of the general chronicles are: the Gesta Henrici Secundi, ascribed to Benedict of Peter- borough (Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1867); the Chronica of Roger of Hoveden (Rolls Series, 4 vols., 1868-71); the Chronica of Gervasc of Canterbury (Rolls Series, 1870); the Imagines Historiarum of Ralph of Diceto (Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1876); the Historic, Rerum Angli- carum of William of Newburgh (in Chronicles of the Reigns- of Stephen, &c., Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1884-85); the De rebus gestis Ricardi Primi of Richard of Devizes (in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, &c.. vol. iii., Rolls Series, 1886); the Chronicon Anglicanum of Ralph of Coggeshall (Rolls Series, 1875); the Flares Historiarum of Roger of Wendovcr (Rolls Scries, 3 yols., 1886-89) : the Gesta Philippi Augusti of Rigord (Soctitedel'histoirede France, Paris, 1 882) and of Guillaume le Breton (op. cit.). A detailed narrative of Richard's crusade is given in L'Estoire de la guerre sainte, a rhyming French chronicle by the minstrel Ambroise (ed. Gaston Paris, Paris, 1897), and in the Latin prose version known as the Itinerarium O. Peregrinorum et gesta Regis Ricardi; this last, with some valuable historical letters, is printed in W. Stubbs's Chronicles and Memorials of the Reign of Richard I. (Rolls Series, 2 vols., 1864-65). Of modern works the following are useful: W. Stubbs's preface to vols. iii. and iv. of Hoveden; the same author's Constitutional History of England, vol. i. (Oxford, 1897); Miss K. Nprgate's England under the Angevin Kings, vol. ii. (London, 1887); Sir J. H. Ramsay's Angevin Empire (London, 1903) ; R. Rohricht's Geschichte des Konigreichs Jerusalem (1898); W. B. Stevenson's Crusaders in the East (Cambridge, 1907); A. Cartellieri's Philipp II. August (Leipzig, 1899, &c.). (H. W. C. D.) RICHARD II. (1367-140x3), king of England, younger 'son of Edward the Black Prince by Joan " the Fair Maid of Kent," was born at Bordeaux on the 6th of January 1367. He was brought to England in 1371, and after his father's death was, on the petition of the Commons in parliament, created prince of Wales on the 2oth of November 1376. When Edward III. died, on the 2ist of June 1377, Richard became king. Popular opinion had credited John of Gaunt with designs on the throne. This was not justified; nevertheless, the rivalry of the boy- king's uncles added another to the troubles due to the war, the Black Death and the prospect of a long minority. At first the government was conducted by a council appointed by parliament. The council was honest, but the difficulties of the situation were too great. The ill-considered poll-tax of 1381 was the occasion, though not the real cause, of the Peasants' Revolt in that year. The ministers were quite unequal to the crisis, and when Wat Tyler and his followers got possession of London, it was Richard who showed a pre- cocious tact and confidence in handling it. It was the boy- king who met and temporized with the rebels on the i3th of June at Mile End, and again next day at Smithfield; and he who, with courageous presence of mind, saved the situation when Tyler was killed, by calling on them to take him for their leader. From this time Richard began to assert himself. His chief ministers, appointed by parliament in 1382, were the earl of Arundel and Michael de la Pole. Arundel Richard disliked, and dismissed next year, when he began his personal government. Pole, whom he retained as chancellor and made earl of Suffolk, was a well-chosen adviser. But others, and especially his youthful favourite Robert de Vere, promoted by unheard-of honour to be marquess of Dublin and duke of Ireland, were less worthy. Further, Richard made his own position difficult by lavish extravagance and unseemly out- bursts of temper. He chafed under the restraint of his relatives, and therefore encouraged John of Gaunt in his Spanish enter- prise. This gave the less scrupulous Thomas of Gloucester his opportunity. Gloucester, supported by Arundel, attacked his nephew's ministers in the parliament of 1386, and by open hints at deposition forced Richard to submit to a council of control. When Richard, with the aid of his friends and by the advice of subservient judges, planned a reversal of the parliament, Gloucester, at the head of the so-called lords ap- pellant, anticipated him. Richard had been premature and ill- advised. Gloucester had the advantage of posing as the head of the constitutional party. The king's friends were driven into exile or executed, and he himself forced to submit to the loss of all real power (May 1388). Richard changed his 296 RICHARD III. methods, and when the lords appellant had lost credit, asserted himself constitutionally by dismissing Gloucester's supporters from office, and appointing in their place well-approved men like William of Wykeham. In the next parliament of 1390 the king showed himself ready to meet and conciliate his subjects. The simultaneous return of John of Gaunt from Spain put a check on Gloucester's ambition. For seven years Richard ruled constitutionally and on the whole well. The opposition was quiescent except for two outbreaks by Arundel: the first was a violent attack on John of Gaunt, which rather strengthened Richard's position; the second was a wanton insult to the king at the funeral of his queen. In January 1383 Richard had married Anne of Bohemia (1366-1394), daughter of the emperor Charles IV. The marriage, though childless, was happy; had Anne lived or borne a son the course of events might have been different. Her death on the 7th of June 1394 was a great shock to Richard, and incidentally had important consequences. Richard sought distraction by an expedition to Ireland, the first visit of an English king for more than two centuries. In his policy there he showed a wise statesmanship. At the same time he was negotiating for a permanent peace with France, which was finally arranged in October 1396 to include his own marriage with Isabella, daughter of Charles VI., a child of seven. Gloucester criticized the peace openly, and there was some show of opposition in the parliament of February 1397. But there was nothing to foreshadow the sudden stroke by which in July Richard arrested Gloucester and his chief supporters, the earls of Arundel and Warwick. The others of the five lords appellant, Henry of Bolingbroke afterwards King Henry IV., and the earl of Nottingham, now supported the king. Richard's action was apparently in deliberate revenge for the events of 1387-88. Gloucester, after a forced con- fession, died in prison at Calais, smothered by his nephew's orders. Arundel in a packed parliament was condemned and executed; his brother Thomas archbishop of Canterbury was exiled. The king's friends, including Nottingham and Boling- broke, made dukes of Norfolk and Hereford, were all promoted in title and estate. Richard himself was rewarded for ten years' patience by the possession of absolute power. He might perhaps have established it if he could have exercised it with moderation. But he declared that the laws of England were in his mouth, and supported his court in wanton luxury by arbitrary methods of taxation. By the exile of Norfolk and Hereford in September 1398 he seemed to have removed the last persons he need fear. He was so confident that in May 1399 he paid a second visit to Ireland, taking with him all his most trusted adherents. Thus when Henry landed at Ravenspur in July he found only half-hearted opposition, and when Richard himself returned it was too late. Ultimately Richard surrendered to Henry at Flint on the igth of August, promising to abdicate if his life was spared. He was taken to London riding behind his rival with indignity. On the 30th of September he signed in the Tower a deed of abdication, wherein he owned himself insufficient and useless, reading it first aloud with a cheerful mien and ending with a request that his cousin would be good lord to him. The parliament ordered that Richard should be kept close prisoner, and he was sent secretly to Pontefract. There in February 1400 he died: no doubt of the rigour of his winter imprisonment, rather than by actual murder as alleged in the story adopted by Shakespeare. The mystery of Richard's death led to rumours that he had escaped, and an impostor pretending to be Richard lived during many years under the protection of the Scottish government. But no doubt it was the real Richard who was buried without state in 1400 at King's Langley, and honourably reinterred by Henry V. at Westminster in 1413. Richard II. is a character of strange contradictions. It is difficult to reconcile the precocious boy of 1381 with the way- ward and passionate youth of the next few years. Even if it be supposed that he dissembled his real opinions during the period of his constitutional rule, it is impossible to believe that the apparent indifference which he showed in his /all was the mere acting of a part. His violent outbursts of passion perhaps give the best clue to a mercurial and impulsive nature, easily elated and depressed. He had real ability, and in his Irish policy, and in the preference which he gave to it over continental adventure, showed a statesmanship in advance of his time. But this, in spite of his lofty theory of kingship, makes it all the more difficult to explain his extravagant bearing in his prosperity. His fall was due to the triumph of national right over absolute government, but it was his personal conduct which made it inevitable. In appearance Richard was tall and handsome, if effeminate. He had some literary tastes, which were shown in fitful patronage of Chaucer, Gower and Froissart. His fancy for splendid dress may have been due to an artistic sense, which found better expression in his great buildings of Westminster Hall and Abbey. Richard's second queen, Isabella (1389-1409), was born in Paris on the 9th of November 1389, and was married to the English king at Calais in October, or November, 1396, but on account of the bride's youth the marriage was never consummated. When Richard lost his crown in 1399 Isabella was captured by Henry IV.'s partisans and sent to Sonning, near Reading, while her father, Charles VI., asked in vain for the restoration of his daughter and of her dowry. In 1401 she was allowed to return to France; in 1406 she became the wife of the poet, Charles, duke of Orleans, and she died on the i3th of September 1409. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The best contemporary authorities are the Chronicon Angliae down to 1388, Walsinghara's Historia Anglicana, the Annales Ricardi II., Knighton's Chronicle (all these in the Rolls Series), the Vita Ricardi II. by a Monk of Evesham (ed. T. Hearne), and the Chronique de la traison et mart (English Hist. Soc.). Froissart wrote from some personal knowledge. A metrical account of Richard's fall, probably written by a French knight called Creton, is printed in Archaeologia, xx. The chief collections of documents are the Rolls of Parliament and the Calendar of Patent Rolls. H. A. Wallon's Richard II. (Paris, 1864) is the fullest life, though now somewhat out of date. For other modern accounts see W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, and C. W. C. Oman, The Political History of England, vol. iv., and The Great Revolt of 1381. (C. L. K.) RICHARD III. (1452-1485), king of England, youngest son of Richard, duke of York, by Cicely Neville, was born at Fothering- hay on the 2nd of October 1452. After the second battle of St Albans in February 1461, his mother sent him with his brother George for safety to Utrecht. They returned in April, and at the coronation of Edward IV. Richard was created duke of Gloucester. As a mere child he had no importance till 1469- 1470, when he supported his brother against Warwick, shared his exile and took part in his triumphant return. He distinguished himself at Barnet and Tewkesbury; according to the Lancastrian story, after the latter battle he murdered the young Edward of Wales in cold blood; this is discredited by the authority of Warkworth (Chronicle, p. 18); but Richard may have had a share in Edward's death during the fighting. He cannot be so fully cleared of complicity in the murder of Henry VI., which probably took place at the Tower on the night of the 21-22 of May, when Richard was certainly present there. Richard shared to the full in his brother's prosperity. He had large grants of lands and office, and by marrying Anne (1456-1485), the younger daughter of Warwick, secured a share in the Neville inheritance. This was distasteful to George, duke of Clarence, who was already married to the elder sister, Isabel. The rivalry of the two brothers caused a quarrel which was never appeased. Richard does not, however, seem to have been directly re- sponsible for the death of Clarence in 1478; Sir Thomas More, who is a hostile witness, says that he resisted it openly " how- beit somewhat (as men deemed) more faintly than he that were heartily minded tQ his wealth." Richard's share of the Neville inheritance was chiefly in the north, and he resided usually at Middleham in Yorkshire. In May 1480 he was made the king's lieutenant-general in the north, and in 1482 commanded a successful invasion of Scotland. His administration was good, and brought him well-deserved popularity. On Edward's death he was kept informed of events in London by William, Lord Hastings, who shared his dislike of the Woodville influence. RICHARD, F. M. B.— RICHARD OF CIRENCESTER 297 On the 29th of April 1483, supported by the duke of Bucking- ham, he intercepted his nephew at Stony Stratford and arrested Lord Rivers and Richard Grey, the little king's half-brother. It was in Richard's charge that Edward was brought to London On the 4th of May. Richard was recognized as protector, the Woodville faction was overthrown, and the queen with her younger children took sanctuary at Westminster. For the time the government was carried on in Edward's name, and the 22nd of June was appointed for his coronation. Richard was nevertheless gathering forces and concerting with his friends. In the council there was a party, of whom Hastings and Bishop Morton were the chief, which was loyal to the boy-king. On the i3th of June came the famous scene when Richard appeared suddenly in the council baring his withered arm and accusing Jane Shore and the queen of sorcery; Hastings, Morton and Stanley were arrested and the first-named at once beheaded. A few days later, probably on the 25th of June, Rivers and Grey were executed at Pontefract. On the 22nd of June Dr Shaw was put up to preach at Paul's Cross against the legitimacy of the children of Edward IV. On the 2Sth a sort of parliament was convened at which Edward's marriage was declared invalid on the ground of his precontract with Eleanor Talbot, and Richard rightful king. Richard, who was not present, accepted the crown with feigned reluctance, and from the following day began his formal reign. • On the 6th of July Richard was crowned at Westminster, and immediately afterwards made a royal progress through the Midlands, on which he was well received. But in spite of its apparent success the usurpation was not popular. Richard's position could not be secure whilst his nephews lived. There seems to be no reasonable doubt that early in August Edward V. and his brother Richard (whom Elizabeth Woodville had been forced to surrender) were murdered by their uncle's orders in the Tower. Attempts have been made to clear Richard's memory. But the report of the princes' death was believed in England at the time, " for which cause king Richard lost the hearts of the people " (Chronicles of London, 191), and it was referred to as a definite fact before the French states-general in January 1484. The general, if vague, dissatisfaction found its expression in Buckingham's rebellion. Richard, however, was fortunate, and the movement collapsed. He met his only parliament in January 1484 with some show of triumph, and deserves credit for the wise intent of its legislation. He could not, however, stay the undercurrent of disaffection, and his ministers, Lovell and Catesby, were unpopular. His position was weakened by the death of his only legitimate son in April 1484. His queen died also a year later (March 16, 1485), and public opinion was scandalized by the rumour that Richard intended to marry his own niece, Elizabeth of York. Thus the feeling in favour of his rival Henry Tudor strengthened. Henry landed at Milford Haven on the 7th of August 1485, and it was with dark forebodings that Richard met him at Bosworth on the 22nd. The defection of the Stanleys decided the day. Richard was killed fighting, courageous at all events. After the battle his body was carried to Leicester, trussed across a horse's back, and buried without honour in the church of the Greyfriars. Richard was not the villain that his enemies depicted. He had good qualities, both as a man and a ruler, and showed a sound judgment of political needs. Still it is impossible to acquit him of the crime, the popular belief in which was the chief cause of his ruin. He was not a monster; but a typical man in an age of strange contradictions of character, of culture combined with cruelty, and of an emotional temper that was capable of high ends, though unscrupulous of means. Tradition represents Richard as deformed. It seems clear that he had some physical defect, though not so great as has been alleged. John Stow told Buck that old men who remembered Richard described him as in bodily form comely enough. Extant portraits show an intellectual face characteristic of the early Renaissance, but do not indicate any deformity. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The chief original authorities are Sir Thomas More's History of Richard III., based on information supplied by ArchbishopMorton, and therefore to be accepted with caution; the more trustworthy Continuation of the Croyland Chronicle in Fulman's Scriptores, the History of Polydore Vergil, written in a Tudor spirit; the Chronicle of London (ed. C. L. Kingsford, 1905), and its biased expansion in Fabyan's Chronicle. See also Letters and Papers Illustrative of the Reigns of Richard III. and Henry VII., ed. J. Gairdner, in Rolls Series. Of later accounts those in Stow s Annales (preserving some oral tradition) and George Buck's Richard III. ap. Kennet History of England deserve mention. Horace Walpole attempted a vindication in his Historic Doubts (1768). The best modern account is James Gairdner's Life of Richard III. (2nd ed., 1898). The latest and fullest defence is given in Sir Clements Markham's Richard III., His Life and Character (1906); G. B. Churchill's Richard the Third up to Shakespeare (Palaestra x., 1900) is a valuable digest of material. (C. L. K.) RICHARD, FRANCOIS MARIE BENJAMIN (1810-1908), archbishop of Paris, French prelate, was born at Nantes on the ist of March 1819. Educated at the seminary of St. Sulpice he became successively vicar-general of Nantes, bishop of Belley, and in 1875 coadjutor of Paris. In 1886 the death of Archbishop Guibert was followed by Mgr. Richard's appoint- ment to the see of Paris, and in 1889 he received a cardinal's hat. In January 1900 the trial of the Assumptionist Fathers resulted in the dissolution of their society as an illegal associa- tion. Next day an official visit of the archbishop to the Fathers was noted by government as an act of a political character, and Mgr. Richard was officially censured. His attitude was in general exceedingly moderate, he had no share in the extremist policy of the Ultrambntanes, and throughout the struggle over the law of Associations and the law of Separations he maintained his reasonable temper. He presided in September 1906 over an assembly of bishops and archbishops at hjs palace in the rue de Crenelle, a few days after the papal encyclical forbidding French Catholics to form associations for public worship, but it was then too late for conciliation. In December he gave up the archiepiscopal palace to the government authorities. He was then an old man of nearly ninety, and his " eviction " evoked great sympathy. Cardinal Richard died on the 29th of January 1908. RICHARD, HENRY (1812-1888), Welsh politician, was the son of the Rev. Ebenezer Richard (1781-1837), a Calvinistic Methodist minister, and was born on the 3rd of April 1812. Educated at Llangeitho grammar school, he also studied at a college at Highbury, and in 1835 he became minister of a Con- gregational church in the Old Kent Road, London, a position which he retained for fifteen years. Richard is chiefly known as an advocate of peace and international arbitration. In 1848 he became secretary of the Peace Society, and in this capacity he helped to organize a series of congresses in the capitals of Europe, and was partly instrumental in securing the insertion of a declaration in favour of arbitration in the treaty of Paris in 1856. He resigned this post in 1885. In 1868 Richard was elected member of parliament for the Merthyr boroughs, and he remained in the House of Commons until his death at Treborth, near Bangor, on the 20th of August 1888. In parliament he was a leading member of the party which advocated the removal of Nonconformist grievances and the disestablishment of the church in Wales; in 1877 he was chairman of the Congregational Union of England and Wales. Among Richard's writings may be mentioned: Defensive War (1846, and again 1800); Memoirs of Joseph Sturge (1864); Letters on the Social and Political Condition of the Principality of Wales (1866, and again 1884); and The Recent Progress of International Arbitration (1884). He also prepared some of the material for the life of his friend and associate, Richard Cobden, which was written by Mr John, now Lord, Morley; and he did some journalistic work in the Morning Star and the Evening Star. See C. S. Miall, Henry Richard, M.P. (1889); L. Appleton, Memoirs of Henry Richard (1889); and articles in Cymru Fydd for 1888. RICHARD OF CIRENCESTER (c. i33S~f- HOI), historical writer, was a member of the Benedictine abbey at Westminster, and his name (" Circestre ") first appears on the chamberlain's list of the monks of that foundation drawn up in the year 1355. In the year 1391 he obtained a licence from the abbot to go to Rome, and in this the abbot gives his testimony to Richard's xxin. 10 a 298 RICHARD OF DEVIZES— RICHARD OF ST VICTOR perfect and sincere observance of religion for upwards of thirty years. In 1400 Richard was in the infirmary of the abbey, where he died in the following year. His only known extant work is Speculum Hisloriale de Geslis Regum Angliae, 447-1066. The MS. of this is in the university library at Cambridge, and has been edited for the Rolls Series (No. 30) by Professor J. E. B. Mayor (2 vols., London, 1863-69). It is in four books, and at the conclusion of the fourth book Richard expresses his intention of continuing his narrative from the accession of William I., and incorporating a sketch of the Conqueror's career from his birth. This design he does not, however, appear to have carried into effect. The value of the Speculum as a con- tribution to our historical knowledge is but slight, for it is mainly a compilation from other writers; while even in trans- scribing these the compiler is guilty of great carelessness. He gives, however, numerous charters relating to Westminster Abbey, and also a very complete account of the saints whose tombs were in the abbey church, and especially of Edward the Confessor. The work was, however, largely used by historians and antiquaries, until, with the rise of a more critical spirit, its value became more accurately estimated. Besides the Spec- ulum Richard also wrote, according to the statement of William of Woodford in his Answer to Wycliffe (Edward Brown, Fasciculus Rerum expetendarum, p. 193), a treatise De Officiis; and there was formerly in the cathedral library at Peterborough another tractate from his pen, entitled Super Symbolum. Of neither of these works, however, does any known copy now exist. The Speculum affords the most conclusive proof of the spurious- ness of another work attributed to Richard and long accepted by the learned world as his. This was the De Situ Britanniae, an elaborate forgery relating to the antiquities of Roman Britain, which first appeared at Copenhagen in the year 1747. It was printed with the works of Gildas and Nennius, under the editorship of Charles Julius Bertram, professor of English in the academy of Copenhagen in the middle of the i8th century, with the following special title: " Richard! Corinensis monachi Westmonasteriensis de situ Britanniae libri duo. E. Codici MS. descripsit, Notisque et Indice adornavit Carolus Bertram." This forgery was accepted as genuine by a well-known antiquary of the 1 8th century, Dr William Stukeley, and under the sanction of his authority continued for a long time to be regarded in the same light by numerous scholars and antiquaries, including Gibbon and Lingard. On the other hand, critics of a later date gave expression, on various grounds, to a contrary conclusion. All doubt on the subject may, however, be held to have been effectually set at rest by the masterly exposure of the whole fraud drawn up by Professor Mayor in the preface to the edition above referred to of the Speculum. He has there not only demonstrated, from the external and internal evidence alike, the spuriousness of the whole treatise, but in a collation (extending to nearly a hundred pages) of numerous passages with corresponding passages in classical medieval authorities, has also traced out the various sources whence Bertram derived the terminology and the facts which he reproduced in the De Situ. (J. B. M.) RICHARD OF DEVIZES (fl. 1191), English chronicler, was a monk of St Swithin's house at Winchester. His birthplace is probably indicated by his surname, but of his life we know nothing. He is credited by Bale with the composition of the Annales de Wintonia, which are edited by Luard in the second volume of the Annales Monastici. If this statement be correct, then the chronicler survived King Richard I. But the Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricardi Primi, by which Richard of Devizes is chiefly known, only covers the first three years of that king's reign; it is practically an account of events in England and the Holy Land during the Third Crusade. For the events of the crusade itself, Richard is a poor authority. But his account of the preparations for the crusade, and of English affairs in the king's absence, is valuable, in spite of some inaccuracies. The author is intensely conservative, steeped in the prejudices of his order, and particularly hostile to the Jews and to the chancellor, William Longchamp. He writes in a vivid and epigrammatic style; his Latin shows the effect of the 12th- century renaissance in its polish and in its reminiscences of classical poets. See the editions of the Chronicon de rebus gestis Ricatdi Primi by J. Stevenson (Eng. Historical Soc., 1838) and by R. Howlett in Chronicles of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II. and Richard 1., vol. iii. (Rolls Series, 1886); the Annales de Wintonia in H. R. Luard's Annales Monastici, vol. ii. (Rolls Series, London, 1864-69). (H. W. C. D.) RICHARD OF HEXHAH (fl. 1141), English chronicler, became prior of Hexham about 1141, and died between 1163 and 1178. He wrote Brevis Annotatio, a short history of the church of Hexham from 674 to 1138, for which he borrowed from Bede, Eddius and Simeon of Durham. This is published by J. Raine in The Priory of Hexham, its Chroniclers, Endowments and Annals (Durham, 1864-65). More important is his Historia de gestis regis Stephani et de hello Standardii, very valuable for the history of the north of England during the earlier part of the reign of Stephen, and especially for the battle of the Standard. This history, which is a contemporary one, covers the period from the death of Henry I. in 1135 to early in 1139. It has been edited for the Rolls Series by R. Howlett in the Chroniclers of the Reigns of Stephen, Henry II. and Richard /., vol. iii. (1886); and has been translated by J. Stevenson in the Church Historians of England, vol. iv. (1856). RICHARD OF ILCHESTER (d. 1188), English statesman and prelate, was born in the diocese of Bath, where he obtained preferment. Early in the reign of Henry II., however, he is found acting as a clerk in the king's court, probably under Thomas Becket, and he was one of the officials who assisted Henry in carrying out his great judicial and financial reforms. • In 1162, or 1163, he was appointed archdeacon of Poitiers, but he passed most of his time in England, although in the next two or three years he visited Pope Alexander III. and the Emperor Frederick I. in the interests of the English king, who was then engaged in his struggle with Becket. For promising to support Frederick against Alexander he was excommunicated by Becket in 1 1 66. Before this event, however, Richard had been ap- pointed a baron of the exchequer, his great industry and exceptional abilities as an accountant being recognized by giving him a special seat at the exchequer table, and from 1168 until his death he frequently acted as one of the itinerant justices. Although totally immersed in secular business he received several rich ecclesiastical offices, and in May 1173 he was elected bishop of Winchester, being consecrated at Canter- bury in October 1174. Richard still continued to serve Henry II. In 1176 he was appointed justiciar and seneschal of Normandy, and was given full control of all the royal business in the duchy. He died on the 2ist or 22nd of December 1188, and was buried in Winchester cathedral. Richard owes his surname, to the fact that Henry II. granted him a mill at Ilchester; he is also called Richard of Toclyve. See the article by Miss K. Norgate in the Diet. Nat. Biog., vol. xlviii. (1896); and W. R. W. Stephens and W. W. Capes, The Bishops of Winchester (1907). RICHARD OF ST VICTOR (d. 1173), theologian and mystic of the I2th century. Very little is known of his life; he was born in Scotland or in England, and went to Paris, where he entered the abbey of St Victor and was a pupil of the great mystic, Hugh of St Victor. He succeeded as prior of this house in 1162, and was continually contesting the tyrannical authority of the abbot Ervisius. His writings, some of which are still in manuscript, are very numerous, the best known being his mystical treatises: De statu hominis interioris, De praeparatione animi ad contemplalionem, De gratia conlemplationis, De gradibus caritatis, De area nuptica, and his two works on the Trinity: De trinitate libri sex, De tribus appropriatis personis in Trinitate, As is the case with all the Victorines, his mysticism was a reaction against the philosophy of the schools of his time, a perpetual justification of contemplation as opposed to logical reasoning. According to him, six steps lead the soul to con- templation: (i) contemplation of visible and tangible objects; (2) study of the productions of nature and of art; (3) study of character; (4) study of souls and of spirits; (5) entrance to the mystical region which ends in (6) ecstasy. His theory of the Trinity is chiefly based on the arguments of Anselm of Canter- bury, although a certain deification of the social sense is evident. RICHARDIA— RICHARDSON, H. H. 299 His style is most affected, and the influence of the neo-Platonist terminology as well as of the works of the pseudo-Dionysius can be clearly detected. In the Paradis Dante has placed Richard de St Victor, whose books were much read by his contem- poraries, among the greatest teachers of the Church. His writ- ings seem to have come into favour again in the i6th and I7th centuries, six editions of his works having been printed between 1506 and 1650. BIBLIOGRAPHY. -CEuvres, edited in the Patrologia latino. by Migne, vol. cxcvi.; W. Kaulich, " Die Lehren des Hugo und Richard von St Victor " (Abhandlungen der K. bohmischen Gesellschaft der Wissen- schaften. V. Folge, vol. xiii. (2nd ed. Paris, 1905), p. 231 (Prague, 1864) ; P. C. F. Daunou, article in Histoire litteraire de la France, tome xiii. (Paris, 1869) ; G. Buonamici, Riccardo da S. Vittore (Alatri, 1899) ; De Wulf , Histoire de la philosophic medievale (2nd ed. Paris, 1 905) , p. 23 1 . RICHARDIA, a small genus of the nat. ord. Araceae, native in South Africa, to which the " arum lily " belongs. They are all greenhouse herbaceous plants of handsome appearance, with thick underground stems and large, more or less fleshy, long-stalked, arrow-shaped leaves and white or yellow flower spathes. They are readily propagated by division of the shoot, also by seed. Water should be given abundantly at all times, and the soil for potting should be rich and retentive. Potting is best effected in spring, and from the end of June to the end of August they should be plunged in a sunny spot out of doors. They will not withstand frost, and should be wintered in a warm greenhouse. They flower throughout the year. RICHARDS, ALFRED BATE (1820-1876), English journalist, was born in Worcestershire on the iyth of February 1820, and was educated at Westminster School and Exeter College, Oxford. After taking his degree in 1841 he published, anonymously, Oxford Unmasked, a denunciation of abuses in the university. Between 1845 and 1848 he wrote several dramas and some poetry, and in the latter year became editor of a weekly news- paper, the British Army Despatch. His temperament was strongly Imperialist; he opposed Cobden and the Manchester school of politicians, and in a volume entitled Britain Redeemed and Canada Preserved predicted, thirty years before the event, the construction of the Canadian Pacific railway. In 1855 he was appointed the first editor of the London Daily Telegraph, and through the medium of that journal strongly urged the forma- tion of volunteer rifle corps. The National and Constitutional Defence Association was established in 1858 to carry out the idea. Richards himself raised a regiment of a thousand working men in London, becoming major and subsequently colonel of the corps. In 1870 he was appointed editor of the London Morning Advertiser, and retained this position till his death on the 1 2th of June 1876. RICHARDS, HENRY BRINLEY (1810-1865), English pianist and composer, was born at Carmarthen, and educated at the Royal Academy of Music in London, where later he was a professor. He took much interest in Welsh music and in the Eisteddfod gatherings. He was a prolific composer, but is perhaps principally remembered for writing the song " God bless the Prince of Wales " (1862), which has been adopted as an English national anthem. RICHARDS, WILLIAM TROST (1833-1905), American marine painter, was born at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the I4th of November 1833. He was a pupil of Paul Weber in his native city, and lived much in France, Italy and London. He was a member of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, and of the American Water Colour Society. Examples of his work are in the collections of the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Philadelphia, Penn.; the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, D.C., and the Schaube Gallery, Hamburg. He died at Newport, Rhode Island, on the 8th of November 1905. His daughter ANNA M. RICHARDS (b. 1870), figure and landscape painter, was a pupil of John La Farge and Benjamin Constant. RICHARDSON, GEORGE, English 18th-century architect and designer. The dates of birth and death of this distinguished contemporary and rival of the brothers Adam are not ascer- tained, but he is conjectured to have been born about 1736 and to have died in 1817. Richardson spent three years — from 1760 to 1763 — travelling in Dalmatia and Istria, in the south of France and in Italy. During that period he imbibed the inspiration of a lifetime, and acquired the material for its practical application. He soon began to show remarkable skill in adapting classical ideals to the uses of his time, and in 1765 he won a premium offered, by the Society of Arts for a design of a street in the classical manner. Richardson's work is so closely allied to that of the brothers Adam that it is often difficult to distinguish between them, and if it possessed less freedom and variety, and bore to a smaller extent the impress of an original mind, it was in the main exceedingly admirable and satisfying. Richardson was an especially successful designer of ceilings and chimneypieces. He published in 1776 a Book of Ceilings in the Style of the Antique Grotesque. Many of its drawings are of exquisite taste. Nor is his fireplace work, as represented by his Collection of Chimneypieces Orna- mented in the Style of the Etruscan, Greek and Roman Archi- tecture (1781), less attractive. Richardson's chimneypieces are still to be found in considerable numbers in town and country houses. They are mostly of marble, but examples in wood are not uncommon. He made extensive use of coloured marbles, and the effect is constantly that of the sumptuous balancing the austere. Like the Adams, Richardson often worked with composition enrichments, and his New Designs in Architecture (1792) contains many drawings of interior friezes and columns to be executed either in this medium or painted to suit the wall hangings. His versatility was con- siderable, as the titles of his works, a dozen in-number, suggest. For many years he exhibited at the Royal Academy as well as in the Galleries of the Society of Arts. Why such a man should have fallen into penury in his old age we have no means of ascertaining, but we know that his necessities were relieved by Nollekens. His principal works in addition to those already mentioned were, in chronological orders Aedes Pembrochianae (1774); Iconoloey (2 vols.), with plates by Bartolozzi and other engravers (1778-1779) ; New Designs in Architecture (1792); Original Designs for Country Seats or Villas (1795); The New Vitruvius Britannicus, a sequel to Colin Campbell's Vitruvius Britannicus, 2 vols. (1802); Ornaments in the Grecian, Roman and Etruscan Tastes (1816). He also pub- lished volumes dealing with vases and tripods, antique friezes and other architectural and decorative details. RICHARDSON, HENRY HOBSON (1838-1886), American architect, was born in the parish of St James, Louisiana, on the 29th of September 1838, of a rich family, his mother being a granddaughter of the famous Dr Priestley, the English dis- senting refugee and man of science. He was graduated from Harvard University in 1859, and going immediately to Paris to study architecture, entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts. The Civil War, which broke out in the United States while he was in the school, prevented his return to Louisiana, and stripped his family of their possessions, so that Richardson provided for his own support by working in the offices of practising architects in Paris, till the fall of 1865. Coming back, he established himself in New York, where he soon made his way into practice as an architect. In 1878 he moved to Boston, where he passed the remaining years of his life, designing there most of the work that made his reputation. He had married in 1867 Miss Julia Gorham Hayden of Boston; he died on the 27th of April 1886, not yet forty-eight years old. Richardson's career was short, and the number of his works was small indeed compared with the attention they attracted and the influence he left behind him. The most important and characteristic are: Trinity church and the so-called Brattle Square church, in Boston; the alterations in the State Capitol at Albany; the county buildings at Pittsburg; town halls at Albany, Springfield and North Easton; town libraries at Woburn, North Easton, Quincy, Burlington and Maiden; Sever Hall and Austin Hall at Harvard University; the Chamber of Commerce at Cincinnati. Trinity church, the Pittsburg buildings and the Capitol at Albany were works of great importance, which have had a strong influence on men RICHARDSON, SIR J.— RICHARDSON, S. 300 who followed him and brought him wide acknowledgment. It is notable that American architects who have studied in Europe, especially in Paris, are apt to drift either into a pathless eclec- ticism or into the English current. Richardson did neither. The Romanesque that he saw in Europe, especially in the middle and south of France, appealed so strongly to his sense for mass and broad picturesqueness that he soon followed its leading, away from the style he had learned in Paris. His earliest work was modern French in style; his first church, in Springfield, a startlingly independent version of English Gothic. Yet half a dozen buildings made the transition to that derivative of Romanesque to which afterwards in all his buildings he steadfastly adhered. In Trinity church, his first monumental work, perhaps his finest, he broke away absolutely from the prevailing English Gothic fashion. Instead of the long Latin cross with aisles and transepts, he made a wide cross almost Greek in plan, with short arms fifty feet broad and aisles that are only passages, a narthex flanked by two western towers, a nave of one double bay, an eastern arm prolonged into a great apse of the full width of the crossing, over which sits a massive square tower. The arms of the church are barrel- vaulted in wood; under the great tower is a flat coffered ceiling a hundred feet above the floor. The style, though mixed, shows his surrender to the attraction of the churches in Auvergne, which have furnished the material for the design of the apse. The central tower is a reminiscence of the noble lantern of the old cathedral of Salamanca, but the square outline is insisted on instead of the polygonal, and the forms are in other ways much changed. The alteration of the Capitol at Albany, half a dozen years later, shared with Leopold Eidlitz, was a compromise in style, and so lacks the sure handling of his best work, except in that part of the interior in which he was untrammelled, the Senate Chamber and the great staircase. In the buildings at Pittsburg, on the other hand, he was free from interference, and these satisfied him more than any other of his buildings. His great design for the new cathedral at Albany, an adaptation of the Romanesque forms of Auvergne to a large modern problem, would have displayed his mature manner, and been perhaps his greatest work; but the plan did not lend itself to the tradition or the ritual of the Anglican Church, and it was rejected, to his great disappointment. At first the breadth of his compositions was offset by a richness of ornament which he afterwards called flamboyant, but there was a continual growth in simplicity. Some of his imitators have abused his example, running into mere baldness and brutality, but his own work never lost the fineness of quality with which he began, nor the adequacy of its detail. Richardson's uncommon personality so embodied itself in his works that it cannot be overlooked. He had an inexhaustible energy of body and mind, an enthusiasm more genial than combative, but so abounding and at times vehement that few men and few bodies of men could resist him. Abounding energy he had, but not health. . A serious bodily injury, and later a chronic malady, made his last years a con- stant struggle with suffering and infirmity, borne with in- domitable cheerfulness, but at last fatal. It is likely that the small number of his designs enhanced their quality. He put twice the labour into his work that the average architect would have given to it, and often twice the time, but the result was apt to be twice as good. He found American architecture restless, incoherent and exuberant; his example did much to turn it back to simplicity and repose. He came as near to establishing a style as it is given to any one man to come; but the tendency of the time was too strong, and the classic styles, reasserting themselves, once more drove out the medieval. The best known book about Richardson is Mrs Schuyler van Rensselaer's H. H. Richardson and his Works (Boston, 1888). (W. P. P. L.) RICHARDSON, SIR JOHN (1787-1865), British naturalist, was born at Dumfries on the sth of November 1787. He studied medicine at Edinburgh, and became a surgeon in the navy in 1807. In 1819 he was appointed surgeon and naturalist to Franklin's first arctic expedition (1810-22), and he served in the same capacity to the second (1825-26). The scientific results of these expeditions he described in contributions to Franklin's Narratives, and especially in the four quarto volumes of his Fauna Boreali-Americana (1829-37). He was knighted in 1846, and hi the following year was chosen commander of the Franklin search expedition (1848-49), the journal of which he published in 1851 under the title of An Arctic Searching Expedition. In 1855 he retired to Grasmere, where he died on the sth of June 1865. He also wrote accounts dealing with the natural history, and especially the ichthyology, of several other arctic voyages, and was the author of Icones Piscium (1843), Catalogue of Apodal Fish in the British Museum, translated from the German MS. (1856), the second edition of Yarrell's History of British Fishes (1860), and The Polar Regions (1861), expanded from an article with the same title which he wrote for the Ency- clopaedia Britannica. A Life by John Macllraith was published in 1868. RICHARDSON, SAMUEL (1689-1761), English novelist,' is a notable example of that " late-flowering " sometimes applied to Oliver Goldsmith. Born under William and Mary, the reign of the second George was well advanced before, at fifty years of age, he made his first serious literary effort — an effort which was not only a success, but the revelation of a new literary form. He was the son of a London joiner, who, for obscure reasons, probably connected with Monmouth's rebellion, had retired to an unidentified town in Derbyshire, where, in 1689, Samuel was born. At first intended for holy orders, and having little but the common learning of a private grammar school — for the tradition that upon the return of the family to the metropolis he went to Christ's Hospital cannot be sustained — he was eventually, as some compensation for a literary turn, apprenticed at seventeen to an Aldersgate printer named John Wilde. Here, like the typical " good apprentice " of his century, he prospered; became successively compositor, corrector of the press, and printer on his own account; married his master's daughter according to programme; set up newspapers and books; dabbled a little in literature by compiling indexes and " honest dedications," and ultimately proceeded Printer of the Journals of the House of Commons, Master of the Stationers' Company, and Law-Printer to the King. Like all well-to-do citizens, he had his city house of business and his " country box " in the suburbs; and, after a thoroughly " respectable " life, died on the 4th of July 1761, being buried in St Bride's Church, Fleet Street, close to his shop (now demolished), No. n Salisbury Court. To this uneventful and conventional career one would scarcely look for the birth and growth of a fresh departure in fiction. And yet, although Richardson's manifestation of his literary gift was deferred for half a century, there is no life to which the Horatian " qualis ab incepto " can be more appropriately applied. From his youth this moralist had moralized; from his youth — nay, from his childhood — this letter-writer had written letters; from his youth this supreme delineator of the other sex had been the confidant and counsellor of women. In his boyhood he was secretary-general to all the love-sick girls of the neighbourhood; at eleven he addressed a hortatory epistle, stuffed with texts, to a scandal-loving widow; and whenever it was possible to correspond with any one he was as " correspond- ing " as even Horace Walpole could have desired. At last, when he was known to the world only as a steady business man, who was also a " dab at an index " and an invaluable compiler of the " puff prefatory," it occurred to Mr Rivington of St Paul's Churchyard and Mj Osborn of Paternoster Row, two book- selling friends who were aware of his epistolary gifts, to suggest that he should prepare a little model letter-writer for such " country readers " as " were unable to indite for themselves." Would it be any harm, he suggested in answer, if he should also " instruct them how they should think and act in common cases "? His friends were all the more anxious that he should RICHARDSON, S. set to work. And thus originated his first novel of Pamela; or, Virtue Rewarded. But not forthwith, as is sometimes supposed. Proceeding with the compilation of his model letter-writer, and seeking, in his own words, " to instruct handsome girls, who were obliged to go out on service . . . how to avoid the snares that might be laid against their virtue " — a danger which appears to have always abnormally preoccupied him — he came to recollect a story he had heard twenty years earlier, and had often proposed to other persons for fictitious treatment. It occurred to him that it would make a book of itself, and might moreover be told wholly in the fashion most congenial to himself, namely, by letters. Thereupon, with some domestic encouragement, he completed it in a couple of months, between the loth of Novem- ber 1739 and the loth of January 1740. In November 1740 it was issued by Messrs Rivington & Osborn, who, a few weeks afterwards (January 1741), also published the model letter- writer under the title of Letters written to and for Particular Friends, on the most Important Occasions. Both books were anonymous. The letter-writer was noticed in the Gentleman's Magazine for January, which also contains a brief announce- ment as to Pamela, already rapidly making its way without waiting for the reviewers. A second edition, it was stated, was expected; and such was its popularity, that not to have read it was judged " as great a sign of want of curiosity as not to have seen the French and Italian dancers " — i.e. Mme Chateauneuf and the Fausans, who were then delighting the town. In February a second edition duly appeared, followed by a third in March and a fourth in May. At public gardens ladies held up the book to show they had got it; Dr Benjamin Slocock of Southwark openly commended it from the pulpit; Pope praised it; and at Slough, when the heroine triumphed, the enraptured villagers rang the church bells for joy. The other volume of " familiar letters'" consequently fell into the background in the estimation of its author, who, though it went into several editions during his lifetime, never acknowledged it. Yet it scarcely deserves to be wholly neglected, as it contains many useful details and much shrewd criticism of lower middle-class life. For the exceptional success of Pamela there was the obvious excuse of novelty. People were tired of the old " mouthy " romances about impossible people doing impossible things. Here was a real-life story, which might happen to any one — a story which aroused curiosity and arrested attention — which was not exclusively about " high life," and which had, in addition, a moral purpose, since it was avowedly " published in order to cultivate the principles of virtue and religion in the minds of the youth of both sexes." Whether it had exactly this effect, or owed its good fortune chiefly to this proclamation, may be doubted. The heroine in humble life who resists the licentious advances of her master until he is forced to marry her, does not entirely convince us that her watchful prudence and keen eye for the main chance have not, in the long run, quite as much to do with her successful defence as her boasted innocence and purity. Nor is the book without passages which more than smack of an unpleasant pruriency. Nevertheless, in its extra- ordinary gift of minute analysis; in its intimate knowledge of feminine character; in the cumulative power of its shuffling, loose-shod style, and, above all, in the unquestionable earnest- ness and sincerity of the writer, Pamela had qualities which — particularly in a dead season of letters — sufficiently account for its favourable reception by the contemporary public. Such a popularity, of course, was not without its draw- backs. That it would lead to Anti-Pamelas, censures of Pamela and all the spawn of pamphlets which spring round the track of a sudden success, was to be anticipated. One of the results to which its rather sickly morality gave rise was the Joseph Andrews (1742) of Fielding (?.».). But there are two other works prompted by Pamela which need brief notice here. One is the Apology for the Life of Mrs Shamela Andrews, a clever and very gross piece of raillery which appeared in 301 April 1741, and by which Fielding is supposed to have pre- luded to Joseph Andrews. Fielding's own works contain no reference to Shamela. But Richardson in his Correspond- ence, both printed and unprinted, roundly attributes it to the writer who was to be his rival; and it is also assigned to Field- ing by other contemporaries (Hist. MSS. Commn., Rept. 12, App. Pt. IX. p. 204). All that can be said is, that Fielding's authorship cannot be proved. If it could, it would go far to justify the after animosity of Richardson to Fielding — much farther, indeed, than what Richardson described as the " lewd and ungenerous engraftment " of Joseph Andrews. The second noteworthy result of Pamela was Pamela's Con- duct in High Life (September 1741), a spurious sequel by John Kelly of the Universal Spectator. Richardson tried to prevent its appearance, and, having failed, set about two volumes of his own, which followed in December, and professed to depict his heroine " in her exalted condition." But the public in- terest in Pamela had practically ceased with her marriage, and the author's continuation, like other continuations — particu- larly continuations prompted by extraneous circumstances — attracted no permanent attention. About 1744 we begin to hear something of the progress of Richardson's second and greatest novel, Clarissa; or, the History of a Young Lady, usually miscalled Clarissa Har- lowe. The first edition was in seven volumes, two of which came out in November 1747, two more in April 1748 and the last three in December. Upon the title-page of this, of which the mission was as edifying as that of Pamela, its object was defined as showing the distresses that may attend the misconduct both of parents and children in relation to marriage. Virtue, in Clarissa, is not " rewarded," but hunted down and outraged. The heroine, no longer an opportunist servant-girl, is a most pure, refined and beautiful young woman, invested with every attribute to attract and charm, while her pursuer, Lovelace, the libertine hero of the book — a personage of singular dash and vivacity, in spite of his worth- lessness — is drawn with extraordinary tenacity of power. The wronged Clarissa eventually dies of grief, and her cold- blooded betrayer, whom strict justice would have hanged, is considerately killed in a duel by her soldier cousin. Of the genius of the story there can be no doubt. Nor is there any doubt as to the ability shown in the delineation of the two chief characters, to whom the rest are merely subordinate. The chief drawbacks of Clarissa are its merciless prolixity (seven volumes, which only cover eleven months); the fact that (like Pamela) it is told by letters; and a certain haunting and uneasy feeling that many of the heroine's obstacles are only molehills which should have been readily surmounted. As to its success, accentuated as this was by its piecemeal method of publication, there has never been any question. Clarissa's sorrows set all England sobbing, and her fame and her fate spread rapidly to the Continent. Between Clarissa and Richardson's next work appeared the Tom Jones of Fielding— a rival by no means welcome to the elder writer, although a rival who generously (and perhaps penitently) acknowledged Clarissa's rare merits. " Pectus inaniter angit Irritat, mulcet, falsis terroribus implet Ut Magus," Fielding had written in the Jacobite's Journal. But even this could not console Richardson for the popularity of the " spurious brat " whom Fielding had made his hero, and his next effort was the depicting of a genuine fine gentleman — a task to which he was incited by a chorus of feminine wor- shippers. In the History of Sir Charles Grandison, " by the Editor of Pamela and Clarissa " (for he still preserved the fiction of anonymity), he essayed to draw a perfect model of manly character and conduct. In the pattern presented there is, however, too much buckram, too much ceremonial — in plain words, too much priggishness — to make him the de- sired exemplar of propriety in excelsis. Yet he is not entirely a failure, still less is he to be regarded as no more than " the 302 RICHELIEU, DUG DE condescending suit of clothes " by which Hazlitt unfairly defines Miss Burney's Lord Orville. When Richardson de- lineated Sir Charles Grandison he was at his best, and his experiences and opportunities for inventing such a character were infinitely greater than they had ever been before. And he lost nothing of his gift for portraying the other sex. Harriet Byron, Clementina della Porretta and even Charlotte Gran- dison, are no whit behind Clarissa and her friend Miss Howe. Sir Charles Grandison, in fine, is a far better book than Pamela, although M. Taine regarded the hero as only fit to be stuffed and put in a museum. Grandison was published in 1753, and by this time Richard- son was sixty-four. Although the book was welcomed as warmly as its predecessors, he wrote no other novel, content- ing himself instead with indexing his works, and compiling an anthology of the " maxims," " cautions " and " instructive sentiments " they contained. To these things, as a professed moralist, he had always attached the greatest importance. He continued to correspond relentlessly with a large circle of worshippers, mostly women, whose counsels and fertilizing sympathy had not a little contributed to the success of his last two books. He was a nervous, highly strung little man, intensely preoccupied with his health and his feelings, hungry for praise when he had once tasted it, and afterwards unable to exist without it; but apart from these things, well meaning, benevolent, honest, industrious and religious. Seven vast folio volumes of his correspondence with his lady friends, and with a few men of the Young and Aaron Hill type, are pre- served in the Forster Library at South Kensington. Parts of it only have been printed. There are several good portraits of him by Joseph Highmore, two of which are in the National Portrait Gallery. Richardson is sometimes styled the " Father of the English Novel," a title which has also been claimed for Defoe. It would be more accurate to call him the father of the novel of sentimental analysis. As Sir Walter Scott has said, no one before had dived so deeply into the human heart. No one, moreover, had brought to the study of feminine character so much prolonged research, so much patience of observation, so mu) RIESA, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Saxony, pleasantly situated on the left bank of the Elbe, 30 m. N.W. of Dresden, on the main line of railway to Leipzig, and at the junction of lines to Chemnitz, Elsterwerda and Nossen. Pop. 14,073. The river is here crossed by a fine bridge, a 324 RIESENER— RIESENGEBIRGE sandstone and iron structure, carrying both railway and road, and replacing the one carried away by floods in 1875. The town contains two Evangelical churches, a castle, formerly a convent and now used as a town hall, and several schools. There is a harbour with quays and a dockyard, also rolling- mills and saw-mills, ironworks and sandstone quarries. Other industries are the manufacture of furniture, beer, soap, carriages and bricks. The most important shipping station on the Elbe in Saxony, Riesa is the lading-place for goods to and from Bavaria, and a mart for herrings, petroleum, wood, coal and grain. A constant passenger steamboat communication is maintained with Meissen and Dresden; and, owing to the artillery practice ranges at Zeithain, on the right bank of the Elbe, Riesa has become of recent years one of the chief depots of the Saxon army. Riesa received municipal rights in 1632, and after a period of decay was again raised to the rank of a town in 1859. RIESENER, JEAN HENRI (1734-1806), French cabinet-maker of the Louis XVI. period, was born at Gladbach near Cologne. At an early age he went to Paris, where he entered the workshop in the Arsenal of Jean Francois Oeben (?.».). When that great master died, Riesener became foreman of the works; two years later he married Mme. Oeben, and in 1 768 was admitted " maitre- menuisier-ebeniste." His wife died in 1776, and in 1782 he espoused, as his second wife, Anne Grezel, daughter of a bourgeois of Paris. The union was unhappy, and when, under the first Republic, divorce was legalized, the marriage was dissolved. When Riesener contracted his first marriage he possessed little or nothing; his second contract of marriage recited that in cash and in the money due to him by Louis XVI. he was worth more than £20,000, without counting the finished work in hand, bronze models, jewels and personal effects and invested funds. Thus in fifteen years he had accumulated a f ortuneamountingin all to about £40,000. By that time there had been conferred upon him the title, formerly enjoyed by Oeben, of " Ebeniste du Roi." He died on the 6th of January 1806, in the Enclos des Jacobins, leaving an only son, Henri Francois (1767-1828), a distinguished portrait- painter of the First Empire. Riesener was unquestionably the greatest of the Louis Seize cabinet-makers. His name is stamped upon the Bureau du Roi in the Louvre, and although the original conception of that master-work was due to Oeben, it cannot be doubted that its consummate finish and perfect achievement must in great measure be attributed to the man who completed it. Occasionally there may, perhaps, be some lack of spon- taneity in his forms, but his work is generally at once bold and graceful. His marquetry presents an extraordinary finish; his chiselled bronzes are of the first excellence. He was especially distinguished for his cabinets, in which he employed many European as well as exotic woods. Wreaths and bunches of flowers form the centres of the panels; on the sides are often diaper patterns in quiet colours. Yet despite his distinction as a maker of cabinets his high-water mark was reached in the Bureau du Roi, finished in 1769 and consequently belonging rather to the Louis Quinze than the Louis Seize period, and a not altogether dissimilar cylinder bureau believed to have been made for Stanislas Leszczynski, king of Poland, now in the Wallace Collection. Stanislas died in 1766, but the desk was not completed until February 20, 1769, as appears by the inscription accompanying the maker's signature. Upon its completion it passed into the possession of the French crown and was included in a sale of the royal furniture which took place in Holland. It was purchased by Sir William Hamilton, then British Minister at the Hague, and appears to have passfid out of his hands when he left Naples, where it was purchased by Sir Richard Wallace. At Buckingham Palace there is a third bureau on the same lines. These pieces are triumphs of marquetry. They are inlaid with trophies of musical instruments, doves, bouquets and garlands of flowers; the bronze vases and " galleries" are exquisite — they may possibly be the work of Gouthiere, but are more probably from the hands of Duplessis. For several years this great artist appears to have used the models of his master Oeben, but there was a gradual transition to a style more individual, more delicately conceived, with finer but hardly less vigorous lines. By the time he had been working alone for ten years he had completely embraced the Louis Seize manner — he had, perhaps, some responsibility for it. One of the most distinguished of his achievements for the court was the famous flat writing-table now at the Petit Trianon, for which he received only £200. The extent of these royal orders may be gauged from the fact that between 1775 and 1785 Riesener received 500,000 livres from the Garde Meubles, notwithstanding that during the whole of this period Gondouin the architect was the official designer of furniture for the royal palaces. Like so many other artists he was con- demned in the end to sacrifice to the false taste of his day, and a certain number of his creations, otherwise delightful, were vitiated by being mounted with panels of Sevres, Wedg- wood and other china. The beautiful little secretaire in the Jones collection in the Victoria and Albert Museum suffers seriously by this lapse. RIESENGEBIRGE (Bohemian Krkonose), or Giant Moun- tains, a lofty and rugged group on the boundary of Silesia and Bohemia, between the upper courses of the Elbe and the Oder. They form the highest portion of the Sudetic system which separates south-east Prussia from the Austrian empire, and finds its natural continuation towards the N.W. in the Erz- gebirge, the Thuringian Forest and the Harz Mountains. Adjoining the Isergebirge and the Lausitzergebirge on the W., and the Eulengebirge and the Adlergebirge on the E. and S.E., the Riesengebirge proper run S.E. and N.W. between the sources of the Zacken and the Bober, for a distance of 23 m., with a breadth of 14 m. They cover an area of about 425 sq. m., three-fourths of which is in Austrian, and the remainder in Prussian territory. The boundary line follows the crest of the principal chain or ridge (Riesenkamm), which stretches along the northern side of the group, with an average height of over 4000 ft. The principal peaks are the Reiftrager (4430 ft.), the Hohe Rad (4968 ft.), the Great Sturmhaube (4862 ft.), the Little Sturmhaube (4646 ft.), and, near the east extremity, the Schneekoppe or Riesenkoppe (5266 ft.), the loftiest mountain in northern or central Germany. Roughly parallel to this northern ridge, and separated from it by a long narrow valley known as the Siebengriinde, there extends on the S. a second and lower chain, of broad massive " saddles," with comparatively few peaks. The chief heights here are Kesselkoppe (47°8 ft.), the Krkonose (4849 ft.), the Ziegenriicken and the Brunnen- berg (5072 ft.). From both ridges spurs of greater or less length are sent off at various angles, whence a magnificent view is obtained from Breslau to Prague; the lowlands of Silesia, watered by the Oder, and those of Bohemia, intersected by the Elbe and the Moldau, appearing to lie mapped in relief. The summit is crowned by a chapel dedicated to St Lawrence, which once also served as a traveller's shelter. Since 1850 the chapel has been restored to its religious use, and a hotel for the accom- modation of tourists is built close by. A remarkable group of isolated columnar rocks are those known as the Adersbacher Felsen in a valley on the Bohemian side of the Riesengebirge, 9 m. W.N.W. of Braunau. On its northern side this mountain group rises ruggedly and precipitously from the Hirschberg valley; but on its southern side its slope towards Bohemia is very much more gradual. The scenery is in general bold and wild. The Bohemian ridge is cleft about the middle by a deep gorge through which pour the headwaters of the river Elbe, which finds its source in the Siebengriinde. The Iser, Bober, Aupa, Zacken, Queiss, and a great number of smaller streams also rise among these mountains or on their skirts; and small lakes and tarns are not unfrequent in the valleys. The Great and Little Schneegruben — two deep rocky gorge-like valleys in which snow remains all the year round — lie to the north of the Hohe Rad. Nearly the whole of the Riesenkamm and the western portion of the southern chain are granite; the eastern extremity of the main ridge and several mountains to the south-east are formed of a species of gneiss; and the greater part of the Bohemian chain, especially its summits, consists of mica-slate. Blocks of these minerals lie scattered on the sides and ridges of the mountains and RIETI— RIFLE 325 in the beds of the streams ; and extensive turf moors occupy many of the mountain slopes and valleys. The lower parts of the Riesenge- birge are clad w .th forests of oak, beech, pine and fir; above 1600 ft. only the last two kinds of trees are found, and beyond about 3950 ft. only the dwarf pine (Pinus Pumilio). Various alpine plants are found on the Riesengebirge, some of them having been artificially introduced on the Schneekoppe. Wheat is grown at an elevation of 1800 ft. above the sea-level, and oats as high as 2700 ft. Th<; inhabitants of this mountain region, who are tolerably numerous, ef pecially on the Bohemian side, live for the most part, not in villages, but in scattered huts called " Bauden." They support themselves by the rearing of cattle, tillage, glass-making and linen-weaving. Mining is carried on only to a small extent for arsenic, although there are traces of former more extensive workings for other metals. The Riesengebirge has of late years been made easily accessible by railway, several branches from the main lines, both on the Silesian and Bohemian side, penetrating the valleys, and thus many spots in the Riesengebirge are a good deal frequented in the summer. The Schneekoppe and other summits are annually visited by a considerable number of travellers, notably the spas of Warmbrunn (near Hirschberg) and Flinsberg on the Gneis, and Gorbersdorf, known as a climate health resort for consumptives. The Riesenge- birge is the legendary home of Number Nip (Rubezahl), a half- mischievous, half-friendly goblin of German folklore, and various localities in the group are more or less directly associated with his name. See Beemann's Oratio de monte Giganteo (Frankfort a. O. 1679) ; Daniel, Deutschland, vol. i. pp. 277-78; and Gebauer, Ldnder-und Volkerkunde, vol. i. RIETI (anc. Rente), a city and episcopal see of Italy, in the piovince of Perugia, 255 m. by rail and 15 m. direct S.S.E. of Terni, which is 70 m. by rail from Rome. Pop. (1901) 14,145 (town), 17,716 (commune). It occupies a fine position 1318 ft. above sea-level on the right bank of the Velino (a torrent sub- tributary to the Tiber), which at this point issues from the limestone plateau; the old town occupies the declivity and the new town spreads out on the level. While with its quaint red- roofed houses, its old town walls (restored about 1250), its castle, its cathedral (i3th and isth centuries), its episcopal palace (1283), and its various churches and convents Rieti has no small amount of medieval picturesqueness; it also displays a good deal of modern activity in vine and olive growing and cattle-breeding. The fertility of the neighbourhood is celebrated both by Virgil and by Cicero. A Roman bridge over the Turano, and the Palazzo Vincentini by Vignola deserve to be mentioned. Reate was reached from Rome by the Via Salaria (q.v.), which may originally have ended there, and a branch road ran from it to Interamna. While hardly mentioned in connexion with the Punic or Civil Wars, Reate is described by Strabo as exhausted by these long contests. Its inhabitants received the Roman franchise at the same time with the rest of the Sabines (290 B.C.), but it appears as a praefectura and not as a municipium down to the beginning of the empire. It was never made a colonia, though veterans of the Praetorian guard and of the eighth (Augusta) and ninth legions were settled there by Vespasian, who belonged to a Reatine family and was born in the neighbourhood. For the contests of the Reatines with the people of Interamna see TERNI. In 1 148 the town was besieged and captured by Roger I. of Sicily. In the struggle between church and empire it always held with the former; and it defied the forces of Frederick II. and Otho IV. Pope Nicholas IV. long resided at Rieti, and it was there he crowned Charles II. of Anjou king of the Two Sicilies. In the I4th century Robert, and afterwards Joanna, of Naples managed to keep possession of Rieti for many years, but it returned to the States of the Church under Gregory IX. About the year 1500, the liberties of the town, long defended against the encroachments of the popes, were entirely abolished. An earthquake in 1785 was in 1799 followed by the much more disastrous pillage of Rieti by the papal troops for a space of fourteen days. RIETSCHEL, ERNST FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1804-1861), German sculptor, was born at Pulsnitz in Saxony. At an early age he became an art student at Dresden, and subsequently a pupil of Rauch in Berlin. He there gained an art studentship, and studied in Rome in 1827-28. After returning to Saxony he soon brought himself into notice by a colossal statue of Frederick Augustus, king of Saxony; was elected a member of the academy of Dresden, and thenceforth became one of the chief sculptors of his country. In 1832 he was elected to the Dresden professorship of sculpture, and had many foreign orders of merit conferred on him by the governments of different countries. He died at Dresden in 1861. Rietschel's style was very varied; he produced works imbued with much religious feeling, and to some extent he occupied the same place as a sculptor that Overbeck did in painting. Other important works by him were purely classical in style. He was specially famed for his portrait figures of eminent men, treated with much idealism and dramatic vigour; among the latter class his chief works were colossal statues of Goethe and Schiller for the town of Weimar, of Weber for Dresden and of Lessing for Brunswick. He also designed the memorial statue of Luther for Worms, but died before he could carry it out. The principal among Rietschel's religious pieces of sculpture are the well-known Christ-Angel, and a life-sized Pieta, executed for the king of Prussia. He also worked a great deal in rilievo, and produced many graceful pieces, especially a fine series of bas-reliefs representing Night and Morning, Noon and Twilight, designed with much poetical feeling and imagination. For a good biography of Rietschel and account of his works see Appermann, Ernst Rietschel (Leipzig, 1863). (J. H. M.) RIEU, CHARLES PIERRE HENRI (1820-1902), Swiss Orientalist, was born at Geneva in 1820. He studied at Bonn University, where he received his doctor's degree in 1843. He entered the British Museum in 1847, and after twenty years of service, a new post, that of keeper of Oriental manuscripts, was created for him. He completed in 1871 the second part, dealing with Arabian MSS., of the Catalogus codicum manu- scriptorum orientalium, which had been begun by William Cureton, and he issued a supplementary volume in 1894. He also drew up a Catalogue of the Turkish Manuscripts (1888) and a Catalogue of the Persian Manuscripts (4 vols., 1870-95), the latter being a storehouse of information on the books and their authors. In 1895 he was made professor of Arabic in the university of Cambridge in succession to Robertson Smith. He died in London on the igth of March 1902. RIEVAULX, a village in the North Riding of Yorkshire, England, 3 m. W. by N. of the small town of Helmsley, which is served by a branch of the North-Eastern railway. Here, exquisitely situated in a deep wooded valley, are the ruins of Rievaulx Abbey, a foundation by Walter 1'Espec in 1131 for Cistercians. The principal remains are those of the cruciform church, mainly Early English in date, and of the finest workman- ship. There are considerable fragments of the refectory, and all the important domestic buildings may be traced. A beautiful prospect over the ruins and the valley is seen from the terrace on the eastern flanking hill. RIFFIANS, the name given to the Berbers of the Rlf district of Morocco, the mountain region bordering the north coast from Ceuta eastward nearly to the borders of Algeria and forming part of the Atlas range. The name, it has been suggested, is identical with Libyan or Libi. A peculiarity of the Rlf dialect is the change of the Arabic " 1 " to " r," and this would seem to support this derivation, " b " and " f " being interchangeable through " v." The Rimans are only nominally subject to the sultan of Morocco, against whose authority they are in constant revolt. They are typical Berbers in physique, tall, well made and muscular, with European features and fair skins bronzed by the sun. In morality they are singularly superior to their neighbours. In order to prevent youthful unchastity, marriages are contracted between children of eight years old, the girl being brought home to live with the lad at his parents' home till a child is born, when a separate dwelling is provided for the youthful couple. The women are noted for their beauty. The Rimans understand and speak Arabic very little. They were among the fiercest and most cruel of the pirates of the north coast of Africa. Even now they are entirely untrust- worthy in this respect. See further BERBERS, MOROCCO, MOORS, KABYLES, MZABITES. RIFLE, a firearm which may be shortly defined as a musket in which, by grooves (cf. Ger. riffeln, to groove) in the bore or otherwise, the projectile is forced to rotate before leaving the barrel. This rotatory motion, maintained during flight, equalizes any irregularities in the form or weight of the bullet, and so lessens the tendency to depart from a straight line, and also in a measure overcomes atmospheric resistance. Rifling was invented about 1520, by Gaspard Roller or Kollner, a gunmaker of Vienna, according to some authorities; by August Kotter of Nuremberg, according to others. It has been said 326 RIFLE that at first the grooves were made straight, with the object of admitting a tight-fitting bullet and relieving the effects of fouling, and that the virtue of spiral grooving was subsequently discovered by accident. But this theory is unsupported. The earliest known rifle barrels have spiral grooving. The amount of turn varied in old rifles from a half or three-quarters turn to one turn in two to three feet. The form and depth of the grooving and the number of grooves also greatly varied. Historical Development of Military Rifles. — For the chief infantry firearms that preceded the modern military rifle, see GUN, ARMS AND ARMOUR (firearms), ARQUEBUS, &c. Rifles were at first used for amusement. There are, however, in- stances of their occasional employment in war in the I7th and 1 8th centuries. In 1631 the landgrave of Hesse had a troop of riflemen. Ten years later Maximilian of Bavaria had several troops armed with rifled arquebuses. Louis XIII. armed his bodyguard with rifles. Napoleon withdrew the rifle from those of his troops to whom it had been issued during the wars of the Republic, nor did the French make any considerable use of it again until 1830, when the Chasseurs d'Orleans were armed with it for the invasion of Algeria. The British learnt the value of rifles during the American War of Independence, when the government subsidized continental Jagers armed with rifles to oppose the American riflemen. After the war these corps disappeared, and though they are now represented by the 6oth (King's Royal) Rifles, the senior rifle corps in the British Army is the Rifle Brigade, raised in 1800 as the gsth Regi- ment and armed with a flint-lock weapon known as " Baker's Rifle, " which weighed pj Ib. The barrel was 23 ft. long, its calibre 20-bore, with seven grooves making a quarter-turn in its length. A small wooden mallet was at first supplied with this rifle to make the ball enter the barrel, and it was loaded with great difficulty. In 1826 Delvigne, a French infantry officer, invented a breech with abrupt shoulders on which the spherical bullet was rammed down until it expanded and filled the grooves. The objection was that the deformed bullet had an erratic flight. Delvigne's system was subsequently improved upon by Thouvenin, who introduced into the breech an iron stem, upon which the bullet, now of conical form, rested, and was expanded by a sharp blow with the iron ramrod when loading. In William IV. 's reign the Brunswick percussion rifle1 was introduced into the British rifle regiments. Its weight with bayonet was n Ib 5a oz.; length of barrel, 2 ft. 6 in., with two grooves making one turn in the length of the barrel; weight of spherical belted bullet, 557 grs.; diameter, -704 in.; charge of powder, 2\ drs. This rifle was not easily loaded, soon fouled, and shot wild beyond 400 yds. In 1835 W. Greener produced a new expansive bullet, an oval ball, a diameter and a half in length, with a flat end, perforated, in. which a cast metallic taper plug was inserted. The explosion of the charge drove the plug home, expanded the bullet, filled the grooves and prevented windage. A trial of the Greener bullet in August 1835 proved successful. The range and accuracy of the rifle were retained, while the loading was made as easy as with a smooth-bore musket. The invention was, however, rejected by the military authorities on the ground that the bullet was a compound one. In 1852 the Government awarded Minie, a Frenchman, £20,000 for a bullet of the same principle adopted into the British service. In 1857 Greener received a belated reward of £1000 for " the first public suggestion of the principle of expansion. " The Minie bullet contained an iron cup in a cavity at the base of the bullet. In 1851 a rifled musket of the Minie pattern was introduced into the British army, and, though not generally issued, was used in the Kaffir War of 1851, and in the Crimea. Its weight with bayonet was 10 ft 8J oz., length of barrel 3 ft. 3 in., with four grooves making one turn in 72 in.; diameter of bore -702 inch; 1The percussion principle, invented by the Rev. Alexander John Forsyth (1768-1843) in 1805, was not accepted for military arms until the introduction of this rifle. A small and belated money grant was made to Forsyth in 1843. See Major-General A. J. F. Reid's memoir of Forsyth (1910). charge of powder 2j drs., and sighted from i-x> to 1000 yds The form of its bullet was at first conoidal, aftei wards changed to cylindro-conoidal, with a hemispherical iron cup. In 1855 the Enfield rifle, having in a series of trials compe. ed favourably with the Minie and Lancaster rifles, was introduced into the British army; it was used during the latter part of the Crimean war, having there replaced the Mini6 rifle and tl'e percussion musket, and remained the general weapon of the er tire infantry until the introduction of the breech-loader in the year 1867. This rifle weighed, with bayonet, 9 Ib 3 oz., barrel 39 in.; diameter of bore -577 in.; three-grooved, with one turn in 78 in. It fired a bullet of cylindro-conoidal form with hollow base, weighing 530 grains, made up into cartridges and lubricated as for the Minie rifle, adapted to this rifle by Pritchett, who was awarded £1000 by the Government. This bullet was wrapped in greased paper round the cylindrical part half-way up its length. Short rifles of the same pattern, with five-grooved barrels 2 ft. 9 in. long and a sword bayonet, were supplied to the 6oth Rifles and to the Rifle Brigade. Two small carbines of the same principle were at this time introduced for the cavalry and artillery, also a rifled pistol. In 1854, on the suggestion of General Lord Hardinge, Sir Joseph Whitworth, the first mechanician of the day, began to consider the subject of rifling, and after a long series of experi- ments the Whitworth rifle was produced with hexagonal bore, •45-in. calibre, and with one turn in 20 in. It was tried at Hythe in 1857, and completely defeated the Enfield rifle up to 1800 yds. upon a fixed rest. This trial and Whitworth's experi- ments proved the advantages of a sharp twist, a smaller bore, and elongated projectile; but Whitworth's rifle was never adopted into the Government service, probably because the hexagonal rifling wore badly, and owing to the difficulty of equal mechanical perfection in all similar rifles and ammunition. Several improvements were subsequently made in the sighting, grooving and some other details of the Enfield rifle. In 1855 a boxwood plug to the bullet was used. Between 1857 and 1861 four breech-loading carbines were experimentally introduced in the cavalry — viz. Sharp's, Terry's, Green's, and Westley-Richards'. Sharp's and other breech- loading carbines and also Spencer repeating carbines were used by the Federal cavalry in the American Civil War. The general adoption of the breech-loading principle may be said to date from 1867. The Prussians were the first to see its great advantages, and about 1841 had adopted the cele- brated needle-gun (?.».), a bolt-action weapon. In 1864 and 1866 committees were appointed by the British War Office to report on breech-loading arms, and after protracted experiments, Jacob Snider's method of conversion of the muzzle - loading En- field to a breech- loader (fig. i) was adopted, with the me- tallic cartridge - case improved in i86^by Colonel Boxer, R A. FlG , ._Snider R!fle. (Text Book of Small All available En- Arms> by ^^^ Of the Controller, field rifles were thus H.M. Stationery Office.) converted, and new arms made with steel barrels instead of iron. Great Britain was the first to adopt for her army a breech-loading RIFLE 327 rifle with metallic cartridge-case, which secured the perfect obturation of the breech. The Snider breech was a hinged block, a type much in favour at the time. The French simil- arly converted their muzzle-loaders, the converted weapon being known as the Tabatiere or snuff-box. Other breech actions on the same principle were the Austrian Werndl and the Bavarian Podewils and Werder rifles. But these were only transitional arms. In 1866 France adopted the bolt-action Chassep6t (?.».); in 1867 Sweden the Hagstrom, and Russia the Carte; in 1868 Italy the Carcano. All these were breech- loaders firing paper cartridges containing their own means of ignition. After further experiments by a fresh committee the Martini-Henry rifle (fig. 2) was definitely adopted by the British FIG. 2. — Martini-Henry. Government in 1871, with the short chamber Boxer-Henry ammunition. This rifle was a combination of Martini's block- action breech mechanism with Henry's barrel of -45-in. calibre, firing a papered bullet of 480 grains from Boxer cases with a wad of wax lubrication at base of bullet, as proposed by Henry. The Henry rifling had seven grooves with one turn in 22 in.; the lands and the centres of the grooves were contained in the same circle. About the same time or a little later the various powers re-armed their infantry with breech-loaders of different patterns and names, all of which were of about n mm. (-433 in.) calibre, and nearly all of the bolt-action type. The next stage in the history of military firearms was the introduction of the repeating or magazine system. The Winchester rifle, an American invention which appeared in 1865, was one of the earliest magazine rifles. This weapon was used by Turkey to some extent in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78, but Germany was the first great power to provide its army with a magazine rifle. In 1884 it converted the 1871 pattern Mauser of -443 -in. bore into a magazine rifle, holding eight cartridges in a tube magazine in the fore end. In 1885 France followed with the Lebel, which had an enormous advantage in its smokeless powder. In 1886 the question of the best calibre for small arms was reopened in England. In this year, 1886, Austria had adopted a Mannlicher rifle, -433 bore, with a straight- pull bolt. This rifle was the first adopted by any European nation embodying Lee's box magazine, an invention patented in 1879 and 1882, and consisting of a box, in rear of and below the entrance to the chamber, containing the cartridges. Another important improvement, the steel clip loader containing five cartridges, was also introduced with this rifle. In 1888 these rifles were converted to .315 bore, firing black powder cartridges; and in 1890, on the introduction of smokeless powder, the sights were re-graduated. In 1887 the British Small Arms Committee, after experiments with the small-calib're rifle invented in 1883 by the Swiss Major Rubin, director of the Federal laboratory at Thun, recommended the small calibre for adoption into the British service. The essential features of Rubin's system were the employment of a compound bullet with a leaden core in a copper envelope, and the use of a compressed charge of black powder. In 1888 a pattern of -303-^. calibre rifle, rifled on the Metford system and with the improved Lee bolt and maga- zine, was approved for trial by British troops. The Metford rifling is as follows: — diameter of bore, -303 in.; depth of rifling, •004 in.; width of lands, -023 in.; twist of rifling, one turn in 10 in. (left-hand) ; radial grooves, seven in number. About 1862, and later, W. E. Metford had carried out an exhaustive series of experiments on bullets and rifling. He invented the important system of light rifling, with increasing spiral with a hardened bullet. The Metford match rifle was prominent in all N.R.A. competitions from 1871 to 1894. In 1887 he laid down for the Small Arms Committee the proper proportions for the grooving, spiral and cartridge chamber of the -303 military rifle. This weapon proved satisfactory and was adopted by the War Office as the Lee-Metford rifle, Mark I., in December 1888. It had a magazine of eight cartridges. In 1891 the Mark II. pattern was approved, with a ten-cartridge magazine, a simpli- fied bolt, and many minor improvements. A magazine carbine with barrel 21 in. long and a six-cartridge magazine, otherwise identical with the Lee-Metford Mark II., was also approved. The Lee-Metford Mark II. rifle was subsequently further im- proved in its rifling to resist the wear of smokeless powder, and also in its bolt action, and became known as the Lee-Enfield rifle, and under that name was officially adopted as the rifle of the British army. The number of grooves were reduced from seven to five. Neither the Lee-Metford nor the Lee-Enfield has increasing spiral grooves, which are found inconvenient for military arms from a manufacturing point of view.1 The L.M. and L.E. carbines are similar to the shorter models of the rifles, but are covered for the whole length of the barrel by a wooden handguard and take only six cartridges; the fore-sights are protected by wings on the nose-cap, and the long-range sights are omitted. These, as also the Martini-Metford and Martini-Enfield carbines (falling-block action small-bores), have practically been replaced by the "short" rifle described below. The efficiency of the modern small-bore magazine rifle is largely due to the production of smokeless nitro-compound powder. France was the first country to adopt, about 1885, a smokeless powder with the Lebel magazine rifle. It was known as " Vieille " powder, or " Poudre B " (after General Boulanger). Since then smokeless explosives have been universally adopted in all small-bore magazine military rifles. The smokeless explosive known as " Cordite "or" Cordite M.D." (see CORDITE) is used for the cartridges of the Lee-Metford and Lee-Enfield rifles and rifle-calibre machine guns. (H. S.-K.) Military Rifles of To-day. — About 1900, the various armies were equipped with weapons of nearly equal efficiency. The weights varied between 8J and 9^ fo, the lengths between 49 and 52 in.; the calibres were -315, -311, -303, with one or two -256. None of the rifles were sighted to less than 2000 yds., and nearly all had a " fixed " or " battle " sight. All were bolt-action rifles, and had a muzzle velocity of about 2000 f.s. (the -256 Mannlichers, about 2300 f.s.). Except France, with the tube-magazine Lebel, Denmark and the U.S.A. with the horizontal-box Krag-Jorgensen, and Great Britain, all nations used multiple-loading by clip or charger. With Lebel and Krag-Jorgensen weapons, multiple-loading is a practical im- possibility, but in Great Britain the charger was deliber- ately rejected. It was desired to use the rifle normally as a 1 Of all modern military rifles, the Italian 1891 weapon alone has an increasing twist. RIFLE single-loader, and to reserve the magazine (which held ten cartridges, or twice as many as the multiple-loading Mausers, Mannlichers, &c.) for emergencies. But from about 1903 this equivalence of infantry weapons began to be disturbed by two new influences: the tendency towards a " short " rifle, and the introduction of the pointed bullet. In the first, Switzerland took the lead with the short Schmidt- Rubin in looo. But amongst the greater powers, England and the United States alone have followed her example. At the close of the South African War Great Britain issued looo short Lee-Enfield rifles experimentally, and in 1903 the " short rifle " was actually approved and issued generally. Since then it has been improved in details. The barrel was shortened by 5 in., multiple-loading by charger was introduced, and by the Musketry Regulations of 1909 magazine fire was laid down as the normal, single-loading being forbidden. The change met with very considerable opposition, especially from target-shooting experts, who maintained that a long rifle, so perfected in details as to be equal to the short in every point except in length, must be more accurate. The view of the military authorities, which was maintained in spite of criticism, was that for service purposes, and especially for prolonged snap-shooting, the handier weapon was preferable. One important factor in the decision was the desire to give the cavalry a weapon with which, when dismounted, it could fight the infantry rifle on equal terms. A more serious objection than that of want of superfine accuracy in bull's-eye shooting was the loss of 5 in. of reach in bayonet fighting. This objec- tion was met in 1907 by the introduction of a new pattern bayonet with a blade 5 in. longer. In 1908 the long Lee- Enfield and Lee-Metford rifles in store were converted for charger-loading (fig. 3), fitted with safety catches and FIG. 3. — Charger-loading L.E. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) new sights, and issued to the infantry of the Territorial Force in 1909 and 1910. For target purposes many rifle shots prefer this converted weapon to the short rifle (fig. 4). FIG. 4.— L.E. Short Rifle. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) The United States in 1904 replaced the Krag-Jorgensen (hand- loading horizontal magazine) by the short Springfield. A sort of spring bayonet was at first fitted to this rifle, but it was soon replaced by an ordinary sword bayonet. The pointed bullet (" Spitz-geschoss " or " S ") was introduced by Germany in 1905, and her example was quickly followed by France (balle D) and other powers. Its advantage is a considerable flattening of the trajectory, chiefly on account of the lessened resistance of the air. This latter allows of a reduction in the sectional density and consequently in the weight of the bullet. Thus velocities up to 2900 foot-seconds are realized, which enables the " dangerous space " to be very greatly augmented (see fig. 20). The "fixed sight" range with the " S" bullet is 700 yds., as against the Lee-Enfield's 500. It was announced in the House of Commons in 1910 that a modified bullet was being experimented with, and that some increase in the fixed-sight range was expected to be obtained, but the relatively weak breech action of the Lee-Enfield — which is due chiefly to the rearward position of the locking lugs — does not allow designers much freedom in the matter of increasing velocities, as the chamber pressure has to be kept low. It will be seen from the table that other rifles are constructed to stand a much higher pressure. But both these improvements are destined to be eclipsed in importance by the adoption of the automatic rifle. The application of the automatic principle to the modern high- velocity small-arm of precision has been occupying the attention of the small-arms experts of all armies and of numerous private inventors for some years past. These numerous attempts have, in the case of the rifle, been largely doomed to failure because of the necessary limitations of space and weight; although the automatic principle has been successfully applied both to machine guns (}.».) and to pistols (q.v.). In these weapons the work of extracting the empty cartridge-case, re-loading and re-cocking, is accomplished either by the motive power of the recoil or of the gas generated by the explosion of the powder, thus enabling a rapid and continuous fire to be maintained to the full capacity of the weapon's magazine. In the case of machine guns the firing also is automatic, but self- firing rifles are not very desirable as infantry weapons and in addition are so heavy as to approximate to machine guns. Of the recoil-operated class of automatic rifles there are two subdivisions, " short-recoil " and " long-recoil. " In the former, which is most favoured by inventors, the barrel, body and bolt recoil together for a short distance, about j in., in which space the bolt is unlocked, and the bolt then recoils freely in the body. The bolt is run forward in reloading by a spring. In the long-recoil type the barrel, body and bolt recoil the whole distance, and the barrel and body are run up by one spring, the bolt by another. Several such rifles have been shown at the N.R.A. meetings at Bisley; the Rexer, Mauser and Woodgate rifles being on the long-recoil, the Halle on the short- recoil principle. Gas-operated rifles, like the Hotchkiss and Colt machine guns, have fixed barrels and are worked by a portion of the powder-gases which is allowed to escape from the barrel through a small hole near the muzzle, thence entering a cylinder and working a piston in connexion with the breech mechanism. No automatic rifle has as yet (August 1910) been issued as a service weapon by any power, the problem of ensuring certainty in action under service conditions — i.e. with grit and dirt in the working parts — being the principal difficulty. Great Britain. — There are two principal types of Lee-Metford and Lee-Enfield rifles in the service, the " short " and the " charger- loading." The former is carried by all units (cavalry included) of the regular army, by the yeomanry cavalry of the Territorial Force, and by units of the Officers' Training Corps. The latter is used by the infantry of the Territorial Force. There exist, further, the older, non-charger-loading Lee-Metford and Lee-Enfield rifles, a few carbines of the same type, and some Martini-Metford and Martini-Enfield carbines which have the -303 barrel and cartridge with the falling-block Martini action. -45 Martini-Henry rifles and carbines, and even Sniders, are still used by local police forces in some of the smaller colonies. The " long " charger-loading Lee-Enfield is converted from earlier patterns by the addition of a 'charger guide, the stripping of the bolt-cover, and improvements in the sighting. The action of the breech mechanism ' is as follows (the breech mechanism of the " short " rifle being practically the same) : The breech is closed by a bolt (I) which slides in a bolt-way cut in the body; the bolt-head (lo) abuts against the base of the cartridge when the rifle is loaded, and when the knob is turned down the whole is locked. On the right side of the bolt is a solid rib, and on the left side a lug; these support the bolt on firing by contact with the " resisting shoulder on the right, and the rear face of the " lug seating " on the left of the body. Underneath the bolt there are two recesses and two studs. The bolt-head is screwed to the bolt and is fitted with an extractor claw. The bolt-head, instead of being rigidly attached to the bolt, is so far independent that it remains stationary while the bolt is revolved. Inside the bolt is the arrangement of striker (V) and spring (W), and at its rear end, forming the working connexion between trigger and striker, is the " cocking- piece " (X) which 4s fitted with a safety-catch (not in the old pattern rifle illustrated). This cocking-piece (which cannot turn) has a long tongue projecting to the front, lying along the under side of the bolt, and the front end of this tongue (Y), called the " full-bent," 1 The annexed figures show the old pattern weapon. In both the existing patterns a safety catch is fitted, the magazine spring is of a different shape and there is no bolt-cover. But the essential parts of the action remain the same. RIFLE 329 engages the nose of the trigger sear when the weapon is loaded (a groove in the tongue, called the " half-bent " (Z), serves as a half- cock arrangement, and could be used as a safety-catch if the proper safety-catch were damaged). The trigger sear (K) is a bell-crank lever, the upper long arm of which is put in and out of contact with the " full-bent," and the lower or short arm is connected to the trigger. The magazine holds ten cartridges, which rest on a platform, underneath which is the magazine spring that pushes the platform and cartridges up. A " cut-off " is fitted in the " long " and in some marks of the " short " rifle. This is a sort of lid to the magazine, enabling the magazine to be kept full while the rifle is being used as a single loader. But the present musketry regula- tions forbid single-loading, and the cut-off is now only closed for special purposes, such as unloading a single cartridge (miss-fire, &c.) without unloading the magazine. The magazine is loaded by FIGS. 7 and 8. — Lee-Metford. inserting a charger in the " charger guides " (these, attached to the body, form a sort of bridge over the bolt) and forcing down the strip of cartridges into the magazine (charger guides not shown in diagrams). The action of the mechanism is as follows: Suppose that the rifle has been fired and the magazine is full. On beginning to turn up the knob of the bolt, the Tatter is revolved, but the cocking-piece (the tongue being held by a groove in the body) and the bolt-head remain stationary. Soon, however, a cam on the bolt comes in contact with a stud on the cocking-piece and the latter is brought slightly to the rear, pulling in the point of the striker and partly compressing the spring. At the same time the lug on the left of the bolt, in contact with the front face of a recess in the body (both being cut slantwise to a screw pitch), forces the bolt and with it the claw of the extractor, which grips the base of the cartridge-case, to slide backwards a little. As the bolt con- tinues to turn the rib on the right of it comes up clear of the body and the whole bolt, with the bolt-head, can thus be drawn back until the bolt-head comes against the resisting shoulder on the right of the body and the extractor attached to it flings out the fired cartridge-case. Another cartridge then comes up from the magazine and lies in front of the bolt-head ready to be pushed home. At this moment (the beginning of loading) the stud on the cocking- piece has fallen into one of the grooves on the bolt, and as the bolt is pushed forward the tongue or full-bent comes against the nose of the trigger sear and is held there, while the rest of the boh mechanism goes on. Thus between the moving bolt and the fixed cocking-piece the striker spring is further compressed, and when the sloping faces of the bolt lugs and ribs engage the resisting portion* of the body a last forward push is given to the bolt and the spring is completely compressed, ready to propel the striker forward when the full-bent is released from the nose of the sear. Figs. 5-8 of the older pattern rifle show the working of the breech mechanism. Instead of the older single pull-off of the trigger the "short" rifle, like many Continental weapons, has a double pull-off. This is provided for by suitably shaping the portion of the trigger which is in contact with the short arm of the sear. The " short " rifle has also a somewhat different pattern of safety-catch. The sights of British service rifles up to 1903 were of a very simple type, the fore-sight a " barleycorn " of triangular shape, and the back-sight a plain leaf with slid- ing bar into which a V was cut, the tip of the fore-sight seen in the middle of the V being brought on to the mark. In the long charger-loader this form of back-sight has been greatly modified, and in the " short " rifle it has been alto- gether abolished. The barleycorn fore-sight has been replaced in both cases by an upright blade, protected from injury by two ears or wings, and the V by a U aperture. For elevation the long rifle has still a slide on a vertical leaf, but the movement of this slide is controlled no longer merely by its tight fit but by a clamping screw. The sight of the short rifle is larger and also quite different in appearance and principle. There is a leaf and on it a slide, but the slide (controlled by clamping studs) works on a Cam-shaped bed; its position on the leaf, affecting the point of contact with the cam- shaped bed, elevates the leaf to the required amount, the actual sighting U being on the extremity of the leaf. The short rifle has also a ' fine adjustment " which admits of minor changes of eleva- tion within the usual 50 yds. graduation. Both the long and the short rifles have " wind-gauges," or mechanisms for fine lateral adjustment of the central U sighting aperture, so as to point the axis of the barrel a little to the left or the right of the line of sight to compensate for wind, error of the individual rifle, &c. In both rifles, on the left side of the stock, is a long-distance sight (graduated to 2800 yds.), which consists of an aperture sight near the bolt and a dial and movable pointer near the hand-guard. The short rifle is cased from breech to muzzle in a wooden hand-guard ; all patterns of long^ rifle have only a short wooden hand-guard just behind the back-sight bed. _The bayonet in the long nfle is secured to the fore-end by a spring catch and to the barrel by a ring passing over the muzzle. This traditional, and still usual, arrangement has been abandoned in the short rifle, as the vibration of the barrel on discharge is more or less checked by the extra weight of the bayonet, and therefore the shooting of the rifle differs according as it is fired with or without the bayonet fixed. With the short rifle the bayonet is fixed to two metal fastenings, a plug for the ring and a catch for the handle. Continental European Rifles. — These are for the most part of the Mauser and the Mannlicher types. The Mauser is a bolt weapon with box magazine. The bolt is simple, without separate bolt- head, and is held by two bolt-lugs at its front end engaging with recesses in the body (the German Mauser has an extra lug near the rear end). Near the rear end there is a cam-shaped recess, which, engaging with a stud on the cocking-piece, partially forces back the cocking-piece and spring when the bolt is revolved. When the bolt lever is turned up and the bolt begins to revolve, the cocking- piece and bolt plug, which together form the connexion between the bolt and the trigger, do not revolve, but are forced back slightly, so as to begin the compression of the striker spring. Then, the bolt lever being so shaped as to bear against an inclined-plane edge on the body, the bolt comes back a little, and with it the extractor jaw and the empty cartridge-case. Lastly, when the bolt has turned through a right angle, all studs are opposite their slots and ways in the body, and the bolt can be drawn back. At the farthest rearward position of the bolt the cocking-stud on the cocking-piece is well behind the nose of the trigger sear, and is thus held when the bolt is pushed forward again, the spring being thereby compressed. All Mauser rifles have a safety-catch and a double pull-off. None have cut-offs except the Turkish pattern. All are constructed for clip or charger loading, but the box magazine contains only five cart- ridges as against the Lee-Enfield's ten. Mauser rifles, which are perhaps the strongest and least complicated of magazine arms, are used in the German, Belgian, Spanish, Portuguese and Turkish armies, and were also used by the Boers in the South African War. The type adopted by each of these nations differs from the rest in details only. The German rifle has a long guardless sword bayonet, fixed to the fore-end only and not connected with the barrel, and a peculiar form of back-sight, which bears some resemblance to the xxm. ii a 330 RIFLE slide and bed arrangement of the British " short " rifle. The special I to the change of leverage, power at the commencement and rapidity feature of the Belgian Mauser is a thin steel casing for the barrel, | at the end of the pull. The weapon is a clip loader. The Dutch, FIG. 9. — Belgian Mauser. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) FIG. 90. — Spanish Mauser. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) which is supposed to act as a hand-guard or cooler and to free the barrel from disturbing influences due to its connexion with the fore-end ; but it is expensive, and if strong adds unduly to the weight FIG. 10. — German Mauser, 1898. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) of the weapon. The older German magazine rifle, pattern 1888, had a barrel casing, but this was given up when the new 1898 pattern was introduced. The bayonets of the Belgian and Spanish patterns are very short knives. The Mannlicher rifle, which is extensively used for sporting and target work, has been adopted for military purposes by various states, notably Austria-Hungary. Both the 1890 and FIG. 13. — Mannlicher, 1895. Rumanian and other Mannlichers have not straight-pull bolts, but the usual turn-over levers and locking-lugs. FIG. 14. — Austrian Mannlicher Carbine. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) France. — The breech mechanism of this rifle (see fig. 15) calls for no special remark. Its bolt is very similar to that of the British rifle. Its special peculiarity is the once popular tube magazine under the fore-end. This has many defects as compared with the box magazine. It is more cumbrous for the same number of cart- ridges; its feed and cut-off mechanism is very complicated; the balance of the rifle is altered as the magazine empties; the placing of the cartridges base to point, even when the bullet has a flat point, is not unattended with danger, especially when the magazine is full and the spiral spring strongly compressed; lastly, loading by any form of charger is practically impossible. FIG. 15.— Lebel Rifle. FIG. 1 1.— Austrian Mannlicher, 1895. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) 1895 patterns of Austrian Mannlicher have " straight-pull " bolts; that is, bolts which are not turned for locking. The FIG. 12. — Mannlicher, 1890. bolts are in two parts, which " telescope " into each other. In the 1890 pattern (see fig. 12), when the bolt is home against the cartridge and the " lever cylinder " I', which carries the bolt knob, is further pushed forward, the hinged block K is caused to drop in front of tie resistance-piece Q, and so locks the bolt I against the cartridge. In the 1895 pattern (see fig. 13), the final pushing forward of the lever cylinder causes the head of the bolt I to turn and projections on its head to lock into recesses SS just in rear of the breech. The turning is due to helical feathers (20) on the inside of the lever cylinder I' working in grooves in the rear of the bolt I. The 1890 pattern has a double pull-off. It will be seen from the figure that as the trigger is pulled the bearing is taken first at (8) and then at (9). This gives, owing FIG. 16. — Lebel Rifle. United States. — Up to 1904 the U.S. army had the Krag-Jorgensen rifle, in which, as shown in fig. 17, the magazine was placed hori- zontally under the breech action. At this time most of the second line troops had still the old-fashioned (black powder) Springfield rifle, a single loader with a hinged block similar to the rifles of the " sixties " in Europe, such as the Snider, the Tabatiere and the Werndl.1 Since 1904, however, the regular army has been re-armed with a short rifle (fig. 18) which in its action has a general resem- blance to a Mauser. As at first issued, the new Springfield had a rod bayonet which, when not in use, lay within the fore-end of the stock, and when required was run forward and fastened by a catch. This novelty was, however, soon discarded in favour of a sword bayonet 16 in. long. The United States navy had until about 1900 the Lee " straight-pull " rifle. The Russian " 3-line " and the Japanese 1 The Springfield was, however, a much improved model of this kind of weapon, dating from 1884 only. RIFLE 30th year ' (1900) and " 38th year " (1907) rifles are bolt-action weapons, with no special peculiarities. The Swiss rifle (Schmidt- Rubin) is a remarkable weapon of the straight-pull type, short, and possessing a relatively low velocity. (X.) FIG. 17. — Krag-Jorgensen. The Use of Ike Rifle in War.— The study of " musketry " as distinct from target shooting may , be said to date from the Franco- German War. Previously mili- tary students and practical soldiers concerned themselves rather with the tactical question of fire-power — fire versus shock, bullet versus bayonet and so on — FIG. 1 8. — U.S. Short Rifle. (Text Book of Small Arms, by permission.) than with the technical question of its application. This was natural enough in the days of short-range fighting. But when bullets began to cause losses at 1000 yds. and more from the firing point, formations that presented the least vulnerable target had to be discovered and tested, aiming grew more difficult as the range increased, and firing by word of command in large units became practically impos- sible. The very accuracy and range of modern weapons involved new problems. The necessity, in the larger area of effective fire, of setting the sights to the distance of the mark made further demands on fire-discipline and brought up the difficult problem of judging distance. The possibilities of varying the rate of fire conferred by the magazine rifle also demanded close study. Each war, as it came, produced fresh evidence as to what was possible and what was not in matters of fire-control, the best rate of fire for effect, the range at which fire should be opened, and other half-tactical, half- technical problems. Thus, although many points still remain in the region of controversy, certain ideas and principles are almost universally accepted as the basis of service musketry. The leading idea is that of the " cone of dispersion." A modern rifle, even fired from a fixed rest under good conditions, will not place shot after shot in the same spot, but the shot- marks on the target form a more or less close " group." When to this error of the rifle and the ammunition there is added the personal error of the marksman, the group is larger, and in the collective fire of a squad it is larger still. Now the trajectories of bullets that do not strike in the same place naturally do not coincide, and the group on the target is represented in the air by a cone or sheaf of trajectories. The bullets of this sheaf striking the ground on either side of the target form on the ground a much elongated ellipse. The ellipse containing 90 % of the bullets fired is called the beaten zone. It is usual, however, to calculate from the " effective " zone, or that which contains 75% of bullets. Within the " effective " zone, and at its centre, is found the closely grouped " nucleus " of 50% of bullets. With the British -303 rifle in collective fire, the depths of these zones are : — Nucleus. Effective. Beaten. 500 yds. IOOO „ 1500 „ 120 yds. 7° .. 60 „ 220 yds. 120 „ 100 „ 320 yds. I7<> .. 140 „ The target aimed at and sighted for is at the centre of the zone (see fig. 19). The height of the grouping on a vertical target compared to the depth of the grouping on the ground is of course proportionate to the tangent of the angle of descent; hence, small as is the group on a vertical target at 500 yds., the beaten zone is no less than 320 yds. deep. For the same reason, as the range, and consequently the angle of descent, increases, the beaten zone diminishes in depth. Another factor is the " dangerous space." This is the space between " first catch," i.e. the point at which the bullet (in a sheaf, the lowest bullet) comes low enough to catch a man's head, and ." first graze," that at which it strikes the ground. The extent of this dangerous space varies of course with the height of the man's head. In the case of a mounted man, at icoo yds., it is 105 yds., while in that of a sharpshooter lying down, it is only 13 yds. (in addition of course to the beaten zone). As nowadays nearly all targets, on service, are lying or three- quarters concealed figures, the dangerous space as compared with the beaten zone is at such .a range too small to count as a factor. It is, however, important at shorter ranges, 500 yds. and under (700 and under with the new-pointed bullets). Here the advantages of flat trajectory make themselves felt. Within this distance the bullet is at no point in its career too high to be dangerous to a standing man or a horseman. A lying figure is in danger at any distance beyond 350 yds. if the sights are set to 500 yds. (front half of effective zone no yds., dangerous space 52 yds.). This is the theory under- lying the 500 yds. " fixed sight " or " battle-sight," a setting which holds good for all less ranges, and can be put on the rifle instantly and without looking at the back-sight graduations. Sight! 500 yards. •Sights 700 uds. 800 900' I -»«rt/.L*e- Cmfifld,and «a.»' '38 milli-S"bulM IK if It j' above gnuitdl HtiaMi **agtintcJ 30 MM y ®E h Uani- fieight L* >o ' 5( )O 6C O —TOO FIG. 20. — Trajectories. These facts, taken in conjunction with the imperfections of the most skilful individual marksmanship and the chances of wrong estimation of distance, are the basis of the musketry training and practice of to-day. At the School of Musketry, Hythe, the standard of judging distance is " not more than 332 RIFLE DETAILS OF MODERN (From the British official AUSTRIA AND BULGARIA. BELGIUM. DENMARK. GREAT BRITAIN. FRANCE. GERMANY. Pattern of the Year . 1895. 1889. 1889. 1907. 1907. 1886. 1898. Designation .... MANNLICHER. MAUSER. KRAG- JORGENSEN. CHARGER LOADING LEE-ENFIKLD, MARK I. SHORT LEE-ENFIELD, MARE III. LEBEL. MAUSER. Magazine System Box Box Horizontal-box Box Box Tube Box Number of Cartridges in Magazine 5 5 5 10 xo 8 5 Charger or Clip .... Cut off Clip No Yes Ch. No Yes Ch. Yes No Ch. Yes Yes Ch. Yes Yes No Yes" No Ch. No Yes Safety Bolt Weight:— Without bayonet . With bayonet .... s n> sj oz. 8 Ib 15 j oz. 8 Ib ) oz. g 1!) g.j OZ. 9 Ib nj oz. IO Ib 4J OZ. 9 ft» 4 oz. 10 Ib 34 oz. 8 Ib 2} oz. 9 Ib loj oz. 9 !b 3} oz. 10 It) I ^ OZ. 9 Ib. 9 Ib 14 oz. Length: — Without bayonet . With bayonet .... 4 ft. 2 in. 4 ft. 1 1 -5 in. 4 ft. 2-25 in. 4 ft. 11-75 in. 4 ft. 4-75 in. S ft. 3 m. 4ft. 1-5 in. 5 ft. 1-5 in. 3 ft. 8-5 in. 5 ft. 1-7 in. 4 ft. 3-12 in. 5 ft. 11-84 in. 4 ft. I 5 ft. 9' 4 in. 75 in. Barrel:— L"*h ' ' ' {mm. Calibre . . . .in. 30-12 8 •3«5 30-67 7-65 •301 32-9 8 •315 30-19 7-7 •303 25-19 7-7 •303 31-496 8 •315 29-05 7'9 •3«I Rifling:— Number of grooves . Twist (to right, except in Lee-» Enfield and Lebel) i turn in> calibres . . .| 4 31 4 32-5 6 37-5 5 3 5 i 4 30 4 30-2 Sights:— Lowest for .... Highest for .... Cartridge:— Length . . . .in. Weight .... grs. 500 paces (410 yds.) 2600 paces (2132 yds.) 3-0 455 500 m. (547 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 3-055 441 300 m. (328yds.) i goo m. (2078 yds.) 3;o 460 183 m. (200 yds.) 2560 m. (2800 yds.) 3-05 415 250 m. (273 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 2-95 447 415 200 (219 200C (2187 3-22 431 m. rds.) m. yds.) 3-18 369-9 Bullet:— Shape of point Round Round Round Round Round Pointed Round Pointed Material of envelope Steel, lubricated CN. C.N. C.N. c M 5 Copper zinc / no envelope Steel, coated with C.N. Steel, coated > with C.N. J Length . . . .in. Diameter (max.) Weight . . . .grs. 1-24 •3228 244 1-205 •31 • 219 1-187 •323 237 I-JS •3" 215 I-22I I-625 •3223 -327 231 198 1-235 •3189 227 1-105 •323 154-5 Chaine:— Weight . . . .grs. Propellant 4N2:c4 N.G. a3n'd N.C. tfc9S 31-5 Cordite 42-43 46-2 N.C. N.C. ftc5 48-4 N.C. Muzzle Velocity . . . f.s. »°34 2034 1968 2060 2073 2380 2093 2882 Chamber Pressure: — Tons on sq. in. ig-7 19-7 IS-' is-s I7-7S 17-75 21 17-5 too yds. wrong at any range." Now at 1000 yds. an error in judging distance of 13 yds. above or below the true range will cause all the shots of a particular rifle to fall away from the target, and the better the marksman — i.e. the closer his group— the more necessary is perfection in judging distance, a perfection which in reality seems unattainable. The British, musketry regulations therefore lay it down that the individual marksman's fire at service targets is unprofitable at ranges of more than 600 yds. Beyond that distance collective fire, controlled and directed by an officer or non-commissioned officer, is the rule. The question as to whether fire is to be opened in any given set of circumstances is decided by the fire- director, who considers first whether the probable error in judging distance is greater than half of the effective zone for the estimated range. If it is so, he must order " com- bined sights," i.e. half of the units under his command use one elevation, the rest another, which method artificially increases the dispersion of the bullets and thereby the probability of the target being included in the zone. This, however, makes the fire less effective, and in practice cannot profitably be used by any body of rifles of less than 80 or 100. The commander of only a single section, therefore, however tempting the target, must refrain from opening fire at all. At medium ranges, however, controlled and directed fire is effective, and at such ranges troops should still be sufficiently in NOTE. — C.N.= Cupro-nickel. N.G. = Nitro-glycerine. hand to execute the fire-director's orders. Within decisive ranges fire-direction has to give place to fire-control. All that the strongest commander can enforce is the opening and ceasing of fire when he gives the order, and success is sought through making the individual soldier skilful at rapid and snap shooting. Black bull's-eyes on white targets are now used only to teach men to make uniformly good shooting, which is shown by the closeness of the shot-grouping. The rest of the musketry course is fired against grey-green " head and shoulders " targets or brown silhouettes, and consists of slow, rapid and snap shooting, from behind cover, at disappearing or running targets, &c. In 1909 special attention began to be paid to visual training, both as an aid to judging distance and as an actual ingredient of fire-discipline. A method of indicating targets which origin- ated in the French army was adopted and improved upon, consisting essentially of giving two or three conspicuous " auxiliary marks," in artillery language, and naming the target with reference to them. Judging distance is generally associ- ated with fire-distipline practices, and men are frequently exercised in locating and ranging upon a hidden skirmisher, 300-800 yds. away. Perhaps the most important modifica- tion of musketry training, within recent years, has been the adoption of rapid fire in " bursts," as the normal procedure for infantry, instead of slow continuous fire. The complete cessation of fire at intervals enables the leaders to observe the RIFLE 333 MILITARY MAGAZINE RIFLES. Text Book of Small Arms, 1909.) GREECE. HOLLAND. ITALY. JAPAN. PORTUGAL. RUMANIA. RUSSIA. SPAIN. SWITZER- LAND. TURKEY. UNITED STATES. 1903. 1895. 1891. 1907. 1904. 1893. 1894. .896. 1900. .893. 1904. MANNLICHKR- SCUONAUER. MANNLICHER. MANNUCHER- CARCANO. YEAR '38. MAUSER- VERCUIERO. MANNLICIIER. " 3-Lmz " NAGANT. MAUSER. SCHIIIDT-ROBIN SHORT RIFLE. MAUSER. SHORT SpRj.scriEU). Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box Box 5 S 6 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 5 Ch. No Yes Clip No Yes Clip No Yes Ch. No Yes Ch. No Yes Clip No Yes Ch. No Yes Ch. No Yes Ch. No Yei Ch. Yes Yes Ch. Yes Yes 8 Ib sH oz. 9 Ib 9 Ib II oz. 10 Ib 6K oz. 8 Ib 6Ji oz. 9 ft) 3 oz. 8 Ib 10 oz. 9 Ib 9 oz. 8 Ib. 13 oz. 9 Ib. 9% oz. 8 Ib I2KOZ. 9 Ib vYi oz. 8 Ib isK oz. 9 Ib II>4 OZ. 9 Ib 6K oz. 10 Ib i'/i oz. 8 ft KOI. 8 Ib ioK oz. 9 ft i oz. 10 Ib 8 oz. 8 ft 8oz. 9 IbSoz. 4ft.. 4 ft. 10 in. 4 ft. 3 in. 5 ft. 0-75 in. 4 ft. 2-75 in. 5 ft. 2-375 in. 4 ft. 2-75 in. S ft. 5-75 in. 4ft. 4 ft. n^ in. 4 ft. 0-5 in. 4 ft. 10-25 in. 4 ft. 3-875 in. 5 ft. 9 in. 4 ft. 0-625 in. 4 ft. 10-5. in. 3 ft. 7-12 in. 4 ft. 10-75 in. 4 ft. 0-6 in. 5 ft. 6-6 in. 3 ft. 7-21 in. 4 ft. 11-21 in. 18-56 6-5 •256 31-125 6-5 •256 30-75 6-5 , •256 31-3 6-s •256 29-08 6'5 * •256 28-56 6'5* •256 31-5 7-62 •3 29-031 '-2,6 23-33 7-5 •295 29-134 7-65 •301 23-79 762 •30 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 tvi 32-2 30-7 30-76 30-8 31-6 31-4 36 33-2 200 m. (219 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 200 m. (219 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 600 m. (656 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 400 m. (437 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 200 m. (219 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 500 m. (547 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 400 paces (310 yds.) 2700 paces. (2096 yds.) 400 m. (437 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 300 m. (328 yds.) 1 200 m. (1312 yds.) 250 m. (273 yds.) 2000 m. (2187 yds.) 183 m. (200 yds.) 2187 m. (2850 yds.) J'°S 3-05 338 3-0 331-8 2-98 348-S 3-26 3-05 35° 3-02S 363 3-08 373-5 3-043 434 3-07 416 3-33 302 Round 5 Steel, coated ( withCN. I-I24 •263 JS9-3 Round Steel, coated / with C. N. J 1-23 •2637 162- Round CN. 1-182 •266 163-0 Round Copper 1-28 •26 162-9 Round »55-3 Round C.N. 1-244 •2637 162 Round C.N. 1-194 •308 214 Round CN. 1-2X •2843 172-8 Round r Nickel plated < steel envelope ( over point 1-18 •319 212-5 Round 15 Steel, coated ( with C. N. I-2I2 •3" 211-3 Pointed C.|N. pointed 1-08 •308 ISO A fc6 30-09 Balistite 32-0 N.C. 31-8 N.G. and N.C. ' N'C. 33 Pyroxiline 38-3S N.C. 30-7 N.C. 4O-2 N.C. so Pyro-cellulose 2223 2433 2395 2396 2347 2400 1985 2296 1920 2066 2600 20- 1 3 17-1 •• 17-47 22-3 17-1 19-7 1978 N.C.=.Nitro-cellulose. progress of the engagement, to change their target, to economize ammunition, to select the ground for the next rush and the next burst of fire, and to regain control of the men, whom a prolonged fire-fight hypnotizes and rivets to the ground. The chief use of " slow " fire, which is generally employed by skir- mishers working in pairs, is to keep the enemy under; the storm of well-directed " rapid fire " the fire-director should hold in his own hands, ready to release it at the right moment. Slow fire averages 3 rounds a minute, rapid (aimed) 8-12. The con- figuration of the ground has often a great influence on fire effect. If the target is on a sharp forward slope, the beaten zone is greatly diminished in depth, ranging errors are no longer neutra- lized by the flatness of trajectory and (the bullets meeting the ground at a steeper angle) the dangerous space is reduced; if, on the other hand, the slope descends gently in rear of the target so that the falling bullets instead of making a pattern upon the ground, skim along' parallel to the surface, the zone is increased. For instance, at 1500 yds., if there is a reverse slope of about 5° in rear of the target the depth of the beaten zone is tenfold that of the zone for the same range on level ground. Similarly if the target is on the crest of a hill and the firers below, the " over " half of the cone of fire may graze the reverse slope or pass far above, according as the re- veise slope is gentle or sharp with respect to the (line of sight. The normal position for the firing infantryman in action is lying; the kneeling position is used for firing from behind cover, the sitting for firing down hill. Standing, formerly the usual position, is now employed chiefly for firing behind cover with the rifle rested, and for snap-shooting during an advance when it is undesirable to halt and lie down. As regards cover, it may be mentioned that well-covered or intrenched troops generally shoot less accurately than troops in the open, the soldier in security being loth to expose himself long enough to take careful aim. This was particularly noticeable in the Russo-Turkish War, and its effect is to create a zone of unaimed fire behind the assailants' fighting line, which sometimes causes serious losses to his supports and reserves. The relation between the cone of dispersion of peace-time experiments, even when these are specially designed to establish that relation (for example, series fired in France by third-class shots, after a long march without food), has never been satisfactorily estab- lished. An arbitrary figure of one-tenth or one-twentieth of peace-time effect has generally been assumed as representing war results, but some think that however the normal cone may be multiplied or divided, no relation can be found between peace and war effect, and that in battle the brave men aim and fire as if on the practice range, and the rest fire absolutely at hazard. From a musketry point of view, this brings again into the fore- ground the question of distance-judging, as, if the sights be wrongly set, the more accurate the fire the less its effect, and a 334 RIFLE mistake would nullify even the small amount of aimed fire that can be reckoned upon. Peace-time experiments have their value — and it is very great — in establishing data as to the effect of fire on troops in different formations, the limits of permissible error in ranging, &c., on the principle that of two methods, that which is proved to be better in peace would in much the same proportion be found better in war. (C. F. A.) See T. F. Fremantle, The Book of the Rifle; W. W. Greener, The Gun and its Development; the British official Text Book of Small Arms (1909); and Musketry Regulations (1909); C. B. Mayne, Infantry Fire Tactics; and Taffin, " Tir de Combat " (Revue d'infanterie, 1909). Match or Target Rifle. — The sport or pastime of target shooting has many times changed its character, owing to the steady improvement in the rifle and the different ranges or distances at which shooting is practised. Range usually governs the construction of the target rifle, long-range rifles not being necessarily the best weapons for a short range of, say, 200 yds. Limitations — such as the amount of powder charge, weight of bullet and rifle — are also usually imposed in order to place all competitors on equal terms. The long-range match rifle is not the superior of the military rifle as a weapon, but as a scientific shooting instrument is the best small-arm produced. The ordinary target rifle is a hybrid arm, combining the points of the long-range match, modern military and best sporting rifles. The miniature match rifle is used for short-range practice. Shooting at fixed marks has been practised continuously in Switzerland from medieval times. A club (" Societe de 1'harquebuse et de la Navigation ") has existed in Geneva since 1474; and the Zurich " Schutzen-Gesellschaft " since about the same date. It is not clear at what period rifles were introduced in these clubs. From the beginning of the ipth century up to 1844 the rifle generally used in Great Britain had a polygrooved barrel -630 in. in diameter, with spherical ball, and the arm weighed from n to 15 Ib. It was not fired in military fashion, but had a handle extending downwards fixed in front of the trigger-guard, which was grasped by the left hand, the left arm being steadied against the body. This method of shooting is still sometimes followed by Swiss and German riflemen. Target shooting as a sport or business was rarely practised in Great Britain until after the formation of the Volunteer Force in 1859. The inauguration of the " National Rifle Association " in 1860 opened a new and most important era in the history and develop- ment of the rifle. This institution was established " for the en- couragement of rifle corps and the promotion of rifle shooting throughout Great Britain. ... As a national pastime to make the rifle what the bow was in the days of the Plantagenets, the familiar weapon of those who stand forth in the defence of their country." The first meeting of the N.R.A. was held at Wimbledon in 1860. The first shot was fired by Queen Victoria1 from a Whitworth rifle on a machine rest, at 400 yds., and struck the bull's-eye. The Whitworth muzzle-loading rifle won many of the important prizes at this and subsequent meetings prior to 1871. Its most important features, arrived at after exhaustive experiments, were a smaller bore of -450 in., with a twist of rifling of one turn in 20 in., and an elongated mechanically fitting projectile. Long-range rifle construction is also largely indebted to Whitworth for the highly accurate and superior tools and processes introduced by him in this branch of manu- facture. In 1866 and after, Metford's system of hardened expanding bullets and shallow rifling gradually superseded the mechanically fitting system of Whitworth, and the Whitworth rifle gradually lost its position. In 1861, the Henry grooving for a cylindrical 'The "Queen's" or "King's" prize is the highest distinction to which a rifle shot can attain. The competition is one of three stages, the first and second eliminating all but the best 100 com- petitors. The bronze medal of the N.R.A. is awarded to the highest scorer in the first stage, the silver medal to the leader in the second, and the King's prize and N.R.A. gold medal to the winner in the last stage: 71 shots in all are fired at distances up to looo yds., and the winners' scores of late years have been 320 to 325 out of a possible 355. Only the service rifle is allowed. bullet, a modification of the Whitworth, first appeared. In 1864, Rigby, with a five-grooved rifle and a mechanically fitting bullet, tied with the Whitworth rifle in the preliminary rifle trial of the N.R.A. at 1000 yds., and in a subsequent trial took the first place. By 1871 the Whitworth rifle had given place to the Metford system with hardened cylindrical bullets, shallow rifling and increasing spiral. In 1867 the modern breech- loading rifle with a metallic cartridge was first introduced. The Metford system of rifling greatly assisted its development. In this year Rigby also produced a new model long-range rifle designed on the lines followed by Metford. In 1869 the Henry barrel came to the front. In 1870 the Martini-Henry, the new service arm, won the duke of Cambridge's prize, the extreme range in this competition being 800 yds. In 1871 the Snider breech-loader replaced the Enfield muzzle-loader, and the Martini-Henry replaced the Whitworth in the later stages — 800, 900 and icoo yds. — of the Queen's prize. The Metford barrel was also used in breech-loaders, and the duke of Cambridge's prize — for the first time fired at 1000 yds. — fell to it. During the twenty-three years from 1871 to 1894 the Metford military match rifle only four times failed to win this prize, while it took a preponderating share of other prizes. The years 1872 and 1873 marked a decided advance in the military breech- loader, though for fine shooting the muzzle-loader still seemed hard to equal. In 1875 a team of American riflemen first visited Wimbledon with " army-pattern " breech-loading rifles, which were cleaned out after every shot, and met with considerable success. A feature of their shooting was the " back position," then a novelty. In 1877 the superiority of the cleansable and cleansed breech-loader over the increased fouling of the muzzle- loader was clearly demonstrated, though the muzzle-loader did not at once disappear. In 1878 the highest scores ever made with the muzzle-loader in Great Britain were recorded, greater care in cleaning the rifle after every shot being observed. ... In 1883 the N.R.A. Council altered the conditions, wiping out after every shot was forbidden, but muzzle-loaders were not disqualified. The result was that the American type of rifle disappeared. The poor shooting of the Martini at icoo yds. induced the Council to take the retrograde step of reducing the maximum range for the Queen's prize to 900 yds. In 1890 the N.R.A. first met at the new ranges at Bisley. This year was noticeable for the excellent shooting made in the " any " rifle competitions by the Gibbs-Metford match rifle, particularly at 1000 yds. range. The accepted type was -461 calibre; 7 grooves •0045 in. in depth; 80 grains of special black gunpowder, and a bullet of 570 grains. In 1892 and 1893 the Lee-Metford -303 rifle with cordite ammunition was first used by the army teams. In 1890 and later the Hon. T. F. Fremantle, Captain Gibbs and some others used Metford's copper-coated bullets in the Gibbs- Metford rifle with success. In 1895 many match rifle shots followed their example. In 1895 and 1896 the -303 was equalled, and in some instances beaten, by the smaller-calibre Mannlicher rifle. This was partly due to faulty Lee-Metford ammunition. The -303 now proved its superiority to the -450 Martini, especi- ally at the longer ranges. The Bisley meeting of 1896 practically closed the series of contests with both the Martini and the military match rifles. The Volunteers were thenceforth armed with the -303. The results of the Bisley meetings since 1895 have proved that rifles of the -303 class, the British -303 rifle particularly, are not so good for match rifles pure and simple as the larger bores using black powder. The light bullets are more subject to deflection by the wind at long ranges than the heavier speed-retaining bullets of the larger bores. No nitro-powder used appears to have equalled the black powder in regularity of shooting. At the same time the object of the N.R.A. competitions is to encourage the use of the military service rifle in the first place, and in the case of the " any " rifle competitions to encourage the production of weapons of the highest efficiency for military purposes. Acting on these principles the rifles allowed by the N.R.A. regulations (1907) are classed as follows: — Class I.— Service rifle (S.R.): government pattern -303 magazine rifles; RIFLE 335 sights strictly in accordance with service pattern.1 Class II. — Match rifles (M.R.): any breech-loading rifle complying with the following conditions: maximum weight of barrel, 3j Ib; maximum calibre, -325; stock sufficiently strong for service purposes, and without pad or shoe on the heelplate; minimum pull of trigger, 4 Ib; sights, of any description. Class III. — Military breech- loading rifles (M.B.L.); any rifle, that is either (a) the regulation military rifle of any country; or (6) a breech-loading rifle comply- ing with the following conditions: maximum weight, exclusive of bayonet, 8J Ib; maximum calibre, -315; minimum pull of trigger, 4 Ib. Sights may be of any description except telescopic or magnifying, but must be fixed to the barrel and must be strong enough for military purposes. Class IV. — Sporting rifles: calibre, any; minimum pull of trigger, 3 Ib; sights, open or such as are sanctioned by the council or committee. The Lyman back- sight and the Beech combination fore-sight have been sanctioned. No lateral adjustment of fore- or back-sight is permitted. The miniature rifles allowed fall into two classes, " military," with open sights, only, and " any," with no restrictions as to sights except that magnifying and telescopic sights are forbidden. Modern American Target Rifles. — In America, according to some authorities, there are three recognized departments of target shooting — namely off-hand shooting; shooting from a simple rest; and shooting from a machine rest, with telescopic or any other sight. For the first two classes small-bore rifles of -380 calibre or under only are used. The usual weight is from 8 to 10 Ib, with 28- or 3O-in. barrel. Light charges for the shorter ranges are used. In the -380 bore only 55 grains of powder with a 33O-grain bullet is employed. In the second-class contests, from a simple rest, the barrel is longer and the weight increased to just under 1 2 Ib. The bore is generally -380. The usual range is 200 yds. The third-class shooting from a machine rest, generally with telescopic sights, is not much practised. Every kind of rifle is employed, usually of large bore and weighing from 20 to 60 Ib. The long-range breech-loading match rifle, with which so much fine shooting was done when wiping out after each shot was allowed, weighed about 10 Ib; the breech mechanism, any falling block, as the Sharp, Farquhar- son, Deeley, and Edge or Wiley, that admitted the insertion of the cleaning rod at the breech; length of barrel, 32 to 34 in.; seven or more grooves -003 to -005 in depth with a complete turn in 20 in. A sharp continual spiral and very shallow grooves constituted the feature of the American plan. Rigby's plan was similar, with one turn in 18 in. and eight grooves, the lands being about half the width of the grooves. In the Wiley the grooves were fewer and wider. The Metfoid is an increasing twist, starting with one turn in 60 in. and finishing with one in 20, or sharper. The usual bore of the American long- range rifle was -458 or -461; powder, 76 grains of special " foul- ing " rifle powder; elongated cylindrical bullet of 540 grains. The pull-off was under 3 Ib. During recent years smaller-bore smokeless-powder rifles have also been used. Continental Match Rifles. — The target rifle used by continental maiksmen for medium ranges is a modification of the old pattern Swiss rifle, with scroll guard, hollowed butt plate and hair trigger. This latter, a mechanical device to free the tumbler from the sear without sufficient pull on the trigger to influence the aim, is disallowed in military arms. Sporting Rifles. — Prior to 1845 smooth-bore guns with double charge of powder and an ounce spherical ball were generally preferred to rifles for sporting purposes and for large game; i6-bore muzzle-loading rifles were occasionally used by British sportsmen in the East Indies before that date, firing 1 1 drs. of powder with a spherical ounce ball. These rifles were sighted to 200 yds., but the trajectory was high and the penetration weak; they were also difficult to load when foul. The twist of the rifling was also too rapid, causing the bullet to strip with heavy charges of powder. According to Captain Forsyth and others, up to 1860 there was no known rifle suitable 1 The N.R.A. have recently sanctioned the use of the aperture sight in service rifles, provided it be attached to the weapon by the hinge-pin which fastens the ordinary folding leaf. for sporting purposes in India. Rifles of i2-bore gauge, firing a spherical ball, were subsequently made, with broad and shallow grooves making one turn in 10 ft. The bullet, of the same diameter as the bore, was loaded with a thin patch that took the grooving. These rifles proved very successful, possessing velocity equal to a smooth-bore of the same calibre, accuracy for sporting distances, flat trajectory and great striking power. In 1855 W. Greener produced the " Cape rifle " for South African sport, calibre -450 or -500; rifling, two deep grooves with one turn in 26 in., with a flanged bullet to fit the grooves; weight, 12 Ib; sighted up to 1200 yds. This rifle was successful, and others were built by Purdey, who in 1856 named the pattern " Express Train." Since that date the word " express " has been generally used to denote a rifle possessing high velocity, flat trajectory and long fixed-sight range.2 In America small-bore rifles were used earlier in the 1 9th century. The celebrated Kentucky rifles were of various sizes, firing spherical balls of 90, 60 and 40 to the Ib, and were renowned for their accuracy and fixed-sight range up to 100 yds. Some maintain that the express rifle was developed from the Kentucky model. The modern express rifle may be defined as a breech-loading rifle with a height of trajectory not exceeding 4$ in. at 150 yds., with a muzzle velocity of at least 1750 f.s. These rifles are usually 5- to 7-grooved, double-barrelled, with 26- to 28-in. barrels of -360, -400, -450, •500 and -577 bores, weighing respectively from 6J to 7 Ib, 7 to 8 Ib, 7$ to 9 ft, 8J to 10 ft and ioj to 12 ft. The re- spective average charges are: bullet, 150 grains; powder, 50 grains; 209 and 82; 270 and no; 340 and 130; 520 and 160; the fixed-sight ranges, 130, 160, 150/130 and 120 yds. Double and single express rifles of -303 bore with 26-in. barrels are also made. Since the invention of cordite powder and the advent of the small-bore high-velocity rifle for military purposes, the variety of sporting rifles with different-sized bores has increased. Sporting cordite express rifles are now made, both single- and double-barrelled, of the following calibres: -256, -265, -276, •3°3. -31°, -360, -370, -375, -400, -450, -500, -577 and -600. Some of these calibres, such as -500, -577 and -600, are seldom used with cordite. The -450 cordite express is the largest bore high- velocity rifle recommended. The modern . small-bore military rifle already described possesses all the best qualities of an express sporting rifle — namely accuracy, flat trajectory, high muzzle velocity and long point-blank or fixed-sight range up to 200 yds. The muzzle velocity of the -303 bore with black powder is 1850 f.s.; with cordite, 2100 f.s. The hollow-pointed or slit expanding bullet is generally used in these high-velocity rifles, as in the black- powder express, for ordinary sporting purposes, with the solid metal cartridge-case. The pointed bullet is also sometimes used, generally with the -375 and -475 calibre rifles, and gives an increased muzzle velocity of 2500 f.s. The trajectory of the cordite rifle is stated to be 10 in. flatter at 200 yds. than that of a black-powder rifle of similar calibre and corresponding charge. The variety of bores in sporting rifles is due largely to restrictions on the importation of arms of the military calibres (especially •303) into India and South Africa. The sights of sporting express rifles are of some variety, and are usually designed and made with special care. The open V * The term " point-blank range " is often used in this connexion. Strictly speaking, there is no such thing as " point-blank range," the bullet commencing to drop immediately it leaves the muzzle of the rifle. The path or trajectory of the bullet if fired horizontally is therefore always a downward curve. The higher the muzzle velocity the flatter is this curve. The " fixed-sight," or so-called " point-blank " range, is usually taken at such range, generally loo yds. with black powder, and with such elevation as render the amount of drop of the bullet or curve of its path practically imma- terial for sporting purposes, say a maximum of 4! in. At shorter range this curve would therefore take the bullet so much above the line of fixed-sight aim, and must where necessary be allowed for. With the high-velocity small-bore rifle the fixed-sight range can be increased to 200 yds. for the sporting rifle; and for military purposes in the field to 500 yds. and (with pointed bullets) even more. 33^ RIFLEMAN-BIRD back-sight on an ivory pyramid with two or three leaves up to 300 yds., and the enamelled bead fore-sight, are the most usual form. The more elaborate Lyman and Beech peep-sights are also popular. One or two varieties of telescope sight, attachable to the barrel, are also made by some leading gunmakers, and have been used with success in the field. Solid-drawn brass cartridge-cases are now always used for sporting rifles, except occasionally for some of the larger bores, in which paper car- tridges may be used. The peculiarity of the express bullet is its hollow point, which is intended to ensure the expansion of the projectile on impact. This diminishes its penetration, but translates its velocity or energy into " shock." If greater penetration is needed, the leaden bullet is hardened with mercury or tin, or the military nickel-coated bullet is used. Explosive bullets filled with detonating powder were at one time used in express and large-bore rifles for large game. These are now practically abandoned, owing to their uncertainty of action and the danger in handling them. The use of the large 4- and 8-bore black-powder rifles is restricted to the hunting of large and dangerous game. These are usually double-barrelled. The 4-bore weighs from 14 to 18 tt> with 2o-in. barrels, and fires a charge of 12 to 14 drs. of powder, with a spherical bullet of 1510 grs. The great weight of this rifle is against its general use. The 8-bore rifle weighs from iij to 15 Ib with 20- to 24-in. barrels, with a charge of 8 to 12 drs. of powder with a spherical ball. These rifles are accurate and effective up to 120 yds. Rook and rabbit rifles are usually single- barrel breech-loading rifles of from -220 to -380 bore, hammerless, ejectors. The range is ordinarily restricted to 200 yds. Combined rifles and shot-guns are generally used in countries where the kind of game to be met with is not known beforehand, and by emigrants who can only afford one gun. These weapons are double-barrelled (-450 rifle barrel and i6-bore short barrel; or -500 rifle and i2-bore shot). Such a gun has many drawbacks, being too heavy for a shot-gun and too light for a rifle, with a bad balance. More modern combinations of the rifle and shot-gun are Holland's " Paradox," a smooth bore with the last three inches of the barrel ratchet-rifled, Lancaster's " Colindian " twisted oval bore, and Bland's " Euoplia " with " invisible " undulating rifling. All these weapons fire heavy bullets more or less accurately up to loo yds., are also used as shot-guns, and are made double- or single-barrelled and of various calibres, i2-bore being the most common. There is also Greener's " under and over," the rifle barrel being topmost (usually i6-bore shot-gun barrel and -450 rifle barrel). The Morris tube also enables a shot-gun to be utilized as a small-bore rifle or a large rifle as a saloon rifle fdr gallery practice. The automatic principle has not yet been applied to sporting rifles. Miniature Rifles. — In 1905 a War Office miniature or cadet rifle for instruction purposes was officially adopted by the British military authorities. The details of this rifle were determined by a committee, upon which the National Rifle Association and the Society of Miniature Rifle Clubs were represented. It is a single-loading bolt-action rifle of -22 calibre with military sights (the aperture sight being barred), shooting a rim-fire cartridge having a 4O-gr. bullet propelled by 5 grs. of black gunpowder or its equivalent in some smokeless explosive. It is used at ranges from 25 yds. up to a maximum of 200 yds. The official adoption of such a rifle was largely due to the civilian rifle club movement, which was the outcome of the South African War, and in which the Society of Miniature Rifle Clubs has played an important part. Until the recent official adoption of the miniature rifle, the council of the N.R.A. regarded marksmanship with the service rifle as its main object of en- couragement, and the service rifle itself as the orthodox weapon. The Society of Miniature Rifle Clubs, on the other hand, makes the encouragement of the use of low-power rifles its special object, with few restrictions as to type of sights, rifle or ammuni- tion. Numerous civilian rifle clubs have adopted the -22 calibre rifle, in many cases with aperture sights, with marked success, and British rifle-makers were encouraged to cater for this new demand for low-power rifles. Such weapons can be far more widely and generally used than the ordinary service weapon, owing to their smaller cost, cheaper ammunition, absence of recoil, and their convenience for use at short covered ranges in crowded centres of population. In many parts of Great Britain there is practically no alternative between low-power short-range practice and no shooting at all. The N.R.A. has now admitted the miniature -22 calibre rifle upon equal terms with the service rifle. The miniature rifle has, to some extent, taken the place of the Morris tube and " adaptors " previously used for rifle practice at short ranges.1 The Morris tube consists of a small-rifled barrel, usually chambered for the 2g7/23o-bore cartridge, and capable of being fitted inside the barrel of the ordinary service weapon, which thus becomes available as a miniature rifle for short-range practice. The Morris tube has been adopted by the British War Office, and affords an excellent means of training the recruit. " Adaptors " are dummy cartridge-cases fitted into the breech of the ordinary rifle, by means of which a shorter cartridge firing a lighter charge of powder, but with a bullet of the same calibre as the rifle, can be used for short-range practice. One of the first English miniature target rifles was the " Sharpshooters' Club " rifle, on the Martini principle, of -310 calibre, manufactured and introduced by W. W. Greener, and suitable for ranges from 50 to 300 yds. This rifle was adopted by many rifle clubs, and in 1901 established a record in the miniature rifle competition at Bisley. Miniature rifle shooting has been much encouraged throughout the United Kingdom by the establishment of the Light Rifle Championship competition under the auspices of the Society of Miniature Rifle Clubs. In 1907 Queen Alexandra presented a cup for this event. (H. S-K.) RIFLEMAN-BIRD, or RIFLE-BIRD, names given by the English in Australia to a very beautiful inhabitant of that country,2 probably because in coloration it resembled the well- known uniform of the rifle-regiments of the British army, while in its long and projecting hypochondriac plumes and short tail a further likeness might be traced to the hanging pelisse and the jacket formerly worn by the members of those corps. The cock bird is clothed in velvety-black generally glossed with rich purple, but having each feather of the abdomen broadly tipped with a chevron of green bronze, while the crown of the head is covered with scale-like feathers of glittering green, and on the throat gleams a triangular patch of brilliant bluish emerald, a colour that reappears on the whole upper surface of the middle pair of tail-quills. The hen is greyish-brown above, the crown striated with dull white; the chin, throat and a streak behind the eye are pale ochreous, and the lower parts deep buff, each feather bearing a black chevron. According to James Wilson (///. Zoology, pi. xi.), specimens of both sexes were obtained by Sir T. Brisbane at Port Macquarie, whence, in August 1823, they were sent to the Edinburgh Museum, where they arrived the following year; but the species was first described by W. Swainson in January 1825 (Zool. Journal, i. 481) as the type of a new genus Ptiloris, more properly written Ptilorrhis,3 and it is generally known in ornithology as P. paradisea. It inhabits the northern part of New South Wales and southern part of Queensland as far as Wide Bay, beyond which its place is taken by a kindred species, the P. victoriae of J. Gould, which was found by John Macgillivray on the shores and islets of Rockingham Bay. Farther to the north, in York Peninsula, occurs what is considered a third species, P. alberti, 1 In the military forces short-range practice now takes two forms — practice with Morris tube or miniature rifle, and practice with the full-sized rifle and ammunition on specially protected 3O-yd. ranges. 2 Curiously enough, its English name seems to be first mentioned in ornithological literature by Frenchmen — R. P. Lesson and Garnot — in 1828, who say (Voy. " Coquille," Zoologie, p. 669) that it was applied "pour rappeler que ce fut un soldat de la garnison [of New South Wales] qui le tua le premier " — which seems to be an insufficient reason, though the statement as to how the first specimen was ob- tained may be true. 3 Some writers have amended Swainson's faulty name in the form Ptilornis, but that is a mistake. RIGA— RIGAUD 337 very closely allied to and by some authorities thought to be identical with the P. magnified (Vieillot) of New Guinea — the "Promerops" of many writers. From that country a fifth species, P. wilsoni, has also been described by Mr Ogden (Proc. Acad. Philadelphia, 1875, P- 45*, pi- 25). Little is known of the habits of any of them, but the rifleman-bird proper is said to get its food by thrusting its somewhat long bill under the loose bark on the boles or boughs of trees, along the latter of which it runs swiftly, or by searching for it on the ground beneath. During the pairing-season the males mount to the higher branches and there display and trim their brilliant plumage in the morning sun, or fly from tree to tree uttering a note which is syllabled " yass " greatly prolonged, but at the same time making, apparently with their wings, an extraordinary noise like that caused by the shaking of a piece of stiff silk stuff. Verreaux informed D. G. Elliot that he believed they breed in the holes of trees and lay white eggs; but on that score nothing is really known. The genus Ptilorrhis, thought by Gould to be allied to Climacteris, has been generally placed near Epimachus, which is now considered, with Drepanornis and Seleucides, to belong to the Passerine Paradiseidae, or birds- of-paradise, and in his Monograph of that family all the species then known are beautifully figured by D. G. Elliot. (A. N.) RIGA (Esth. Ria-Lin), a seaport of Russia, 366 m. by rail S.W. of St Petersburg, the capital of the government of Livonia. The Gulf of Riga, too m. long and 60 m. in width, with shallow waters of inconsiderable salinity (greatest depth, 22 fathoms), freezes to some extent every year. The town is situated at the southern extremity of the gulf, 8 m. above the mouth of the Dvina, which brings Riga, by means of inland canals, into water communication with the basins of the Dnieper and the Volga. Below the town the river divides into several branches, among islands and sandbanks, receiving before it enters the sea the Bolderaa river, and expanding towards the east into wider lacustrine basins. Having direct railway communication with the fertile parts of southern and south-eastern Russia, Riga has become the second port for foreign trade on the Baltic, ranking next after St Petersburg. The port freezes on an average 127 days every year. The larger ships cannot reach Riga, and are unloaded at Ust-Dvinsk (formerly Dunamiinde). By no means all the trade with the interior is transported by the railways; no inconsiderable portion of the goods is carried by water. Riga consists of four parts — the old town and the St Peters- burg and Moscow suburbs on the right bank of the Dvina, and the Mitau suburb on the left bank, the two sides being connected by a floating bridge, which is removed in winter, and by a viaduct, 820 ft. long. The old town still preserves its Hanseatic features — high storehouses, with spacious granaries and cellars, flanking the narrow, winding streets. The only open spaces are the market-place and two other squares, one of which, facing the citadel, is adorned with a granite column erected (1818) in commemoration of the defeat of Napoleon I. in 1812. The suburbs, with their broad and quiet boulevards on the site of the former fortifications, are steadily growing. The St Petersburg suburb is the seat of the German aristocracy and merchant community. Few antiquities of the medieval town remain. The oldest church, the Dom (St Mary's), founded in 1215, was burned in 1547, and the present building dates from the second half of the 1 6th century, but has been thoroughly restored since 1883. Its organ, dating from 1883, is one of the largest in the world. St Peter's church, with a beautiful tower 412 ft. high, was erected in 1406-9. The castle, built in 1494-1515 by the master of the Knights of the Sword, Walter von Plettenberg — a spacious building often rebuilt — is the seat of the Russian authorities. The " House of the Black Heads," a corporation or club of foreign merchants, was founded in 1330, and subsequently became the meeting-place of the wealthier youth of the place. Of the recent erections, the polytechnic, the exchange, the monument of the German writer, Johann Gottfried von Herder, who lived at Riga towards the end of the i8th century, the gymnasiums (schools) of Lomonosov and Alexander I. and the large bonded warehouse are worthy of notice. The esplanade (where a Greek cathedral built in 1877-84 now stands), the Wohrmann Park and the Imperial Park are much visited. Riga gives name to an archiepiscopal see of the Orthodox Greek Church and to an episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Church, and is the headquarters of the XX. army corps. IB the environs, Dubbeln and the sea-bathing resorts of Bilderlingshof and Majorenhof have numerous visitors in summer. The population, which was 102,590 in 1867, increased to 168,728 in 1881 and to 282,943 in 1897, so that Riga now ranks seventh in the empire in order of population; 47% of the inhabitants are Germans, 25% Russians and 23% Letts, with a small admixture of Esthonians, Jews, &c. The city has a commercial school (1903), a municipal library, the Dom museum, an art museum with picture gallery (1904-5), technical and theological middle schools and a pilot and navigation school. Industrial activity has developed and includes railway-carriage works, works for the manufacture of machinery, oil mills and breweries. Owing to its communication by water and rail with the forests of White Russia and Volhynia, Riga is a great mart for timber. Flax and linseed also occupy a prominent place, Riga being the chief Russian port for _ the extensive flax-producing region of north-west Russia. Owing to the great railway which crosses the country from Riga to Smolensk, afterwards dividing into two branches, to Orenburg and Tsaritsyn on the lower Volga respectively, Riga is the store- house and place of export for hemp coming by rail from west central Russia, and for corn, Riga merchants sending their buyers as far east as Tambov. Oats, in particular, are extensively exported to England from the central provinces. Wheat, barley, eggs, butter, oilcake, hides, tallow, leather, tobacco, rugs, feathers and other items add considerably to the total value of the exports, which increased from if million sterling in 1851-60. to 8-14 millions sterling in 1901-5. The imports, consisting chiefly of salt, fish, wine, cotton, metals, machinery, coal, oils, fruits and tobacco, are also rapidly increasing: whereas in 1851-60 they were valued at about i million sterling, in 1901-5 they reached 6-nJ millions sterling. History. — Riga was founded in 1158, as a storehouse at the mouth of the Diina (Dvina), by a few Bremen merchants. About 1190 the Augustinian monk Meinhard erected a monastery there, and in 1199-1201 Bishop Albert I. of Livonia obtained from Pope Innocent III. permission for German merchants to land at the new settlement, and chose it for his seat, exercising his power over the neighbouring district in connexion with the Teutonic Knights. As early as the first half of the I3th century the young city obtained the right of electing its own magistracy, and enlarged the walls erected during Albert I.'s time. It joined the Hanseatic League, and from 1253 refused to recognize the rights of the bishop and the knights. In 1420 it fell once more under the rule of the bishop, who maintained his authority until 1 566, when it was abolished in consequence of the Reformation. Sigismund II., king of Poland, took Riga in 1547, and in 1558 the Russians burned its suburbs and many ships in the river. In 1561 Gotthard Ketteler publicly abdicated his mastership of the order of the Teutonic Knights, and Riga, together with southern Livonia, became a Polish possession; after some unsuccessful attempts to reintroduce Roman Catholicism, Stephen Bathory, king of Poland, recognized the religious freedom of the Protestant population. Throughout the I7th century Riga was a bone of contention between Sweden, Poland and Russia. In 1621 Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, took it from Poland, and held it against the Poles and the Russians, who besieged it in 1656. During the Northern War between Sweden and Russia, it was courageously defended (1700), but after the battle of Poltava it succumbed, and was taken in July 1 710 by the Russians. In 1781 it was made by Russia the capital of the Riga viceroyalty, but fifteen years later, the viceroyalty having been abolished, it was made the capital of Livonia. In 1812, the approach of the French being apprehended, the suburbs were burned. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) RIGAUD, HYACINTHE (1650-1743), French painter, born at Perpignan on the 2oth of July 1659, was the descendant of a line of artists. Having early lost his father, he was sent by his mother to Montpellier, where he studied under Pezet and was helped by Ranc, then to Lyons, and in 1681 to Paris. There, whilst following the regular course of academical instruction, 338 RIGBY— RIGGING Rigaud produced a great number of portraits so good that Le Brun advised him to give up going to Rome and to devote himself wholly to this class of work. Rigaud, although he had obtained the Grand Prix, followed this advice, and for sixty-two years painted at the rate of thirty to forty portraits a year, all carried through with infinite care by his own hand. His portraits of himself, of the sculptor Desjardins (Louvre), of Mignard and of Le Brun (Louvre) may be cited as triumphs of a still more attractive, if less imposing, character than that displayed in his grand representations of Bossuet (Louvre) and Louis XIV. (Louvre), while his beautiful portraits of his mother, Marie Serre (Louvre), must for ever remain amongst the master- pieces of French art. Rigaud, although the great successes to which he owed his fame were won without exception in portrait- painting, persisted in pressing the Academy to admit him as an historical painter. This delayed his reception, and it was not until January 1700 that he succeeded in obtaining his desire. He presented as his diploma works a St Andrew (Louvre) and the portrait of Desjardins already mentioned, exhibited at the salon of 1704, and filled in turn all the various posts of academical distinction. He died on the 27th of December 1743, having never recovered from the shock of losing his wife in the previous year. He had many pupils, and his numerous works had the good fortune to be reproduced by the greatest of French engravers — Edelinck, Drevet, Wille, Audran and others. RIGBY, RICHARD (1722-1788), English politician, was the only son of Richard Rigby (d. 1730) of Mistley Hall, Essex, a mer- chant who made a fortune through his connexion with the South Sea Company. Young Rigby became an associate of Frederick, prince of Wales, and entered parliament in 1745. He is chiefly known to fame through his connexion with John Russell, 4th duke of Bedford, and the " Bloomsbury gang," his audacity earning for him the title of the " brazen boatswain " of the "crew." In 1758 he became secretary to Bedford, who was lord lieutenant of Ireland, and in the following year he was given the sinecure office of master of the rolls for Ireland. Following the political fortunes of the duke he became vice- treasurer of Ireland in 1765, and in 1768 he obtained the lucrative position of paymaster-general of the forces. Rigby often spoke in parliament, and in 1 769 he shared in the opposition to Wilkes. In 1784 he was obliged to resign his position as paymaster- general, and he was somewhat surprised and embarrassed when he was requested to pay over the large sum of public money which was in his possession. He left a great fortune when he died at Bath on the 8th of April 1788. A rapacious and un- scrupulous politician, Wraxall says Rigby " possessed talents for addressing a popular assembly which were sustained by a confidence that nothing could abash." RIGG, JAMES HARRISON (1821-1909), English Noncon- formist divine, was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne on the i6th of January 1821. His father was a Wesleyan minister and sent his son to the Old Kingswood School, Bristol, where he subse- quently became an assistant teacher. In 1845 he entered the Wesleyan ministry, and during the agitation of 1849-52 wrote successfully in exposition and defence of the polity of Methodism. In 1857 he published Modern Anglican Theology, an acute criticism of the writings of Coleridge, Hare, Maurice, Kingsley and Jowett. The book was timely and well received, and though Kingsley at first resented the criticism he afterwards became a cordial friend of the writer. Rigg had now become a leading figure in his own church, and in 1868 was appointed Principal of the Westminster Wesleyan Training College for day-school teachers, a post which he held with growing dis- tinction for 35 years. In 1870 he was elected on the first School Board for London, one of the most remarkable assemblies of modern times, and took, an important part in providing the syllabus of religious instruction and framing the religious settlement for teachers. In 1873 he wrote National Education in its Social Conditions and Aspects. A resolute opponent of secular education, he main- tained that the state ought not to compete with the churches, but welcome their aid in the work of national education. He was also strongly against the adoption of a rigid universal code. In 1886 he sat on the Royal Commission of Education, and was brought into close contact with Matthew Arnold, and with Dean Stanley, Bishop Temple and other Anglican prelates, who held him in high esteem. In 1877 he became chairman of the second London district of Methodism, and for fourteen years helped to make the history of his church in the home counties. In 1878 he was elected president of conference — and again in 1892. From 1881 he was ministerial treasurer of the Wesleyan Missionary Society, taking an active part in its work. He resigned his principalship in 1903 and died at Brixton on the I7th of April 1909. Dr Rigg was universally honoured as the Nestor of Wesleyan Methodism, in the development of which he had taken a foremost part for over 60 years. His Connexional Economy is a standard work, and his Living Wesley a most discriminating study of the character and work of its subject. His Oxford High Anglicanism (1895) showed how keenly he followed modern developments in the Church of England. His lifelong principle was that Methodism is " a church friendly to all, but owing allegiance to none." See Life by John Telford (London, 1909). RIGGING (A.S. wrigan or wrihan, to clothe), the general term, in connexion with ships, for the whole apparatus of spars (including both masts and yards), sails and cordage, by which the force of the wind is utilized to move the hull against the resistance, and with the support, of the water. (See also SHIP and SHIPBUILDING). The word is often used as meaning the cordage only, but this is a too limited, and even an irra- tional, use of the term. A ship is not rigged until she is pro- vided with all the spars, sails and cordage required to move and control the hull. The straight or curved pieces of wood or metal, called davits, from which the boats carried along the bulwarks are hung, belong to the rigging. All are fastened directly or indirectly to the hull, and all are required to com- plete her " clothing." Vessels of all classes, from the smallest sailing-boat up to the largest ship, are classed according to the particular combination of their spars, sails and cordage. " Cutter," " brig," or " ship," are only convenient abbrevia- tions for " cutter-rigged," " brig-rigged," or " ship-rigged." They are of such or such a " rig." It is strictly correct to speak of the rigging of a mast or a yard, or of a boom, when all that is meant is the special set of ropes, of whatever size or material, required to keep them in their place, or withdraw them from it, when they have to be moved in the ship. In such cases the part is looked upon as a whole, and is mentally abstracted from the total of the vessel's rigging. The basis of all rigging is the mast (q.v.), whether it be com- posed of one or of many pieces of wood or metal. The mast is held up and controlled by ropes, which are classed together as the " standing rigging," because they are " that part (of the whole rigging) which is made fast, and not hauled upon " (Admiral Smyth, Sailor's Word-Book). This must be under- stood subject to the restriction that in the case of a mast com- posed of several parts, including topmast and topgallant mast, these subdivisions may be, and often are, lowered. The back- stays, and other ropes which keep the top and topgallant masts in place, are therefore only " comparative fixtures. " The bowsprit, though it does not rise from the deck but projects from the bow, is in fact a mast. The masts, including the bowsprit, support all the sails, whether they hang from the " yards," which are spars slung to the mast, or from " gaffs," which are spars projecting from the mast, or, as in the case of the " jibs," are triangular sails, travelling on ropes called " stays," which go from the foremast to the bowsprit and suspended by halliards. The bowsprit is subdivided like other masts. The bowsprit proper corresponds to the lower fore-, main- or mizzen-mast. The jib-boom, which is movable and projects beyond the bowsprit, corresponds to a topmast; the flying jib-boom, which also is movable and projects beyond the jib-boom, answers to a topgallant mast. The whole body of ropes by which the yards, booms and sails are manipulated RIGGING 339 constitute the " running rigging," since they are " in constant use, to trim yards, and make or shorten sail " (Admiral Smyth, op. cit.). The rigging must also provide the crew with the means of going aloft, and with standing ground to do their work when aloft. Therefore the shrouds (see below) are utilized to form ladders of rope, of which the steps are called ratlines,' by which the crew can mount. Near the heads of the lower masts are the tops — platforms on which men can stand — and in the same place on the topmasts are the " cross- trees," of which the main function is to extend the topgallant shrouds. The yards are provided with ropes, extending from the middle to the extremities or arms, called horses, or foot- ropes, which hang about 2 or 3 ft. down, and on which men can stand. The material of which the cordage is made has differed, and still differs greatly. Leather has been used. must be adapted to resist two kinds of pressure, the longitudinal, whether applied by the wind or by the motion of the vessel when pitching (i.e. plunging head and stern alternately into the hollow of the sea), and the lateral, when the wind is blow- ing on the side and she is rolling. The longitudinal pressure is counteracted by the bobstays, stays and backstays. A reference to fig. i will show that the bobstays hold down the bowsprit, which is liable to be lifted by the tug of the jibs, and of the stays connecting it with the" fore-topmast. If the bowsprit is lifted the fore-topmast loses part of its support. In the case of a small vessel, the lifting of a bowsprit would wreck her whole system of rigging in an instant. If fig. i is followed from the bow to the mizzenmast, it will be seen that a succession of stays connect the masts with the hull of the ship or with one another. All pull together to resist pressure from FIG. I. — The Spars and Rigging of a Frigate. References are not repeated for each mast where the names and functions are identical, i, bowsprit; 2, bobstays, three pairs; 3, spritsail-gaffs, projecting on each side of the bowsprit — the ropes at the extremities are jib-guys and flying jib-guys; 4, jib-boom; 5, martingale- stay, and below it the flying-jib martingale; 6, back-ropes; 7, flying jib-boom; 8, fore-royal stay, flying jib-stay and halliards; 9, fore-topgallant-stay, jib-stay and halliards; 10, two fore-topmast-stays and fore-topmast staysail halliards; n, the foretop-bowlines, stopped into the top and two fore-stays; 12, two fore-tacks; 13, fore-truck; 14, fore-royal mast, yard and lift; 15, topgallant mast, yard and lift; 16, fore-top mast! topsail-yard, lift and reef-tackle; 17, foretop, fore-lift, and topsail-sheet; 18, foremast and fore-shrouds, nine pairs; 19, fore- sheets; 20, fore-gaff; 21, fore-topmast backstays and topsail tye; 22, royal and topgallant backstays; 23, fore-royal-braces and main-royal-stay; 24, fore-topgallant braces and main-topgallant-stay; 25, standing parts or fore-topsail-braces and main- topmast-stays; 26, hauling parts of fore-topsail-braces and main-top-bowlines; 27, fore parts of fore-braces; 28, mainstays; 29, main-tacks; 30, main-truck; 31, main-royal-braces; 32, mizzen-royal-stay and mizzen-royal-braces ; 33, main-topgallant- braces and mizzen-topgallant-braces; 34, standing parts'of main-topsail-braces and mizzen-topmast-stay ; 35, mizzen-topsail- braces; 36, hauling parts of main-topsail-braces, mizzen-top-bowlines and cross-jack-braces; 37, main-braces and mizzen- stay; 38, standing part of peak halliards; 39, vangs, similar on each gaff; 40, ensign staff; 41, spanker-boom; 42, quarter- boat's davits; 43, one of the davit topping-lifts and wind-sail; 44, main-yard-tackle; 45, a bull-rope. During historic times, however, the prevailing materials have been hemp or esparto grass (Machrocloa, or Stipa tenacissima) , and in recent days chain and wire. As the whole of the rigging is divided into standing and running, so a rope forming part of the rigging is divided into the " standing part " and the " fall." The standing part is that which is made fast to the mast, deck or block. The fall is the loose end or part on which the crew haul. The block is the pulley through which the rope runs. " Standing " in sea language means " fixed " — thus the standing part of a hook is that which " is attached to block, chain or anything which is to heave the hook up, with a weight hanging to it; the part opposite the point " (Smyth, sub voce). " Tackle " is the combination of ropes and blocks; the com- bination of cables and anchors constitutes the " ground tackle.'' The function of all cordage may be said to be to pull, for the purpose either of keeping the masts in their places, or of moving spars and sails. The standing rigging which supports the masts in front. Pressure from behind is met by the backstays, which connect the topmasts and topgallant masts with the sides of the vessel. Lateral pressure is met by the shrouds and breast- backstays. A temporary or " preventer " backstay is used when great pressure is to be met. Seamen have at all times had recourse to special devices to meet particular dangers. When Dundonald, then captain of the " Pallas " frigate, was chased by a French squadron in stormy weather, he fortified his masts by ordering " all the hawsers " (large ropes a little less strong than the cables which hold the anchor) " in the ship to be got up to the mast heads, and hove taut," i.e. made fast to the side. Thus she was able to carry more sail than would have been possible with her normal rigging. The running rigging by which all spars and sails are hoisted, or lowered and spread or taken in, may be divided into those which lift and lower — the lifts, jeers, halliards (haulyards) — and those which hold down the lower corners of the sails — the tacks and sheets. A 340 RIGGING long technical treatise would be required to name the many combinations of cordage and spars which make up the total rigging. All that is attempted here is to give the main lines and general principles or divisions. The vessel dealt with here is the fully rigged ship of three or more masts. But she includes all the others and the principles are the same. The simplest of all forms of rigging is the dipping lug, a quadrangular sail hanging from a yard, and always hoisted on the side of the mast opposite to that on which the wind is blowing (the lee side). When the boat is to be tacked so as to bring the wind on the other side, the sail is lowered and rehoisted. One rope can serve as halliard to hoist the sail and as a stay when it is made fast on the weather side on which the wind is blowing. The difference between such a craft and the fully rigged ship is that between a simple organism and a very complex one; but it is one of degree, not of kind. The steps in the scale are innumerable. Every sea has its own type. Some in eastern waters are of extreme antiquity, and even in Europe vessels are still to be met with which differ very little if at all from the ships of the Norsemen of the gth and loth centuries. For a full account of these varieties of rigging the reader may be referred to Mast and Sail in Europe and Asia (London, 1906), by H. Warington Smyth. When the finer degrees of variation are neglected the types of rigging may be reduced to comparatively few, which can be classed by the shape of their sail and the number of their masts. At the bottom of the scale is such a craft as the Norse herring boat (fig. 2). FIG. 2. — Norse Herring Boat. She has one quadrangular sail suspended from a yard which is hung (or slung) by the middle to a single mast which is placed (or stepped) in the middle of the boat. She is the direct representative of the ships of the Norsemen. Her one sail is a " course " such as is still used on the fore and mainmasts of a fully developed ship; a topsail may be added (as in fig. 3) and then we have the beginning FIG. 3.— Nordland Boat. of a fully clothed mast. A very similar craft called a Humber keel is used in the north of England. The lug sail is an advance on the course, since it is better adapted for sailing on the wind, with the wind on the side. When the lug is not meant to be lowered, and rehoisted on the lee side, as in the dipping lug mentioned above, it is slung at a third from the end of the yard, and is called a standing lug. A good example of the lug is the Chinese junk (fig. 4). The FIG. 4. — Four-masted Junk. lug is a " lifting sail," and does not tend to press the vessel down as the fore and aft sail does. Therefore it is much used by fishing vessels in the North Sea. The type of the fore and aft rig is the schooner (fig. 5). The sails on the masts have a gaff above and a boom below. These spars have a prong called " the jaws," which fit to the mast, and are held in place by a " jaw rope " on which are threaded beads called trucks. Sails of this shape are carried by fully rigged ships on the mizzen- mast, and can be spread on the fore and main. They are then called try- FIG. 5.— Schooner. I, bowsprit, with sails and are used only in martingale to the stem; 2, fore- bad weather when little topmast-stay, jib and stay-foresail; sail can be carried, and 3, fore-gaff-topsail; 4, foresail and are hoisted on the trysail mainstays; 5, main-gaff-topsail; 6, mast, a small mast attached mainsail; 7, end of boom, to the great one. The Lateen (Latin) sail (fig. 6) is a triangular sail akin to the lug, and is the prevailing type of the Mediterranean. These original types, FIG. 6. — Lateen Rig. even when unmodified by mixture with any other, permit of large variations. The number of masts of a lugger may vary from one to five, and of a schooner from two to five or even seven. A small lug may be carried above the large one, and a gaff topsail added to the sails of a schooner. A small-masted fore-and-aft-rigged vessel may be a cutter (fig. 7) or sloop. But the pure types may be com- bined, in topsail schooner, brigantines, barquentines and barques, when the topsail, a quadrangular sail hanging from and fastened to a yard, slung by the middle, is combined with fore and aft sails. The lateen rig has been combined with the square rig to make such a rigging as the xebec — a three-masted vessel square rigged on the main, and lateen on the fore and mizzen. Triangular sails of the RIGGING 34* FIG. 7. — Cutter Yacht. I , bow- sprit and martingale; 2, jib — behind it is the foresail; 3, cross-trees and topmast- shroud; 4, pennant desig- nating the club to which she belongs; 5, gaff -topsail; 6, peak of gaff, hoisted by peak and throat halyards; 7, mainsail ; 8, end of boom and topping-lift. From Sir George V. C. llolmes's Ancient and Modem Skips, Part I., by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. FIG. 8.— Sail Plan of the " Santa Maria." •same type as the jibs can be set on the stays between the masts of a fully rigged ship, and are then known as staysails. But it can only be repeated that the variations are innumerable. Studding- sails are pieces added to increase the breadth (spread) of sails, and require the support of special yards, booms and tackle. The development of the rigging of ships is a very obscure subject. It was the work of centuries, and of practical men who wrote no treatises. It has never been universal. A comparison of the four - masted junk given above with the figures of ships on medieval seals shows at least much similarity. Yet by selecting a few lead- ing types of succes- sive periods it is possible to follow the growth of the fully rigged ship, at least in its main lines, in modern times. Fig. 8 gives the sail plan of the " Santa Maria," the flagship of Columbus. It is a modern reconstruc- tion, made in 1893 in Spain at the Carraca arsenal, but is based on good authority. She has only the fixed bowsprit, with a yard and a sail hanging from it, the spritsail ¥ird and spritsail. he foremast has one course, the mainmast a course and topsail, the mizzen a _ lateen sail. Fig. 9 is the " Sovereign of the Seas," a British warship of 1637. She still has only the fixed bowsprit, but a small upright mast has been erected at the end, which serves to spread a sprit topsail. In some cases at least a sprit topgallant sail was used. The mizzenmast still carries a lateen sail, but topsails have been added, and the whole rigging has multiplied and developed. Between the " Sovereign of the Seas " and the fully developed ship given in fig. I the most apparent differences are in the rigging of the bowsprit and the mizzenmast. The sprit topmast has disappeared, and is replaced From Sir George V. C Holmes's Ancient and Modem Ships, Part I., by permission of the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office. FIG. 9. — The " Sovereign of the Seas." 342 RIGHT ASCENSION— RIGHTS OF MAN by the jib-boom. The square spritsail, which could not be trained fore and aft, and was of feeble effect in keeping the ship's head from turning to windward, has been replaced by the jib. The spritsail yard (which continued in use till after 1850) has disappeared and has been replaced by the spritsail gaffs, two fixed spars which slope downwards and help to support the " jib-guys," the lateral supports of the booms. For a time, and after the use of spritsails had been given up, the spritsail yard continued to be used to discharge the function now given to the gaffs (see Smyth, Sailor's Word-Book, sub voce). The changes in the mizzen have an obscure history. About the middle of the i8th century it ceased to be a pure lateen. The yard was retained, but no sail was set on the forearm. Then the yard was given up and replaced by a gaff and a boom. The new sail was called the spanker. It was, however, comparatively narrow, and when a greater spread of sail was required, a studding- sail (at first called a " driver ") was added. At a later date " spanker " and " driver " were used as synonymous terms, and the studding-sail was called a " ringtail." The studding-sails are the representatives of a class of sail once more generally used. In modern times a sail is cut of the extreme size which is capable of being carried in fine weather, and when the wind increases in strength it is reefed — i.e. part is gathered up and fastened by reef points, small cords attached to the sail. Till the I7th century at least the method was often to cut the courses small, so that they could be carried in rough weather. When a greater spread of sail was required, a piece called a bonnet was added to the foot of the sail, and a further piece called a drabbler could be added to that. It is an example of the tenacious conservatism of the sea that this practice is still retained by the Swedish small craft called " lodjor " in the Baltic and White Sea. It will be easily understood that no innovation was universally accepted at once. Jib and sprit topsail, lateen, mizzen and spanker, and so forth, would be found for long on the sea together. The history of the development of rigging is one of adjustment. The size of the masts had to be adapted to the ship, and it was necessary to find the due proportion between yards and masts. As the size of the medieval ship increased, the natural course was to increase the height of the mast and of the sail it carried. Even when the mast was subdivided into lower, top and topgallant, the lower mast was too long, and the strain of the sail racked the hull. Hence the constant tendency of the ships to leak. Sir Henry Manwayring, when giving the proper proportions of the masts, says that the Flemings (i.e. the Dutch) made them taller ("taller" and "taunt" were for long used to mean the same thing) than the English, which again forced them to make the sails less wide. A tall sail could not be cut so wide as a lower one without putting an excessive strain on the mast. He says that the Flemings found an advantage in working to windward, but that they " wronged " (i.e. racked) their ships. The English preferred a less lofty mast and a wider spread of sail. It is very difficult to say what changes in the proportions of masts and yards took place in English ships between the early 1 7th and the igth centuries. The difficulty arises largely not only from insufficient knowledge of the earlier period, but from the fact that a scale was fixed only after trials, and by degrees. Manwayring, for instance, when giving the proportion of the topmasts to lower masts, says: " The topmasts are ever half so long as the masts into which they belong; but there is no absolute proportion in these, and the like things, for if a man will have his mast short, he may the bolder make his topmast long." In some respects the change was certainly slight. In the early iyth century, in England at least, the length of the mainmast was fixed by taking four-fifths of the breadth of the ship and multiplying by three. Two centuries later the method was to take the length of the lower deck and the extreme breadth, add them together, and divide by two. If we take a 74-gun ship of about the year 1820, which was 176 ft. long on the lower deck and 48 ft. 8 in. wide, she would have, by the system then used, a mainmast of 112 ft. Manwayring's system would have given her one of 117 ft. But in the proportions of the masts to one another there was a change. In the I7th century the foremast was four-fifths of the main, and the bowsprit was of the same length as the foremast. In the igth the foremast was eight- ninths of the mainmast, while the bowsprit was seven-elevenths of the mainmast in the largest ships, and three-fifths in the others. When we come to the relative proportions of masts and yards the difficulty increases, for the standard was not the same. The seamen of the 1 7th century calculated the length of the mainyard not by the size of the mast but by the length of the keel. The mainyard, which was the standard for the others, ought according to " the best and most absolute " estimate to be five-sixths of the length of the keel. But Manwayring again explains that " the proportion is not absolute." If it was followed, the yards of a 17th-century ship must have been rather longer than in a vessel of a hundred and fifty and two hundred years later, when the mainyard was eight-ninths of the mainmast, and a regular scale was fixed through- out. Even so Manwayring's warning that " the proportion was not absolute " must be borne in mind. Changes were constant. The development of the famous American clippers made a considerable one. So has the growth of the vast four- and five-masted iron sailing ships of recent days. Individual captains have fitted ships according to ideas of their own. It has always happened that extra sails have been invented and set by ingenious devices for particular purposes. One large sail requires more men to handle it than several small ones. For this reason it is that in recent times the topsails of merchant ships have been divided into upper and lower, with a great loss of beauty, but an increase of convenience. To the same cause, the wish to economize in the size of the crew, is to be attributed the introduction of machinery for reefing sail from the deck, which is also an easier and a safer process than going aloft to reef them by hand. In a general way it may be said that the development of the rigging has been towards establishing a fair balance between the fore and after spread of canvas. Until the jib was invented in the l8th century, a ship which was sailing on the wind was subject to a disproportionate pressure aft. If she was at all given to " griping " — that is to say, inclined to turn head to wind (and all ships are liable to have ways and manners which are mysterious in origin and not seldom incurable), the mizzen-sail could not be used, for if it had been she would never have been " put of the wind." Therefore when close-hauled (sailing with the wind on the side and somewhat from before her centre) she lost the use of part of her sail. The spritsail which could not be trained fore and aft was no use " on the wind." A few words may be added concerning the tops. In the earlier form of ships the -top was a species of crow's nest placed at the head of the mast to hold a look-out, or in military opera- tions to give a place of advantage to archers and slingers. They appear occasionally as mere bags attached to one side of the mast. As a general rule they are round. In the i6th century there were frequently two tops on the fore- and main- masts, one at the head of. the lower, another at the head of the topmast, where in later times there have only been the two traverse beams which make the crosstrees. The upper top dropped out by the I7th century. The form was round, and so continued to be till the i8th century when the quadrangular form was introduced. In quite recent times the military tops of warships have resumed the circular form. AUTHORITIES. — The present writer is indebted to Admiral Sir Cyprian A. G. Bridge, G.C.B., whose practical acquaintance with the older type of sailing ship as well as with the modern steamship makes his authority specially valuable, for the correction or confirmation of the technical details in the above article. Among the literature of the subject, reference may be made to the following works: Sir Henry Manwayring, The Seaman's Dictionary (London, 1644) ; Darcy Lever, The Young Sea Officer's Sheet Anchor (London, 1808); Sir George Nares, Seamanship (Portsmouth, 1882); Vice- Admiral Edmond Paris, La Musee de marine du Louvre (Paris, 1883). (D. H.) RIGHT ASCENSION, in astronomy, that co-ordinate of a heavenly body defined by the angle which the meridian passing through it makes with the" prime meridian through the vertical equinox (see ASTRONOMY). RIGHTS OF MAN AND OF THE CITIZEN, DECLARATION OF, a sort of manifesto issued in 1789 by the Constituent Assembly in the French Revolution, to be inscribed at the head of the constitution when it should be completed. It stated the fundamental principles which inspired the revolution. Historians have traced a connexion with the declarations of rights which preceded the constitution of some of the states of the American Union, especially of Virginia, but the situation in France at the time, and the influence of the writings of the philosophes made the proposal for such a statement very natural. The declaration overturned the political and social principles upon which the existent regime stood. It has served as a base for modern civil legislation and is still a force in European history. The final text voted by the Assembly was accepted by the king on the 5th of October 1789, at first conditionally, then with modifications. It contains a preamble and 17 articles. They proclaim and define political equality and liberty in its various manifestations, determine the character of the law and the conditions of its application, and state at the same time the restrictions upon the individual will which are necessary RIGORD— RIMBAUD 343 for the benefit of society: Similar declarations were attached to the constitution of 1793 and to that of the year III. See E. Blum, La Declaration des droits de I'homme el du citoyen, text with commentary (Paris, 1902) ; L. Bourgeois and A. Metin, Declaration des droits de I'homme et du citoyen, 1789 (Paris, 1901) ; G. Jellinck, Die Erkldrung der Menschen und Biirgerrechte (Leipzig, 1895). This study has been translated into English by Rudolf Tombo (New York), and has aroused considerable controversy; see E. Boutmy, " La Declaration des droits de I'homme et du citoyen et M. Jellinck," in Annales des sciences politiques for the I5th of July 1902; also E. Walsh, La Declaration des droits de I'homme et du citoyen et I'assemblee constituant, Travaux preparatoires (Paris, RIGORD (c. 1150-c. 1209), French chronicler, was probably born near Alais in Languedoc, and became a physician. After- wards becoming a monk he entered the monastery of Argenteuil, and then that of St Denis, and described himself as regis Francorum chronographus. Rigor wrote the Gesta Philippi Augusti, dealing with the life of the French king, Philip Augustus, from his coronation in 1179 until 1206. The work, which is very valuable, was abridged and continued by William the Breton (q.v.). The earlier part of the Gesta speaks of the king in very laudatory terms, but in the latter part it is much less flattering in its tone. It is published in tome xvii. of Dom Bouquet's Recueil des historiens des Gaules et de la France (Paris, 1738-1876); and with introduction by H. F. Delaborde (Paris, 1882-85). A French translation of the Gesta is in tome xi. of Guizot's Collection des memoires relatifs a I'histoire de France (Paris, 1825). Rigord also wrote a short chronicle of the kings of France. See A. Potthast, Bibliotheca historica (Berlin, 1896); and A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome iii. (Paris, 1903). RIGORISM. (Lat. rigor, stiffness, firmness), a philosophical term applied by Kant specially to those moralists who take up an anti-hedonist or ascetic standpoint. In general the term is opposed to " latitudinarianism " or " indifferentism,"- respectively a morality of compromise and a morality of pure indifference, — and signifies insistence upon the strictest inter- pretation of a principle, rule or criterion. Thus, in Roman Catholic theology, a rigorist holds that in cases of conscience the proper course is to adhere to the strict wording of the law in question. RILEY, JAMES WHITCOMB (1853- ), American poet, was born in Greenfield, Indiana, in 1853. He spent several years as an itinerant sign-painter, actor and musician. During this vagabond experience he had opportunities to revise plays and compose songs, and was brought into close touch with the rural folk of Indiana, becoming familiar with their life and speech. About 1873 he first contributed verses, especially in the Hoosier dialect, to the papers, and he soon became local editor of the Anderson (Ind.) Democrat. In August 1877, over the initials " E.A.P.," he printed in the Kokomo (Indiana) Dispatch a poem, Leonainie, in the manner of Poe.1 The press throughout the country copied the • poem, .and many critics of acknowledged authority believed it to have been' actually written by Poe, until the hoax was explained by the paper in which it first appeared. To the Indianapolis Daily Journal Riley contributed many poems, the best known being a series in dialect which purported to have been written by one " Ben- jamin F. Johnson, of Boone," a farmer. These he published in book form, under the same pen-name, as The Old Swimmin' Hole and 'Leven More Poems (1883). He wrote short stories and sketches, some of unusual merit, but is known almost exclusively as a poet. Of his poems some are in conventional English, many others in the Hoosier dialect of the Middle- West. His materials are the homely incidents and aspects of village and country life, 1 The poem was accompanied by a statement from the editor of the paper that it was " from the gifted pen of the erratic poet, Edgar Allan Poe," and by a circumstantial story to the effect that the poem had been found written on the fly-leaf of an old Latin- English dictionary then owned by " an uneducated and illiterate man " in Kokomo, who had received it from his grandfather, in whose tavern, near Richmond, Va., it had been left by " a young man who showed plainly the marks of dissipation." especially of Indiana, and his manner is marked by delicate imagination and naive humour and tenderness. The bulk of his work appeared in The Boss Girl and Other Sketches (1886), republished in 1891 as Sketches in Prose; Afterwhiles (1887); Pipes o' Pan at Zekesbury (1888); Rhymes of Childhood (1890); Neighborly Poems (1891); The Flying Islands of the Ni%ht (1891), a fantastic blank verse drama; Green Fields and Running Brooks (1892); Poems Here at Home (1893); Armazindy (1894), which contains the poem " Leonainie "; A Child-World (1896), reminiscent of his own boyhood; The Rubdiydt of Doc Sifers (1897); Home Folks (1900); The Book of Joyous Children (1902); His Pa's Romance (1903); A Defective Santa Claus (1904); and in several books of selections, such as Old Fashioned Roses (1889), published in England; Child Rhymes (1808); Love Lyrics (1899); The Golden Year (1899), published in England; Farm Rhymes (1901); An Old Sweetheart of Mine (1902); Out to Old Aunt Mary's (1904); Songs o' Cheer (1905) ; Morning (1907) ; and Songs of Summer (1908). RIMBAUD, JEAN ARTHUR (1854-1891), French poet and adventurer, was born at Charleville, in the Ardennes, on the 2Oth of October 1854. He was the second son of a captain in the French army, who in 1860 abandoned his wife and family. From early childhood Arthur Rimbaud, who was severely brought up by his mother, displayed rich intellectual gifts and a sullen, violent temperament. He began to write when he was ten, and some of the poems which now appear in his works belong to his fifteenth year. Before he was sixteen, in consequence of a violent quarrel with his mother, the boy escaped from Charleville with a packet of his verse, was arrested as a vagabond, and for a fortnight was locked up in the Mazas prison, Paris. A few days after being taken home Rimbaud escaped again, into Belgium, where he lived for some time as a tramp, Almost starved, but writing verses with feverish assiduity. In February 1871 he left his mother for a third time, and made his way to Paris, where he knew no one, and whence, after very nearly dying of hunger and exposure, he begged his way back to Charleville. There he wrote in the same year the extraordinary poem of Le Bateau ivre, which is now hailed as the pioneer of the entire " symbolist " or " decadent " movement in French literature in all its forms. He sent it to Verlaine, who encouraged the boy of seventeen (whom he supposed to be a man of thirty) to come again to Paris. Rimbaud spent from October 1871 to July 1872 in the capital, partly with Verlaine, partly as the guest of Theodore de Banville, and served in the army of the Commune. With Verlaine he travelled for thirteen months, after the fall of the Commune, through England and Belgium, where in 1873 he published the only work which he ever printed, Une Saison en Enfer, in prose; in this he gives an allegorical account of his extravagant relations with Verlaine, which ended at Brussels by a double attempt of the latter to murder his young companion. On the second occasion Rimbaud was dangerously wounded by Verlaine's revolver, and the elder poet was imprisoned at Mons for two years. Meanwhile Rimbaud, deeply disillusioned, determined to abandon Europe and literature, and he ceased at the age of nineteen to write poetry. He settled for a while at Stuttgart, studying German, and in 1875 he disappeared. He set out on foot for Italy, and after extraordinary adventures found employ- ment as a day-labourer in the docks at Leghorn. Returning to Paris, he obtained a little money from his mother, and then definitely vanished. For sixteen years nothing whatever was heard of him, but it is now known that he embarked as a Dutch soldier for the Sunda Isles, and, presently deserting, fled to Sumatra and then to Java, where he lived for some time in the forest. Returning to Europe, after a vagabond life in every capital, he obtained in 1880 some menial employment in the quarries of Cyprus, and then worked his way to Aden and up into Abyssinia, where he was one of the pioneers of European commercial adventure. Here he settled, at Harrar, as a trader in coffee and perfumes, to which he afterwards added gold and ivory; for the next eleven years, during which he led many commercial expeditions into unknown parts of northern Africa, Shoa and Harrar were his headquarters, and he lived almost entirely with the natives, and as one of themselves. From 1888 to 1891, having prospered greatly as a merchant, he became a sort of semi-independent chieftain, intriguing for France, just 344 RIME ROYAL— RIMINI outside the borders of civilization. From documents which were first produced in 1902 it appears that from 1883 to 1889 Rimbaud was in close relations with the Ras Makonnen and with Menelek, then only king of Shoa. At the death of the Negus John, in 1888, he was concerned in the formation of the empire of Ethiopia. From this time Rimbaud had a palace in the town of Harrar, and intrigued with the French government in favour of Menelek and against Italy. Meanwhile, in 1886, believing Rimbaud to be dead, Verlaine had published his poems, under the title of Les Illuminations, and they had created a great sensation in Paris. In this collection appeared the sonnet on the vowels, attributing a different colour to each: "A noir, E blanc, I rouge, U vert, O bleu wyelles." But the author, in his Abyssinian hut of palm-leaves, was, and remained, quite unconscious of the fact. In March 1891 a tumour in his knee obliged Rimbaud to leave Harrar and go to Europe for surgical advice. He reached Marseilles, but the case was hopeless ; the leg had to be amputated, and Rimbaud died there in hospital on the loth of November 1891. The poems of Rimbaud all belong to his earliest youth. Their violent originality, the influence which they have exercised upon younger writers, the tumultuous existence of their author, and the strange veil of mystery which still hangs over his character and adventures, have given to Rimbaud a remarkable fascination. His life has been written by M. Paterne Berrichon (1897), and valuable reminiscences by his sister, Mile Isabella Rimbaud. His (Euvres were collected in 1898 by MM. Berrichon and Delahaye, and in 1901 his statue was unveiled at Charleville. (E. G.) See also Lettres de Jean Arthur Rimbaud (Egypte, Arabic, Athiopie}, 1899, edited by P. Berrichon; Paul Verlaine, Les Poetes maudits (1884); George Moore, Impressions and Opinions: Two Unknown Poets (1891) ; and A. Symons, The Symbolist Movement in Literature (1900). RIME ROYAL, the name given to a strophe or stanza-form, which is of Italian extraction, but is almost exclusively identi- fied with English poetry from the fourteenth to the early seventeenth centuries. It appears to be formed out of the stanza called Ottava rima (q.v.), by the omission of the fifth line, which reduces it to seven lines of three rhymes, arranged ababbcc. It was earliest employed with skill, if not, as seems probable, invented, by Chaucer, who composed his long romantic poem of Trotius and Cressida in rime royal, of which the following is an example: — " And as the new-abashecl nightingale, Thet stinteth first when she beginneth sing, When that she heareth any herde tale, Or in the hedges any wight stirring, And, after, siker doth her voice out-ring,— Right so Cresseyda, when her drede stint, Opened her heart, and told all her intent." The " Prioress' Tale," in the Canterbury Tales, offers another particularly beautiful proof of Chaucer's skill in the use of the rime royal. In the fifteenth century this stanza was habitually used, in preference to heroic verse, by Hoccleve and Lydgate, and, with more melody and grace, by the unknown writer of The Flower and the Leaf. In the sixteenth century, rime royal was chosen by Hawes as the vehicle of his Pastime of Pleasure (1506) and by Barclay in his Ship of Fools (1509); it was now regarded as the almost exclusive classical form for heroic poetry in England, and it had long been so accepted in Scotland, where The King's Quair of King James I., the Fables of Henry- son and The Thistle and the Rose of Dunbar had closely followed Chaucer's pattern. The greater part of that huge poetic mis-, cellany, The Mirror for Magistrates (1550-1610), was written in rime royal, Sackville's momentous Induction among the rest. The seven-line stanza began to go out of fashion with the revival of Elizabethan poetry, but we find it still used in Spenser's Hymn of Heavenly Beauty, Shakespeare's Lucrece and the Orchestra of Sir John Davys. After 'the first decade of the seventeenth century rime royal went out of fashion. Since then it has been occasionally revived, but not in poems of great length or particular importance. Rime royal should always be written in iambic metre, and be formed of seven lines of equal length, each containing ten syllables. RIMINI, a town and bishop's see of Italy, in the province of Forli, Emilia, on the Adriatic coast, 69 m. S.E. of Bologna by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 18,022; commune, 46,801. The city is bounded on three sides by water. It faces the Adriatic to the north, has the torrent Aprusa, now called Ausa, on the east and the river Marecchia on the west. It stands 'n a fertile plain, which on the southern side soon swells into pleasant slopes backed by the jagged peaks of the Umbrian Apennines. The foremost foothill of the range is the steep crag of Mons Titanus, crowned by the towers of the republic of San Marino. Rimini attracts numerous visitors for the sea-bathing at Porta Marina. It has mineral springs, and the industries comprise fisheries, ironworks and foundries, sulphur furnaces, silk- mills, rope walks, match factories, brickworks, flourmills and furniture. Its main interest, however, is historical. Apart from the ancient buildings, &c., referred to below, Rimini can boast of a good public library, founded by the jurist Gam- balunza in 1617, a municipal picture gallery, an archaeological museum, a technical school (1882) and a bronze statue of Pope Paul V. The ancient castle of Sigismondo Malatesta, now dilapidated, has in recent years been used as a prison. History. — Rimini is the ancient Ariminum (q.v. for its early history and remains). During the middle ages the history of Rimini has no importance. Alternately captured by Byzan- tines and Goths, it was rigorously besieged by the latter in A.D. 538. They were, however, compelled to retreat before the reinforcements sent by Belisarius and Narses; thus the Byzan- tines, after various vicissitudes, became masters of the town, appointed a duke as its governor, and included it in the exarchate of Ravenna. It afterwards fell into the power of the Longo- bards, and then of the Franks, who yielded it to the pope, for whom it was governed by counts to the end of the loth century. Soon after this period the imperial power became dominant in Rimini. In 1157 Frederick I. gave it, by imperial patent, the privilege of coining money and the right of self-government; and in the I3th century we find Rimini an independent com- mune waging war on the neighbouring cities. In the year 1216, Rimini, being worsted by Cesena, adopted the desperate plan of granting citizenship to two members of the powerful Malatesta tribe, Giovanni and Malatesta, for the sake of their aid and that of their vassals in the defence of the state and the conduct of the war. This family quickly struck root in the town and gave birth to future tyrants; for in 1237 Giovanni was named podesta, and this office was the first step towards the sovereign power afterwards assumed by his descendants. Meanwhile, Rimini was torn by the feuds of Guelf and Ghibelline. The latter were the dominant party in the days of Frederick II., although very unpopular on account of the grievous taxes imposed by the empire. Accordingly, the majority of the urban nobles joined the Guelfs and were driven into exile. But before long, as the Swabian power declined in Italy, the Guejf party was again predominant. Then followed a long period of confusion, in which, by means of conspiracies and crimes of every kind, the Malatesta succeeded in becoming masters and tyrants of Rimini. Giovanni Malatesta had died in 1247 and been succeeded by his son Malatesta, born in 1212, and surnamed Malatesta da Verrucchio. This chieftain, who lived to be a hundred years old, had ample time to mature his ambitious designs, and was the real founder of his house. Seizing the first suitable moment, he placed himself at the head of the exiled Guelfs, and restored them to Rimini. Then, as the empire acquired fresh strength in Italy, he quietly bided his time and, on the descent of the Angevins, again assumed the leadership of the Guelfs who now had the upper hand for a long time. Being repeatedly elected podesta for lengthy terms of office, he at last became the virtual master of Rimini. Nor was he checked by Rome. Pope Boniface VIII. was fully aware of the rights and traditional pretensions of the Holy See, but preferred to keep on good terms with one who had so largely contributed to the triumph of the Guelfs in Romagna. Accordingly he not only left Malatesta unmolested, but in 1299 conferred on him fresh honours and estates, so that RIMINI 345 his power went on increasing to the day of his death in 1312- Four sons had been born to Malatesta — Malatestino, Giovanni the Lame, Paolo the Handsome, and Pandolfo; but only the oldest and youngest survived him. Giovanni the Lame (Sciancato), a man of a daring impetuosity only equalled by his ugliness, had proved so useful a general to Giovanni da Polenta of Ravenna as to win in reward the hand of that potentate's beautiful daughter, known to history as Francesca da Rimini. But her heart had been won by the handsome Paolo, her brother-in-law; and the two lovers, being sur- prised by Giovanni, were murdered by him on the spot (1285). This episode of the story of the Malatesta has been imnlortalized in Dante's Inferno. Giovanni died in 1304. Thus in 1312 Malatestino became lord of Rimini, and on his decease in 1317 bequeathed the power to his brother Pandolfo. Pandolfo died in 1326, leaving two heirs, Malatesta and Galeotto. The former was nicknamed Guastafamiglia, because, although at first willing to let his brother share his power, he rid himself by violence and treachery of other kinsmen who claimed their just rights to a portion of the state. His intent was to become sole lord and to aggrandize his tiny principality. But the reigning pope, Innocent VI., despatched the terrible Cardinal Albornoz to Romagna, and it was speedily reduced by fire and sword. In 1355 the Malatesta shared the fate of the other potentates of the land. Nevertheless, it was the cardinal's policy to let existing governments stand, provided they promised to act in subordination to the papal see. Thus he granted the Malatesta brothers the investiture of Rimini, Pesaro, Fano and Fossombrone, and they arranged a division of the state. Guastafamiglia took Pesaro, which was held by his descendants down to the brothers Carlo and Galeazzo. The former of these, who died in 1439, was father to the Parisina beheaded in Ferrara, whose tragic love story has been sung by Byron. The latter won the title of " Flnetto " (the In- capable) by the foolish sale of his rights over Pesaro to the Sforza in 1447. Galeotto, on the other hand, retained the lordship of Rimini, ruling tranquilly and on good terms with the popes, who allowed him to add Cervia, Cesena and Bertinoro to his states. Dying in 1385 at the age of eighty, he left two sons — Carlo, who became lord of Rimini, and Pandolfo, who had Fano for his share. Carlo (1364-1429) was energetic, valiant and a friend of the popes, who named him vicar of the church in Romagna. He was a patron of letters and the arts, and during his reign his court began to be renowned for its splendour. As he left no issue, his inheritance was added to that of his brother Pandolfo, and Fano was once more united to Rimini. Pandolfo (1370-1427) had led the life of a condottiere, taking a prominent part in the Lombard wars following on the death of Galeazzo Maria Visconti, and held rule for some time in Brescia and Bergamo. He left three natural sons < who were declared legitimate by Pope Martin V. Theeldest, Galeotto (1411-1432), was an ascetic, gave little or no attention to public business, and, dying early, bequeathed the state to his brother Sigis- mondo Pandolfo. The third son, Novello Malatesta (1418-1465) ruled over Cesena. Sigismondo (1417-1468) is the personage to whom Rimini owes its renown during the Renaissance, of which indeed he was one of the strangest and most original representatives. He was born in Brescia, and when called to the succession, at the age of fifteen, had already given proofs of valour in the field. His knowledge of antiquity was so profound as to excite the admira- tion of all the learned men with whom he discoursed, even when, as in the case of Pius II., they chanced to be his personal enemies. To him is due the erection of the church of St Francis, or temple of the Malatesta, one of the rarest gems of the Renaissance and the greatest of Rimini's treasures (see below for description) . Of so dissolute a life that, although married, he had children by several mistresses at the same time, he gave vent to all his passions with a ferocity that was bestial rather than human. And — as the crowning contradiction of his strange nature — from his youth to the day of his death he remained the devoted lover of the woman for whose sake he became a poet, whom he finally made his wife, and whom he exalted in every way, even to the point of rendering her almost divine honours. Yet this love never availed to check his excesses. On assum- ing power in 1432, Sigismondo was already affianced to the daughter of Count Carmagnola; but when that famous leader was arraigned as a traitor by the Venetians, and igno- miniously put to death, he promptly • withdrew from his engagement, under the pretext that it was impossible to marry the child of a criminal. In fact, he aimed at a higher alliance, for he espoused Ginevra d'Este, daughter of the duke of Ferrara, and his entry into Rimini with his bride in 1434 was celebrated by splendid festivities. In 1437 a son was born to him, but died within the year, and in 1440 the young mother followed it to the grave. Every one declared that she died by poison administered by her husband. This, however, was never proved. The duke of Ferrara remained his friend, nor is it known what motive Sigismondo could have for wishing to get rid of his wife. Two years afterwards he married Polissena, daughter of the famous condottiere Francesco Sforza, who in 1443 bore him a son named Galeotto Roberto. But by this time he was already madly in love with Isotta degli Atti, and this was the passion that endured to his death. The lady succeeded in gaining an absolute ascendancy over him, which increased with time. She bore him several children, but this did not prevent his having others by different concubines. Such being the nature of the man, it is not astonishing that, as his ardour for Isotta increased, he should have little scruple in ridding himself of his second wife. On the ist June 1450 Polissena died by strangling, and on the 3oth of the same month Isotta's offspring were legitimated by Nicholas V. It is only just to record that, although Malatesta's intrigue with Isotta had long been notorious to all, and he had never sought to conceal it, no one ever accused her of either direct or indirect complicity in her lover's crimes. Isotta's history, however, is a strange one, and opens up many curious questions. She was of noble birth and seems to have attracted Sigismondo's notice as early as 1438, for at the age of twenty he produced verses of some merit in praise of her charms. She was indeed widely celebrated for her beauty and intellect, culture, firmness and prudence; and even Pope Pius II. proclaimed her worthy to be greatly loved. When Sigismondo was absent she governed Rimini wisely and well, and proved herself a match for the statesmen with whom she had to deal. The leading poets of the court dedicated to her a collection of verses entitled Isollaei, styled her their mistress and the chosen of Apollo. Artists of renown perpetuated her features on canvas, on marble and on many exquisite medals, one of which has a- closed book graven on the reverse, with the inscription " Elegiac " in allusion to poems she was said to have written. Nevertheless, Yriarte, in his book on the Malatesta and Rimini, asserted that there was documentary evidence to prove that Isotta was unable to sign her own name. But it is not at all surprising that Isotta should have her letters written and signed by another hand, when such was by no means an uncommon practice among the princes and nobilities of her day. Lucrezia Borgia, for instance, frequently did the same. It is besides simply incredible that a woman of the Italian Renaissance of Isotta's birth, standing and reputation should have been unable to write. Her marriage with Malatesta did not take place until 1456; but of the ardent affection that had long bound them together there are stronger proofs than the lover's juvenile verses, or than even the children Isotta had borne to him. For, more than all else, the temple of St Francis has served to transmit to posterity the history of their loves. Malatesta decided on building this remarkable church as a thankoffering for his safety, during a dangerous campaign undertaken for Pope Eugenius IV. about the year 1445. The first stone was laid in 1446, and the work was carried on RIMINI •with so much alacrity that mass was performed in it by the close of 1430. Sigismondo entrusted the execution of his plans to Leo Battista Alberti, who had to encase in a shell of classic architecture a 13th-century Franciscan church. The original edifice being left intact, it was a difficult question how to deal with the windows and the Gothic arches of the interior. Alberti solved the problem with marvellous skill, blending the old architecture with the new style of the Renaissance, and giving it variety without destroying its unity of effect. Being eager to adorn his temple with the most precious marbles, Sigismondo's veneration for antiquity did not prevent him from pillaging many valuable classical remains in Rimini, Ravenna and even in Greece. Such was the zeal with which Alberti pursued his task that the exterior of the little Rimini church is one of the finest and purest achievements of the Renaissance, and surpasses in beauty and elegance all the rest of his works. But it is much to be deplored that he should have left the upper part of the facade unfinished. Alberti came to Rimini, made his design, saw the work begun and then left it to be carried out by very skilful artists, on whom he impressed the necessity of faithfully preserving its general character so as " not to spoil that music." The internal decorations, especially the enormous quantity of wall ornaments, consisting chiefly of scrolls and bas-reliefs, were executed by different sculptors under the personal direction of Malatesta, who, even when engaged in war, sent continual instructions about their work. It is difficult to give an exact idea of this extraordinary church to those who have no personal acquaintance with it. The vault was never finished, and still shows its rough beams and rafters. The eight side chapels alone are complete, and their pointed arches spring from Renaissance pilasters planted on black marble elephants, the Malatesta emblems, or on baskets of fruit held by children. The surface of the pilasters is divided into compartments encrusted with bas-reliefs of various subjects and styles. Every- where— on the balustrades closing the chapels, round the base of the pilasters, along the walls, beneath the cornice of both the exterior and the interior of the church — there is one ornament that is perpetually repeated, the interwoven initials of Sigis- mondo and Isotta. This monogram is alternated with the portrait and arms of Malatesta; and these designs are en- wreathed by festoons linked together by the tyrant's second emblem, the rose. The most singular and characteristic feature of this edifice is the almost total absence of every sacred emblem. Rather than to St Francis and the God of the Christians it was dedicated — and that while Sigismondo's second wife still lived — to the glorification of an unhallowed attachment. Nature, science and antiquity were summoned to celebrate the tyrant's love for Isotta. The bas-reliefs of one of the chapels represent Jupiter, Venus, Saturn, Mars and Diana, together with the signs of the zodiac. And these sub- jects are derived, it appears, from a poem in which Sigismondo had invoked the gods and the signs of the zodiac to soften Isotta's heart and win her to his arms. The pageants of Mars and Diana seem to have been suggested by the Trionfi of Petrarch. Elsewhere we see prophets and sibyls, personifications of the theological virtues and of the sciences. The delicate bas-reliefs of botany and medicine, history and astronomy, have been judged by some writers to be Grecian, on account of the ancient appearance of their marble, their inscriptions in Greek and Latin, and others that have never been deciphered. But a moment's examination of the sculptures is enough to destroy this hypothesis. Besides, some of the inscriptions are very easily read and record " Apollo Ariminaeus " and " Jupiter Ariminaeus." In the first chapel on the left is the family tomb of the Malatesta, with sculptured records of their triumphs and of their alleged descent from Scipio Africanus. Better worthy of notice is the third chapel to the right, known as that of the Angels, on account of the angels and children carved on its pillars. It is nominally dedicated to the archangel Michael, whose statue is enshrined in it; but the figure has the face of Isotta, the ruling deity of this portion of the church. For here is the splendid and fantastic tomb erected to this lady, during her life and previous to the death of Sigismondo's second wife. No monument, be it remarked, is raised over the burial-place of Ginevra and Polissena. The urn of Isotta's sarcophagus is supported by two elephants, and bears the inscription, " D. Isottae Ariminensi B. M. Sacrum, MCCCCL." The "D." has been generally interpreted as " Divae " and the "B. M." as " Beatae Memoriae." But some, unwilling to credit such profanity, allege that the letters stand for " Bonae Memoriae." Nevertheless, all who have seen the church must admit the improbability of similar scruples. The numerous artists employed on the interior of the church were under the direction of the proto-maestro Matteo de Pasti the celebrated medallist. And indeed the peculiar and fantastic character of the sculptures in this chapel frequently recalls the designs of his famous works. .All this decoration is in strange contrast with the grandly austere simplicity of the facade and outer walls of the church. There no ornament disturbs the harmony of the lines. The frieze beneath the cornice, re- producing the lovers' initials and the Malatestian ensigns, is in such very low relief that it only enhances the perfection of " that music " produced by the marvellous skilJ of Alberti. Also the colour of the stone, a soft creamy white, adds to the general beauty of effect. And everything both within and without contributes to the profane and pagan character which it was Sigismondo's purpose to impress on the Christian church. On each of its outer walls are seven arched recesses, intended to contain the ashes of the first literati and scientists of his court. In the first, to the right, is the urn of the poet Basinio, one of his pensioners, in the second that of Giusto de' Conti, author of some rhymes on the Bella Ma.no, while the third bore the more famous name of Gemisthus Pletho. This well- known Byzantine philosopher was the diffuser of Platonism in Florence during the time of Cosimo de' Media, and had faith in the revival of paganism. Returning to his own people, he had died in the Morea. Sigismondo, having gone there in command of the Venetian expedition against the Turks, exhumed the philosopher's bones as holy relics, and brought them to Rimini for worthy sepulture in his Christian pantheon. All]this is solemnly recorded in the inscription, which is dated 1465. The fourth sarcophagus was that of Roberto Valturio (d. 1489), the engineer, author of De Re Militari, who had been Sigismondo's minister and had aided him in the construction of the castle of Rimini. The other urns on this side were placed by Malatesta's successors, and the arches on the left wall remained untenanted. Sigismondo understood the science of fortification. He was also the first to discard the use of wooden bomb-shells, and substitute others cast in bronze. As a soldier his numerous campaigns had shown him to be possessed of all the best qualities and worst defects of the free captains of his time. He began his military career in 1432 in the service of Eugenius IV.; but, when this pope doubted his good faith and transferred the command to another, he sided with the Venetians against him, though at a later date he again served under him. On the decease of Filippo Maria Visconti in 1447 he joined the Aragonese against Venice and Florence; but, presently changing his flag, fought valiantly against Alphonso of Aragon and forced him to raise the siege of Piombino. In 1454 he accepted a command from the Sienese; but suddenly, after his usual fashion, he made peace with the enemies of the republic, and had to save himself by flight from arrest for his perfidy. It was then that the letters from Isotta were confiscated. After this he began scheming to hasten the coming of the Angevins, and took part in new and more hazardous campaigns against adversaries such as the duke of X^rbino, Sforza of Milan, Piccinino, and, worst of all, the Sienese pope, Pius II., his declared and mortal foe. This time Sigismondo had blundered; for the cause of Anjou was hopelessly ruined in Italy. He was therefore driven to make his submission to the pope, but, again rebelling, was summoned to trial in Rome (1460) before a tribunal of hostile cardinals. All the old charges against him were now revived RIMMER 347 and eagerly confirmed. He was pronounced guilty of rapine, incendiarism, incest, assassination and heresy. Consequently he was sentenced to the deprivation of his state (which was probably the main object of the trial), and to be burnt alive as a heretic. This sentence, however, could not easily be executed, and Sigismondo was only burnt in effigy. But the pope marked the intensity of his hatred by causing the dummy to be carved and dressed with such lifelike resemblance that he was almost able to persuade himself that his hated enemy was really con- sumed in the flames. Malatesta could afford to laugh at this farce, but he nevertheless prepared in haste for a desperate defence (1462). He knew that the bishop Vitelleschi, together with the duke of Urbino and his own brother Novello Malatesta, lord of Cesena, were advancing against him in force; and, being defeated by them at Pian di Marotta, he was driven to Rome in 1463 to again make submission to the pope. This time he was stripped of all his possessions excepting the city of Rimini and a neighbouring castle, but the sentence of excommunication was withdrawn. The once mighty tyrant of Rimini found himself reduced to penury with a state chiefly composed of a single town. He therefore took service with the Venetians, and in 1464 had the command of an expedition to the Morea. Here his movements were so hampered by the interference of the commissioners of the republic that, with all his valour, he could achieve no decisive success. In 1466 he was able to return to Rimini, for Pius II. was dead, and the new pope, Paul II., was less hostile to him. Indeed, the latter offered to give him Spoleto and Foligno, taking Rimini in exchange; but Malatesta was so enraged by the proposal that he went to Rome with a •dagger concealed on his person, on purpose to kill the pope. But, being forewarned, Paul received him with great ceremony, and surrounded by cardinals prepared for defence; whereupon Sigismondo changed his mind, fell on his knees and implored forgiveness. His star had now set for ever. For sheer subsist- ence he had to hire his sword to the pope and quell petty rebellions with a handful of men. At last, his health failing, he returned to his family, and died in Rimini on the 7th of October 1468, aged fifty-one years. He was succeeded, according to his desire, by Isotta and his son Sallustio. But there was an illegitimate elder son by another mother, named Roberto Malatesta, a valiant and unscrupulous soldier. Befriended by the pope, this man undertook to conquer Rimini for the Holy See, but came there to further his own ends instead (zoth October 1469), and, while feigning a desire to share the government with Isotta and her son, resolved, sooner or later, to seize it for himself. This aroused the pope's wrath, and Roberto instantly prepared for defence. Finding an ally in the duke of Urbino, whose eyes were now opened to the aggressive policy of the church, he was able to repulse its forces. Paul II. died soon after, and was succeeded by Sixtus IV. Roberto's position was now mere secure, and in order to strengthen his recent alliance he betrothed himself to the daughter of the duke of Urbino. The next step was to dispose of his rival kindred. On the 8th of August 1470 Isotta's son was found murdered in a well belonging to the Marcheselli family; and a bloodstained sword, placed in their courtyard by Roberto, made it appear as though they had been guilty of the crime. Towards the end of the same year Isotta died also, apparently of a slow fever, but really, it was believed, by poison. Another of her sons, Valerio, born in 1453, still lived, but he was openly put to death by Roberto on a trumped-up charge of treason. In 1475 the new tyrant celebrated his nuptials with the duke of Urbino's daughter, and, being again taken into favour by the pope, valiantly defended him in Rome against the attacks of the duke of Calabria, and died there in 1482 of the hardships endured in the war. His widow was left regent during the minority of his son Pandolfo, who was nicknamed Pandolfaccio on account of his evil nature. Directly he was of age, he seized the reins of government by killing some relations who had plotted against Mm, and crushed another conspiracy in the same way. A daring soldier, he distinguished himself at the battle of the Taro against the French; but his tyranny made him hated by his subjects. In 1 500, when Ccsare Borgia fell on Romagna with violence and fraud, this Malatesta shared the fate of other petty tyrants and had to fly for his life. After the fall of the Borgia he returned, but, being bitterly detested by his people, decided to sell his rights to the Venetians, who had long desired to possess Rimini, and who gave him in exchange the town of CittadeUa, some ready money, and a pension for life. This arrangement was naturally disapproved by Rome, and especially by Julius II.; he therefore contrived the league of Cambray on purpose to ruin the Venetians, who were crush- ingly defeated in 1509. Thereupon the pope, having accom- plished his own ends, made alliance with the Venetians, who were now prostrate at his feet, and, with them, the Spaniards and the Swiss, fought against the French at Ravenna in 1512. Here the French were victors, but owing to their heavy losses and the death of their renowned leader, Gaston de Foix, were compelled to retreat. Thus Julius became master of Rimini and the other coveted lands. Malatesta made more than one attempt to win back his city, but always in vain, for his subjects preferred the papal rule, and in 1528 Pope Clement VII. became definite master of the town. Thus, after two hundred and fifty years, the sway of the Malatesta came to an end, and Pandolfo was reduced to beggary. He died in 1534, leaving a daughter and two sons in great poverty. The elder, Sigis- mondo, after various military adventures, died at Reggio d'Emilia in 1543; and Malatesta, the younger, went to fight in the Scotch and English wars, and was never heard of again. Sigismondo had left male heirs who made another attempt to regain Rimini in 1555, but Pope Paul IV. declared them deposed in perpetuity in punishment of Pandolfaccio's mis- deeds. From that time the Malatesta became citizens of Venice; their names were inscribed in the Golden Book, and they were admitted to the grand council. With the death, in 1716, of Christina Malatesta, the wife of Niccolo Boldu, the Rimini branch of the family became extinct. The descendants of Giovanni, brother of Malatesta da Verrucchio, who married one of the Sogliano, were known as the Sogliano-Malatesta. The representatives of this branch settled in Rome. The history of Rimini practically ends with its independence. It fell into obscurity under the rule of the popes, and was not again mentioned in history until, in 1831 and 1845, it began taking a prominent part in the revolutionary movements against papal despotism and in favour of Italian independence. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Battaglini, Memorie Storiche di Rimini e de' suoi signori, pubblicati con note di G. A. Zanetti (Bologna, 1789); Fossati, Le tempi di Malatesta di Rimini (Foligno, 1794); Moroni, Dizionario di erudizione storico-ecclesiastica (vol. Ivii., s.v. " Rimini ") ; Ch. Yriarte, Rimini: Un Condottiere au XV. Siecle: Etudes sur lei lettres et les arts a la cour des Malatesta (Paris, 1882); Tonini, Storia di Rimini (Rimini, 1848-62) ; E. Hutton, Sigismondo Malatesta (London, 1906). (P. V.) RIMMER, WILLIAM (1816-1879), an American artist, was born in Liverpool, England, on the 2oth of February 1816. He was the son of a French refugee, who emigrated to Nova Scotia, where he was joined by his wife and child in 1818, and who in 1826 removed to Boston, where he earned a living as a shoe-maker. The son learned the father's trade; at fifteen became a draughtsman and sign-painter; then worked for a lithographer; opened a studio and painted some ecclesiastical pictures; in 1840 made a tour of New England painting portraits; lived in Randolph, Mass., in 1845-55 as a shoe- maker, for the last years of the decade practising medicine; practised in East Chelsea and received a diploma from the Suffolk County Medical Society; and in 1855 removed to East Milton, where he supplemented his income by carving busts from blocks of granite. In 1860 he made his head of St Stephen (now in the Boston Athenaeum) and in 1861 his " Falling Gladiator " (since 1880 in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts), which Truman H. Bartlett calls " the most remarkable 348 RIMSKY-KORSAKOV— RINDERPEST work of sculpture that has yet [1882] been produced in this country . . . powerful, wonderful, but not alluring." Rimmer's sculptures, except those mentioned and " The Fighting Lions " (now in the Boston Art Club), " A Dying Centaur " (in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts), and a statue of Alexander Hamil- ton (made in 1865 for the city of Boston), were soon destroyed. He worked in clay, not modelling but building up and chiselling; almost always without models or preliminary sketches ; and always under technical disadvantages and in great haste ; but his sculpture is anatomically remarkable and has an " early- Greek " simplicity and strength. He published Elements of Design (1864) and Art Anatomy (1877), but his great work was in the class-room, where his lectures were illustrated with blackboard sketches. His studies in line suggest William Blake in their imaginative power. He died on the 2oth of August 1879. See Truman H. Bartlett, The Art Life of William Rimmer (Boston, 1882). RIMSKY-KORSAKOV, NICOLAS ANDREIEVICH (1844- 1908), Russian composer, was born at Tikhvin, Novgorod, on the i8th (N.S.) of March 1844. He was one of the musical amateurs who, with Borodin, Cui and Moussorsky, gathered round Balakirev in St Petersburg in the days when Wagner was still unknown. By 1865 he had written a symphony (in E minor) which in that year was performed — the first by a Russian composer — under Balakirev's direction, and in 1873 he definitely retired from the navy, having been appointed a professor in the St Petersburg Conservatoire. The same year witnessed his marriage to a talented pianist, Nadejda Pourgold, and the production of his first opera, Pskovitianka. This was followed by May Night, (1878), The Snow Maiden (1880), Mlada (1892), Christmas Eve (1894), Sadko (1895), Mozart and Salieri (1898), The Tsar's Bride (1899), Tsar Saltana (1900), Servilia (1902), Kostchei the Immortal (1902), Kites (1905). But his operas attracted less attention abroad than his symphonic compositions, which show a mastery of orchestral effect combined with a fine utilization of Russian folk-melody and a happy feeling for " programme music," his writing being peculiarly individual and distinctive in its restraint and avoidance of violent methods. Notable among these works are his first symphony, his second (Op. 9) Antar, his third (Op. 32), and his orchestral suites and overtures, his Spanish Capriccio (1887) being particularly appreciated. He also wrote a number of beautiful songs, pianoforte pieces, &c., and he eventually took Balakirev's place as the leading conductor in St Petersburg, never sparing himself in assisting in the musical development of the Russian school. He died there on the 2oth of June 1908. RINDERPEST (German for " cattle-plague," which is the English synonym), one of the most infectious and fatal diseases of oxen, sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, deer, &c.; a virulent eruptive fever which runs its course so rapidly and attacks such a large percentage of ruminants when it is intro- duced into a country, that from the earliest times it has ex- cited terror and dismay. It is an Asiatic malady, and has prevailed extensively in south Russia, central Asia, China, Indo-China, Burma, India, Persia, Ceylon and the Malay Archipelago. Thence it has at times been carried into Europe, and towards the end of the I9th century into South Africa. It appeared in Egypt in 1844 and 1865, Abyssinia in 1890, Japan in 1892, and the Philippines in 1898. It has been noted that its irruptions into Europe in the earlier centuries of our era always coincided with invasions of barbarous tribes in the east of Europe; and even at a later period the disease accompanied the events of war, when troops with their commissariat moved from the east towards the west, or cattle, when they were carried in the same direction. One of the earliest recorded irruptions of cattle-plague into western Europe occurred in the 5th century after the sanguinary in- vasion of the Huns under Attila, the expulsion of the Goths from Hungary, and the fierce internecine wars of the whole Germanic population. The disease appears then to have been carried from Hungary through Austria to Dalmatia, while by Brabant it obtained access to the Low Countries, Picardy, and so on to the other provinces of France. In the curious poem De Mortibus Bovum written by St Severus, who lived at that period, the course and destructiveness of the disease are specially alluded to. Many invasions of Europe are de- scribed, and in several of these Britain was visited by it — as in 809-10, 986-87, 1223-25, 1513-14, and notably in 1713, I74S, 1774, I799- In 1865 and 1872 it was imported direct from Russia. In 1870-71 it destroyed 70,000 cattle in France, 30,000 in Alsace-Lorraine, and 10,000 in Germany. In England an outbreak occurred in 1877, when it was imported from Germany, where the disease continued until 1879. The infective agent has not been positively identified, but it is known to exist in all the various secretions and excretions, in the flesh, blood and various organs of the body. Contagion may be direct or indirect, and the disease may be conveyed to healthy cattle by contaminated fodder, litter, water, clothing, pasture, sheds, railway wagons, hides, horns and hoofs. Attend- ants, cats, dogs, birds, vermin and flies may spread the infection. Definite symptoms of the disease may not be recognized until the expiration of three to six days after exposure, the period of incubation. Symptoms. — Like some other general diseases, this does not offer any exclusive or pathognomonic symptoms, but is rather characterized by a group of functional and anatomical altera- tions. An exact knowledge of its symptoms and necroscopical appearances is of the utmost importance, as its extension and consequent ravages can only be arrested through its timely recognition and the immediate adoption of the necessary sanitary measures. Intense fever, diarrhoea or dysentery, croupous in- flammation of the mucous membranes in general, sometimes a cutaneous papular eruption, and great prostration mark the course of the affection, which is frequently most difficult to diagnose during life, especially if its presence is not suspected. Its introduction and mode of propagation can, hi many instances, be ascertained only at a late period, and when great loss may already have been sustained. In the majority of cases the examination of the carcase of an animal which has died or been purposely killed is the best' way to arrive at a correct diagnosis. Indeed, this is practically the only certain means of concluding as to the presence of the malady, as there are considerable varia- tions in the chief symptoms with regard to their intensity as well as in the secondary symptoms or epiphenomena. Among cattle indigenous to the regions in which this malady may be said to be enzootic the symptoms are often compara- tively slight, and the mortality not great. So much is this the case that veterinary surgeons who can readily distinguish the disease when it affects the cattle of western Europe, can only with difficulty diagnose it in animals from Hungary, Bessarabia, Moldavia, or other countries where it is always more or less prevalent. In these the indications of fever are usually of brief duration, and signs of lassitude and debility are, in some in- stances, the only marks of the presence of this virulent disorder in animals which may, nevertheless, communicate the disease in its most deadly form to the cattle of other countries. Slight diarrhoea may also be present, and a cutaneous eruption, accompanied by gastric disturbance, running at the eyes, and occasional cough. In the more malignant form the fever runs high, 106° to 107° Fahr., and all the characteristic symptoms. are well marked: dulness, sunken eyes, eruption on the skin, discharges from eyes, nose and mouth, shivering fits, difficult breathing, dry, harsh cough, miliary eruptions on the gums, accumulation of bran-like exudate within the lips, fetid breath, with certain nervous phenomena, and dysenteric dejections. Death generally occurs in four or five days, the course of the disorder being more ra^pid with animals kept in sheds than with those living in the open, and in summer than in winter. The post-mortem appearances are most marked in the digestive canal, and comprise red spots and erosions on the palate, lips, tongue and pharynx; intense congestion of the lining of the fourth stomach, which in places is covered with a grey or reddish pultaceous deposit, under which the membrane is deeply RING 349 ulcerated. Similar lesions are seen in the small intes- tine, caecum and rectum. The membrane lining the air passages is congested throughout, and the lungs are emphy- sematous. In recent years much has been done in Russia and India towards the prevention of rinderpest by inoculation and the use of immunizing sera. In South Africa the bile method (or the injection of bile obtained from cattle dead of rinderpest), discovered by Koch, in 1896; bile with admixture of glycerine, recommended by Edington; the simultaneous injection of serum and rinderpest blood, introduced by Turner and Kolle in 1897, and repeated injection of fortified serum alone, have been employed, more or less successfully, in conferring immunity. But elsewhere the main line of action has been in the direction of preventing the introduction of the disease by prohibiting the importation of cattle from infected countries. RING (O.E. hring; a word common to Teutonic languages,1 and probably cognate with the Lat. circus, Gr. dpKos or Kpucos, Skt. chakra, wheel, circle, cf. also " harangue "), in art, a band of circular shape of varying sizes, made of any material and used for various purposes, but, particularly, a circular band of gold, silver or other precious or decorative material used as an orna- ment, not only for the finger, but also for the ear (see EARRING), or even for the nose, where it is still worn by certain races in India and Africa. The word is also used of many objects which in structure take the shape of a circle or hoop, such as the tracheal rings, the circular-shaped bands of cartilage in the walls of the windpipe, the " annual rings," or concentric layers of wood produced each year in the trunks of trees, &c. In transferred senses " ring " is also applied to an enclosed space, whether circular, oval or otherwise: hence to the arena of a circus or hippodrome, the enclosure for a boxing contest, or to the place on a racecourse reserved for the bookmakers for the purpose of betting. A particular application in a transferred sense is that to a combination of persons in trade for the purpose of con- trolling markets, prices, etc. In the art sense (see also GEMS), the English and German " ring " corresponds to the Gr. SaxruXios, Lat. anntdus, Fr. anneau. The enlarged part of a ring on which the device is engraved is called the " bezel," the rest of it being the " hoop." To decorate the human finger with a ring, if possible with one combining beauty, value and a distinctive character, was a widely spread natural impulse. At an early period, when the art of writing was known to but very few, it was commonly the custom for men to wear rings on which some distinguishing sign or badge was engraved (€Trl and even tnese were forbidden to slaves. Ambassadors were the first who were privileged to wear gold rings, and then only while performing some public duty. Next senators, consuls, equites and all the chief officers of state received the jus annuli aurei. In the Augustan age many valuable collections ' of antique rings were made, and were frequently offered as gifts in the temples of Rome. One of the largest and most valuable of the dactyliothecae was dedicated in the temple of Apollo Palatinus by Augustus's nephew Marcellus (Pliny, H.N. xxxvii. 5). The temple of Concord in the Forum contained another; in this collection was the celebrated ring of Polycrates, king of Samos, the story of which is told by Herodotus; Pliny, however, doubts the authenticity of this relic (H.N. xxxvii. 2). Different laws as to the wearing of rings existed during the empire: Tiberius made a large property qualification necessary for the wearing of gold rings in the case of those who were not of free descent (Pliny, H.N. xxxiii. 8) ; Severus conceded the right to all Roman soldiers; and later still all free citizens possessed the jus annuli aurei, silver rings being worn by freedmen and iron by slaves. Under Justinian even these restrictions passed away. In the rings of the Roman period the decoration is no longer an accessory of the bezel alone. It modifies the form of the hoop, which may be polygonal or angular (see fig. 6). The ring here figured is set vlth an eye, as an amulet, capable of turning on a swivel. In the 3rd and 4th centuries Roman rings were made en- graved with Christian symbols. Fig. 7 shows two silver rings of the latter part of the 4th century which were found in 1881 concealed in a hole in the pavement of a Roman villa at Fifehead FIG FIG. 8. FIG. 7. — Roman silver rings. Neville, Dorset, together with some coins of the same period. Both have the monogram of Christ, and one has a dove within an olive wreath rudely cut on the silver bezel. These rings are of special interest, as Roman objects with any Christian device have very rarely been found in Britain. Fig. 8 is a choice example of a gold key-ring of the Christian period, with good wishes inscribed in pierced gold work — accipe dulcis, multis annis (Brit. Mus.). Part of FIG. 9. Part of FIG. 9. Fig. 9 is a gold ring from Smyrna (Brit. Mus.) with seven incised intaglio medallions, with a figure of Christ on the bezel. Assigned to the 5th century. Large numbers of gold rings have been found in many parts of Europe in the tombs of early Celtic races. They are usually of very pure gold, often penannular in form — with a slight break, that is, in the hoop so as to form a spring. They are often of gold wire formed into a sort of rope, or else a simple bar twisted in an ornamental way. Some of the quite plain penannular rings were used in the place of coined money. Throughout the Middle Ages the signet ring was a thing of great importance in religious, legal, commercial and private matters. The episcopal ring1 was solemnly conferred upon the newly made bishop together with his crozier, a special formula for this being inserted in the Pontifical. In the earliest references to rings worn by bishops, there is nothing to distinguish them from other signet rings. In A.D. 610 the first mention has been found of the episcopal ring as a well-understood symbol of dignity. It is clear that it was derived from the signet. It was only in the i2th century and onwards that it was brought into mystical connexion with the marriage ring. In the time of Innocent III. (1194) the ring was ordered to be of pure gold mounted with a stone that was not engraved; but this rule appears not to have been strictly kept. Owing to the custom of burying the episcopal ring in its owner's coffin, a great many fine examples still exist. Among the splendid collection of rings formed by the dis- tinguished naturalist Edmund Water- ton, and now in the South Kensington Museum, is a fine gold episcopal ring decorated with niello, and inscribed with the name of Alhstan, bishop of Sherborne from 824 to 867 (see fig. 10). In many cases an antique gem FIG. I0- — Ring of Bishop was mounted in the bishop's ring, and Alhstan. often an inscription was added in the gold setting of the gem :o give a Christian name to the pagan figure. The monks of Durham, for example, made an in- taglio of Jupiter Serapis into a portrait of St Oswald by adding the legend CAPVT s. OSWALDI. In other cases the engraved gem appears to have been merely regarded as an ornament with- out meaning — as, for example, a magnificent gold ring found in the coffin of Seffrid, bishop of Chichester (1125-1151), in which is mounted a nostic intaglio. Another in the Water- ton collection bears a Roman cameo n plasma of a female head in high relief; the gold ring itself is of the 1 2th century.' More commonly the episcopal ring was set with a large sapphire, ruby or other stone cut en cabochon, that is, without :acets, and very magnificent in effect (see fig. n). It was 1 See a paper by Edm. Waterton in Arch. Jour. xx. p. 224, also Cabrol, Diet, d'arch. chretienne, s.v. " Anneaux." FIG. 11. — 13th-century episcopal ring of Italian workmanship, of gold, set with a sapphire en cabochon. RING-GOAL Papal Hags. worn over the bishop's gloves, usually on the forefinger of the right hand; and this accounts for the large size of the hoop of these rings. In the isth and i6th centuries bishops often wore three or four rings on the right hand in addition to a large jewel which was fixed to the back of each glove. The papal " Ring of the Fisherman " (annulus piscatoris) bears the device of St Peter in a boat, drawing a net from "Rlngot the water. The first mention of it, as the well-under- the stood personal signet ring of the pope, that has been Fisher- found, occurs in a letter of Clement IV. in 1265. After the middle of the isth century it was no longer used as the private seal of the popes, but was always attached to briefs. After the death of a pope the ring is broken. A new ring with the space for the name left blank is taken into the con- clave, and placed on the finger of the newly elected pontiff, who thereupon declares what name he will assume, and gives back the ring to be engraved (see Waterton, Archaeologia, 40, p. 138). The so-called papal rings, of which many exist dating from the isth to the I7th centuries, appear to have been given by the popes to new-made cardinals. They are very large thumb rings, usually of gilt bronze coarsely worked, and set with a foiled piece of glass or crystal. On the hoop is usually engraved the name and arms of the reigning pope, the bezel being without a device. They are of little intrinsic value, but magnificent in appearance. The giving of a ring to mark a betrothal was an old Roman custom. The ring was probably a mere pledge, pignus, that Betrothal tne contract would be fulfilled. In Pliny's time and conservative custom still required a plain ring of iron, wedding but the gold ring was introduced in the course of the flags. 2n£j century. This use of the ring, which was thus of purely secular origin, received ecclesiastical sanction, and formulae of benediction of the ring exist from the nth century. The exact stages by which the wedding ring developed from the betrothal ring can no longer be traced. Gemel or gimmel rings, from the Latin gemellus, a twin, were made with two hoops fitted together, and could be worn either together or singly; they were common in the l6tn an<* T7tn centuries, and were much used as betrothal rings. Posy rings, so called from the " poesy " or rhyme engraved on them, were specially common in the same centuries. The name " posy ring " does not occur earlier than the i6th century. A posy ring inscribed with " Love me and leave me not " is mentioned by Shakespeare (Mer. of Yen., act v. sc. i). The custom of inscribing rings with mottoes or words of good omen dates from a very early time. Greek and Roman rings exist with words such as ZHCAIC, XAIPE, KAAH, or wtis mels Claudia vivas. In the Middle Ages many rings were inscribed with words of cabalistic power, such as anamzapta, or Caspar, Melchior and Balthasar, the supposed names of the Magi. In the i?th century they were largely used as wedding ring?, with such phrases as " Love and obaye," " Fear God and love me," " No gift can show the love I owe," " God above increase our love " or " Mulier viro subjecta esto." In the same century memorial rings with a name and date of death were frequently made of very elaborate form, en- amelled in black and white; a not unusual design was two skeletons bent along the hoop, and holding a coffin which formed the bezel. Cramp rings were much worn during the Middle Ages as a preservative against cramp. They derived their virtue from being blessed by the king; a special form of service was used for this, and a large number of rings were consecrated at one time, usually when the sovereign touched patients for the king's evil. Decade rings were not uncommon, especially in the isth century; these were so called from their having ten knobs along the hoop of the ring, and were used, after the rtn^" manner of rosaries, to say nine aves and a paternoster. In some cases there are only nine knobs, the bezel of the ring being counted in, and taking the place of the gaude Posy riags. in a rosary. The bezel of these rings is usually engraved with a sacred monogram or word. In the isth and i6th centuries signet rings engraved with a badge or trademark were much used by merchants and others; these were not only used to form scab, but Mer- the ring itself was often sent by a trusty bearer as cbmni*' the proof of the genuineness of a bill of demand.1 lia**' At the same time private gentlemen used massive rings wholly of gold with their initials cut on the bezel, and a graceful knot of flowers twining round the letters. Other fine gold rings of this period have coats of arms or crests with graceful lambrequins. Poison rings with a hollow bezel were used in classical times; as, for example, that by which Hannibal killed himself, and the poison ring of Demosthenes. Pliny records that, after Crassus had stolen the gold treasure from under Hag*. the throne of Capitoline Jupiter, the guardian of the shrine, to escape torture, " broke the gem of his ring in his mouth and died immediately." The medieval anello delta morte, supposed to be a Venetian invention, was actually used as an easy method of murder. Among the elaborate ornaments of the bezel a hollow point made to work with a spring was concealed; it communicated with a receptacle for poison in a cavity behind, in such a way that the murderer could give the fatal scratch while shaking hands with his enemy. This device was probably suggested by the poison fang of a snake. A very large and elaborate form of ring is that used during the Jewish marriage service. Fine examples of the i6th and 1 7th centuries exist. In the place of the bezel is a model, minutely worked in gold or base metal, of a rlag*. building with high gabled roofs, and frequently movable weathercocks on the apex. This is a conventional representation of the temple at Jerusalem. Perhaps the most magnificent rings from the beauty of the workmanship of the hoop are those of which Benvenuto Cellini produced the finest examples. They are of gold, richly chased and modelled with caryatides or grotesque figures, and are decorated with coloured enamels in a very skilful and elaborate way. Very fine jewels are sometimes set in these magnificent pieces of 16th-century jewellery. Thumb rings were commonly worn from the I4th to the 1 7th century. Falstaff boasts that in his youth he was slender enough to " creep into any alderman's rings. thumb ring" (Shakes., Hen. IV., Pt. I., act ii. sc. 4). The finest collections of rings formed in Britain have been those of Lord Londesborough, Edmirnd Waterton (now in the Victoria and Albert Museum) and the collection in the British Museum, which was greatly augmented in 1897 by the bequest of the late Sir A. W. Franks. Bibliography. — Licetus, De Anulis antiquis (Udine, 1645); Kirch- mann, De Annulis (Schleswig, 1657); King, Antique Gems and Rings, 1872; Marshall, Catalogue of Finger Rings in the British Museum, 1907; Cabrol, Dictionnaire d'archeologie chretienne, s.v. "Anneaux"; articles of Waterton in Archaeologia and Archaeo- logical Journal. (J. H. M. ; A. H. SM.) RING-GOAL, a game for two persons played on a ground, or indoor rink, 78 ft. long by 10 ft. wide, with a ring of split cane about 75 in. in diameter and weighing about 3$ oz., which is propelled in the air by means of two sticks, resembling miniature billiard-cues, which are held inside the ring. The goals corisist of two uprights 8 ft. high and 10 ft. apart, from which a net is stretched on an incline, so that its base will be a few feet behind the goal-line, and the object of the game is to drive the ring into these goals, each goal made scoring one point. The ring must be propelled by the server and caught by his opponent, on one or both of his sticks, if he can, and so returned alternately, and a point is scored for either player if it be stopped by his opponent in any other manner. A point is also scored for the receiver if the server, who begins the game, throw the ring so that it falls to the ground before •The celebrated ring given to Essex by Queen Elizabeth was meant to be used for a similar purpose. It is set with a fine cameo portrait of Elizabeth cut in sardonyx, of Italian workmanship. 352 RINGWOOD— RIO CUARTO the receiver can catch it between the creases, which are lines drawn across the court 6 ft. from the goal-lines, or the ring be driven out of court. Eleven points constitute a game. Ring-goal was invented by an under-graduate of Keble College, Oxford, about 1885, and was played at Oxford, but without attracting any wide popularity. RINGWOOD, a market town in the New Forest parliamentary division of Hampshire, England, 103^ m. S.W. by W. from London by the London & South- Western railway. Pop. (1901) 4629. It lies pleasantly on the river Avon, which here divides into numerous branches, flowing through flat meadow land. The church of SS. Peter and Paul, which was almost entirely reconstructed in 1854, the town hall and corn exchange are the chief buildings. A large agricultural trade and manufactures of agricultural implements, linen goods and woollen gloves are carried on. RINGWORM (or TINEA TONSURANS), a disease of the scalp (especially common within the tropics); it consists of bald patches, usually round, and varying in diameter from half an inch up to several inches, the surface showing the broken stumps of hairs and a fine whitish powdering of desquamated epidermic scales. In scrofulous subjects matter is sometimes produced, which forms crusts, or glues the hair together, or otherwise obscures the characteristic appearance. The disease is due to a parasite, Trichophyton tonsurans, which exists mostly in the form of innurrierable spores (with hardly any mycelium), and is most abundant within the substance of the hairs, especially at their roots. If a piece of the hair near the root be soaked for a time in dilute liquor potassae and pressed flat under a cover-glass, the microscope will show it to be occupied by long rows of minute oval spores, very uniform in size, and eacl* bearing a nucleus. The same fungus sometimes attacks the hairs of the beard, producing a disease called " sycosis." Sometimes it invades the hairless regions of skin, forming " tinea circinata "; circular patches of skin disease, if they be sharply defined by a margin of papules or vesicles, may be suspected of depending on the tinea-fungus. Interesting varieties of tinea are found in some of the Pacific and East Indian islands. Among the best remedial agents are various mercurial preparations. But in modern practice much success has been found in X-raying the patch in order to remove the dead and diseased hairs, thus leaving a free channel for the passage of antiseptic applications to the follicles. The exposures are followed by inunction of a mercurial preparation or of a lotion of tincture of iodine with methylated spirit. See also FAVUS. RINTOUL, ROBERT STEPHEN (1787-1858), British journalist, was born at Tibbermore, Perthshire, in 1787, and educated at the Aberdalgie parish school. After serving his apprenticeship to the printing trade he became the printer and subsequently the editor of the Dundee Advertiser. In 1826 he came to London, and in July 1828, with the assistance of friends, founded The Spectator. In it Rintoul strongly supported the Reform Bill, and to him was due the catch- phrase " The bill, the whole bill, and nothing but the bill." After conducting The Spectator for more than thirty years, he sold it shortly before his death, which occurred on the 22nd of April 1858. RINUCCINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1592-1653), archbishop of Fermo, was born in Rome on the isth of September 1592, being the son of a senator. He studied at several Italian universities, became chamberlain to Pope Gregory XV., and in 1625 was made archbishop of Fermo. His participation in Irish politics, which is his chief title to fame, began during the later stages of the Civil War when Ireland was the scene of universal disorder. In 1645 P°pe Innocent X. despatched him to that country as papal nuncio; he landed at Kenmare with -arms and money in October 1645, and took up his residence at Kilkenny. Before this time the Roman Catholics had banded themselves together for defence. Called the Confederate •Catholics, they had set up a provisional government, and when the nuncio reached Kilkenny they were engaged in negotiating for peace with the lord lieutenant, the marquess, afterwards duke, of Ormonde. Rinuccini took part in the proceedings, but as his demands were ignored he refused to recognize the peace which was concluded in March 1646, and gaining the support of the Irish general, Owen Roe O'Neill, he used all his influence, both ecclesiastical and political, to prevent its acceptance by others. To a large extent he succeeded. Meet- ing at Waterford, the clergy condemned the treaty and several towns took up the same attitude. The nuncio's most pliant helper was now Edward Somerset, earl of Glamorgan, after- wards marquess of Worcester, who had been sent to Ireland by Charles I., and who had entered into communication with Rinuccini when the latter first arrived in that country. Gla- morgan bound himself to carry out all the wishes of the nuncio, who intended that he should supplant Ormonde. In September 1646 Rinuccini took over the conduct of affairs. He im- prisoned his opponents on the council and tried to arrange for an attack on Dublin. ' But there was no harmony among his subordinates, his military plans failed and soon all parties were tacitly ignoring him. Leaving Kilkenny he stayed for some time in Galway, and in February 1649 he left Ireland. After visiting Rome he returned to Fermo in 1650 and died on the 5th of December 1653. See G. Aiazzi, La Nunziatura in Irlanda (Florence, 1844), English translation as The Embassy in Ireland, by A. Hutton (Dublin, 1873) ; and S. R. Gardiner, History of the Great Civil War, vols. iii. and iv. (I905)- RIOBAMBA or ROYABAMBA, a town of Ecuador, capital of the province of Chimborazo, on the railway between Guaya- quil and Quito, about 85 m. E.N.E. of the former. Pop. (1900, estimate) 12,000. It stands in a barren, sandy basin of the great central plateau, drained by the Chambo, a tributary of the Pastaza, on the old road running southward from Quito into Peru, 9039 ft. above sea-level, and in full view of the imposing heights of Chimborazo, Carahuairazo (Carguairazo), Tunguragua and Altar. Though 300 ft. lower than Quito, its climate is considerably colder, owing, perhaps, to its more exposed situation and the vicinity of so many snow-clad peaks. It is a town of unusually wide streets and one-storeyed adobe houses, being so laid out and built because of earthquakes. It has very little importance as a commercial or industrial centre, having only a small trade and a few unimportant in- dustries. The present town dates from 1797, when the great earthquake of that year destroyed the old town then situated 12 m. W., near the existing village of Cajabamba. The ruins of the old town indicate that it was much larger and finer than its successor. RIO CUARTO, a town of Argentina in the province of Cordoba, 119 m. S. of the city of that name, and about 500 m. N.W. of Buenos Aires. Pop. (1904, estimate) 12,000. It stands 1440 ft. above sea-level and about half-way across the great Argentine pampas, on the banks of a river of the same name which finds an outlet through the Carcaranal into the Parana near Rosario. The town is built on the open plain and is surrounded with attractive suburbs. It is the commercial centre of a large district and has a large and lucrative trade. Its geographical position gives it great strategical importance, and the government maintains here a large arsenal and a garrison of the regular army. The surrounding country belongs to the partially arid pampa region and is devoted to stock- raising — cattle, horses, sheep and goats. Irrigation is em- ployed in its immediate vicinity. Previous to 1872 this region was overrun by the Ranqueles, a warlike tribe of Indians, but the vigorous reprisals of General Ivanovski in that year, supplemented by the tactful intervention of the Franciscan missionaries, who have a convent in this town, put an end to these hostile forays and gave full opportunity for the industrial development of the country. There are some manufacturing industries in the town. The National Andine railway passes through Rio Cuarto, and branch lines connect with the Buenos Aires and Pacific line — all of which give railway communication RIO DE CONTAS— RIO DE JANEIRO with Buenos Aires, Rosario, Tucuman, Cordoba, San Luis and Mendoza. RIO DE CONTAS, or VILLA DE CONTAS, a town of Brazil in the state of Bahia, 230 m. S.W. from the city of Bahia, on the Brumado (Contas-Pequeno), a head stream of the Rio de Contas (Jussiape), which rises on the eastern slope of the neigh- bouring Serra das Almas, and flows S.E. and E. to the Atlantic coast at Barra do Rio de Contas. Pop. (1890), including rural districts, 17,318. The surrounding country is fertile and produces sugar, cotton, mandioca and tobacco, but has lost much of its prosperity through the droughts that have devastated the interior of the state, and because of the costs of transporting produce to market. Stock-raising was at one time an important industry here. The town was founded in 1715 by some " Paulistas " who discovered gold there in the sands of the river. It became a " villa " in 1724, but was soon afterward moved down the river 5 m. to a more convenient site on the high road between Bahia and Goyaz. RIO DE JANEIRO, a maritime state of Brazil, bounded N. by Minas Geraes, E. by Espirito Santo and the Atlantic, S. by the Atlantic, and W. by Sao Paulo. It is one of the smaller states of the republic and has an area of 26,635 sq.m.; pop. (1900) 926,585. The state is traversed longitudinally by the Serra do Mar, which divides it into a low, narrow, irregular coastal zone, and a broad elevated river valley through which the Parahyba flows eastward to the Atlantic. The eastern part of this valley widens out into a great alluvial plain on which are to be found some of the richest sugar estates of Brazil. The central mountainous region is heavily wooded, the coast region is hot and in places malarial, but the valleys are fertile and well watered. The Parahyba valley has long been celebrated for its fertility, and was for many years the centre of the coffee-producing industry. The exhaustion of the soil and antiquated methods of cultivation have caused a great decline in this industry, and many of its coffee plantations are now either abandoned or are producing but a fraction of earlier crops. Stock-raising has been slowly developing since the abolition of slavery (1888) and the decline in coffee pro- duction, and the state now possesses large herds of cattle and droves of swine. The state's agricultural and pastoral products are coffee, sugar, rum, Indian corn, mandioca (both bitter and sweet), cotton, tropical fruits, cattle, hogs, butter, cheese, fresh milk and lard. The state is well watered by the Parahyba (q.v.) and its tributaries and by numerous short streams flowing from the Serra do Mar to the coast. Manufacturing has been developed largely because of the fine water power supplied by the mountain streams, and among the manufactures are cotton, woollen, silk and jute fabrics, brick, tile and rough pottery, sugar, rum, vehicles, furniture, beer and fruit conserves. The state is well provided with railways, which include the Central do Brazil, Leopoldina, Melhoramentos and Rio do Ouro. The Central line runs from the city of Rio de Janeiro N.N.W. across the Serra do Mar to the Parahyba valley, where it divides into two branches at the station of Barra do Pirahy, one running westward to Sao Paulo, and the other eastward and northward into Minas Geraes. Besides these there are a number of short railways called the Theresopolis, Uniao Valen- ciana, Rio das Flores, Bananal, and Vassourense lines. The total extension of these railways in the state in 1907 was 1445 m. Other than Nictheroy, the ports of the state are Sao Joao da Barra, Macahe' or Imbetiba, Cabo Frio and Paraty, but they are visited only by the smaller coasting vessels. The capital of the state is Nictheroy on the E. side of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, and other cities and towns, with their populations in 1890 except where otherwise stated, are: Campos (estimate, in 1907, 35,000), on the lower Parahyba in the midst of a rich sugar-producing region; Rio Bonito (19,321); Ita- borahy (17,817); Barra Mansa (14,449), on the upper Parahyba; Rezende (14,370), in a fertile district of the upper Parahyba; Petropolis (q.v.); Cantagallo (about 9000), in a rich coffee district of the Serra do Mar; Paraty (10,765), a small port on the W. side of the bay of Angra dos Reis; Valenga (11,965); Vassouras (9666); Sao Fidelis (11,770), a river port on the lower Parahyba having steamboat communication with Campos; Macahe (about 7000 in 1900), an old port on the eastern coast of XXIII. 12 353 the state at the mouth of the Macah6 river whose original anchorage has been filled with silt, and that of Imbctiba, in the vicinity, with which it is connected by tramway, is now used by vessels both for the town and the Macah6 and Campos railway; Barra do Pirahy (7750), an important station and junction of the Central do Brazil railway on the N. side of the Serra do Mar, with large manufacturing and commercial interests; Parahyba do Sul (7343), in a fertile, long-settled district in the N.E. part of the state; Marica (10,373); Cabo Frio (10,382); Pirahy (10,429); Saquarema (12,489); Nova Friburgo (9857); and Araruama (9087). RIO DE JANEIRO (in full, SXo SEBASTIAO DO Rio DE JANEIRO, colloquially shortened to Rio), a city and port of Brazil, capital of the republic, and seat of an archbishopric, on the western side of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro, or Guanabara, in lat. 25°54'23"S.,long. 43°8;34*W. (the position of the Observatory). The city is situated in the S.E. angle of the Federal District (Districto Federal) formerly known as the Neutral Municipality (Municipio Neulro), an independent district or commune with an area of 538 sq. m., which was detached from the pro- vince of Rio de Janeiro in 1834. The city stands in great part on an alluvial plain formed by the filling in of the western shore of the bay, which extends inland from the shore-line in a north-westerly direction between a detached group of mountains on the S. known as the Serra da Carioca, and the imposing wooded heights of the Serra do Mar on the N. The spurs of the Carioca range project into this plain, in some places, closely up to the margin of the bay, forming picturesque valleys within the limits of the city. Some of the residential quarters follow these valleys up into the mountains and extend up their slopes and over the lower spurs, which, with the hills covered with buildings rising in the midst of the city, give a picturesque appearance. At the entrance to the bay is the Sugar Loaf (Pao de Assucar), a conical rock rising 1212 ft. above the water- level and forming the terminal point of a short range between the city and the Atlantic coast. The culminating point of that part of the Carioca range which projects into and partly divides the city is the Corcovado (Hunchback), a sharp rocky peak 2329 ft. high overlooking the Botafogo suburb and ap- proachable only on the wooded N.W. side. These spurs are covered with luxuriant vegetation, excepting their perpendi- cular faces and the slopes occupied by the suburbs. Consider- ably beyond the limits of the city on its S.W. side, but within the municipality, is the huge isolated flat-topped rock known as the Gavea, 2575 ft. high, which received its name from its resemblance to the square sail used on certain Portuguese craft. The sky-line of this range of mountains, as seen by the ap- proaching traveller some miles outside the entrance to the bay, forms the rough outline of a huge reclining figure called " the sleeping giant," the facial profile of which is also known as " Lord Hood's nose." The entrance to the bay, between the Sugar Loaf on the W. and the Pico on the E., with fortress of Santa Cruz on one side and the fort of Sao Joao on the other, is about a mile wide and free from obstructions. Almost midway in the channel are the little island and fort of Lage, so near the level of the sea that the spray is sometimes carried completely over it. On the W. is the semicircular bay of Botafogo, round which are grouped the residences of one of the richest suburbs; on the E., the almost land-locked bay of Jurujuba (see NICTHEROY). The bay extends northward nearly i6j nautical miles, with a maximum breadth of n m. and a minimum, between the arsenal of war (Ponla do Calaboufo) and the opposite Ponta da Gravata, of about 3500 yds. The shore-line is irregular, and has been modified by the construction of sea-walls and the filling in of shallow bays. Close to the shore are the islands of Villegaignon (occupied by a fort), Cobras (occupied by fortifications, naval storehouses, hospital and dry docks), Santa Barbara and Enxadas, the site of the Brazilian naval school. A small island just above the lower anchorage, which is occupied by port officials, was once known as Rat island, and is now called Ilha Fiscal. There is one lake 354 RIO DE JANEIRO within the urban limits, the Lag6a de Rodrigo de Freitas, near the Botanical Garden, separated from the sea by a narrow sand beach, which is being gradually filled in. Several small streams from the hills are conspicuous only in times of heavy rains. The oldest part of the city, which includes the commercial section, lies between Castle and Santo Antonio hills on the S. and Sao Bento, Conceicao and Livramento hills on the N., and extends inland to the Praca da Republica, though the defensive works in colonial times followed a line much nearer the bay. This section during the past century has extended southward along the bay shore in a string of suburbs known as the Cattete and Botafogo, with that of Larangeiras behind the Cattete in a pretty valley of the same name, and thence on or near the Atlantic coast as Largo dos Leoes, Copacabana and Gavea, the last including the Botanical Garden. The greatest development has been northward and westward, where are to be found the suburbs of Cidade Nova, Sao Christovao, Engenho Novo, Praia Formoso, Pedregulho, Villa Isabel, Tijuca, and a number of smaller places extending far out on the line of the Central railway. The extreme length of the city along lines of communication is little less than 20 m. Streets. — Some of the most modern streets on the plain have been laid out with Spanish-American regularity, but much the greater part seems to have sprung into existence without any plan. Most of the streets of the old city are parallel and cross at right angles, but they are narrow and enclose blocks of unequal size. Each suburb is laid out independently, with straight streets where the ground permits, and crooked ones where the shore-line or mountain contour compels. Since the beginning of the 2Oth century large sums have been borrowed and expended on new avenues, the widening and straightening of old streets, and the improvement of the water-front between the Passeio Publico and the southern extremity of the Praia de Botafogo by the construc- tion of a grand boulevard, partly on reclaimed land. One of these improvements consists of a central avenue cut across the old city from a point on the water-front near the Passeio Publico northward to the Saude water-front. The shore-line boulevard, called the Avenida Beira-Mar, is about 43 m. long, the. wider parts being filled in with gardens. It was undertaken in 1903, during the administration of President Rodrigues Alves, as part of a vast scheme to improve the sanitary and traffic conditions of the city, including the construction of a new shore-line and filling in the shallow parts of the shore, which had long been considered one of the prime causes of the unhealthy state of the city. Another improvement was the completion and embellishment of the Mangue canal, originally designed as an entrance to a central market for the boats plying on the bay, but now destined for drainage purposes and as a public pleasure ground. This canal, as completed, is nearly 2 m. long, enclosed with stone walls, crossed by a number of iron bridges and bordered by lines of royal palms. The most famous street of the old city is the Rua do Ouvidor, running west- ward from the market-place to the Largo de Sao Francisco de Paula, and lined with retail shops, caf<5s and newspaper offices. It has long been a favourite promenade, and fills an important part in the social and political life of the city. The principal business street is the Rua Primeiro de Marc.o, formerly called Rua Direita, which extends from the Praga 15 de Novembro northward to Sao Bento Hill. All these old streets, excepting the last, are narrow and paved with squared granite blocks, and have their vehicle traffic regulated to go in one direction only. The side walks are very narrow, and the gas lamps are attached to the walls of the buildings. The streets and suburbs are served by five groups of tramway lines — Jardim Botanico, Santa Thereza, Sao Christovao, Villa Isabel, and Carris Urbanos — all using electric traction but the last. The streets are lighted with electricity and gas, the Ouvidor and some other narrow streets having a great number of gas-pipe arches across them for decorative illumination on fescal occasions. Parks. — The public parks and gardens are numerous and include the Botanical Garden with its famous avenue of royal palms (Oreodoxa regia); the Passeio Publico (dating from 1783), a small garden on the water-front facing the harbour entrance; the Jardim d'Acclamacao, forming part of the Prac.a da Republica (once known as the Campo de Sant' Anna) with its artistic walks and masses of shrubbery; the Praca Tiradentes (the old Largo do Rocio, after- wards rechristened Praga da Constituicao) with its magnificent equestrian statue of Dom Pedro I. executed by the French sculptor Luiz Rochet; the Praca 15 de Novembro on the water-front facing the old city palace; and a number of smaller squares with and without gardens. Water Supply and Sewerage Drainage. — The water supply is derived from three sources: the small streams flowing down the mountain sides which serve small localities; the old Carioca aqueduct, dating from colonial times, which collects a considerable supply from the small streams of the Serra da Carioca and brings it into the city through a covered conduit which once crossed the gap between Santa Thereza and Santo Antonio hills on two ranges of stone arches (now used as a viaduct by the Santa Thereza Tramway Company); and the modern Rio do Ouro waterworks, which brings in an abundant supply from the Serra do Tinqua, N.W. of the city — the length of the iron mains being 33 m. between the principal collecting reservoir and the main distributing reservoir at Pedregulho, near the Ponta do Caju. There are three other distributing reservoirs in different parts of the city, and the supply, which has been augmented since the works were inaugurated in 1885, is good and ample. An extensive system of sewers was con- structed by the City Improvements Co., an English corporation, which initiated the work in 1853; and a separate system of rain-water drains. The Leicester system is used because the greater part of the sewers are below sea-level, and it is necessary to use powerful pumps. Climate. — The climate of Rio de Janeiro is hot, humid and debilitating, the temperature ranging from 50° to 99-5° F. in the shade, with an average for the year of 74°, and the rainfall being about 44 in. The greater part of the city is only 2 or 3 ft. above sea-level, is surrounded by mountains, and has large areas of water, swamp and wet soil in its vicinity. But the unhealthiness of Rio de Janeiro in past years may be charged to insanitary conditions and not to the climate. Yellow fever, whose first recorded appearance was in December 1849, was for many years almost a regular yearly visitant, and the mortality from it has been terrible. Smallpox also is prac- tically endemic, owing in great part to negligent sanitary super- vision. Since 1900 there have been several mild outbreaks of bubonic plague. These dangerous diseases are slowly disappear- ing as sanitary conditions are improved. The death-rate from tuberculosis, however, is high, and apparently shows no abate- ment. This is undoubtedly due to constitutional weakness arising from bad nutrition and the habit of sleeping in closed or badly ventilated apartments. Malarial fevers , are also common, and diseases of the digestive organs, in great part easily preventible, figure among the principal causes of death. According to official returns for the five years 1900-1905, the average number of deaths was 15,926, or 20^4 per 1000. Among the deaths 2789 were from tuberculosis, 1200 from smallpox, 778 from malarial diseases, 331 from la grippe, and 106 from beri-beri. There were no unusual epidemics during those years, and the rate given may be considered normal. Buildings. — There remain many public edifices and dwellings of the colonial period, severely plain in appearance, with heavy stone walls and tile roofs. The old city palace facing upon Praga 15 de Novembro, once the residence of the fugitive Portuguese sovereign Dom Joao VI., is a good example. The igth century brought no important modifications until near its close, when French and Italian styles began to appear, both in exterior decora- tion and in architectural design. The new Praca do Commercio (Merchants' Exchange) and Post Office on Rua 1° de Mar?o, and the national printing office near the Largo da Carioca, are notable examples. Since then exterior ornamentation and architectural eccentricities have run riot, and the city is now a mixture of the plain one-storey and two-storey buildings of the Portuguese type, and fanciful modern creations, embellished with stucco and over- topping the others by many storeys. Although a metropolitan see, Rio has no cathedral, the old imperial chapel facing the Praca 15 de Novembro being used for that purpose. The foundations were once laid for a great cathedral on the Largo de Sao Francisco de Paula, but the building stone was taken for a neighbouring theatre, and the foundations were afterwards used for the Poly- technic School. The most noteworthy church is the Candelaria church, in the commercial district, whose twin towers and graceful dome form one of the most conspicuous landmarks of the city. It was begun in 1775, but was not finished until near the end of the igth century. Its fine proportions, however, are concealed by commercial buildings and by the narrow streets. Among many other churches, usually plain and bare of interior decoration, are the popular Sao Francisco de Paula church, on the square of that name; the Carmo church in Rua 1° de Marc.o; the Cruz dos Militares church in the same street; the Rosario church in the RIO DE JANEIRO street of that name, belonging to a fraternity of negroes and once occupied by the episcopal chapter; and the prettily situated octagonal Gloria church on a hill of that name overlooking the lower bay. Another church of the same name faces on the Largo do Machado and shows the peculiar combination of a Greek temple surmounted by a modern spire. The British residents have an unpretentious chapel in Rua Evaristo da Veiga, the Methodists a more modern structure on the Largo do Cattete and the Presby- terians a chapel near Praca Tiradentes. There is religious tolera- tion in Brazil, but down to the organization of the republic no non-Catholic church or chapel was permitted to have a spire or other outward symbol of a place of worship. Among public buildings of an official character the following are noteworthy. The old city palace facing on Praca 15 de Novembro, dates from 1743 and was the residence of the royal governors and Dom Joao VI., but is now used by the national telegraph offices. The Sao Christovao palace, in the suburb of that name, was the residence of the Emperor Dom Pedro II. It is a rambling structure now occupied by the National Museum. The Cattete palace, on the street of that name, originally a private residence, is now the official residence of the President, richly decorated within and partly sur- rounded by a handsome park. The Itamaraty palace near the Praca da Republica, a typical private residence of the better class, was purchased for and occupied by the first presidents and is now occupied by the ministry of foreign affairs. The palace of justice, on Rua Primeiro de Margo, is one of the finest edifices in the city; and the ministry of industry and public works, on the south side of the Praca 15 de Novembro may be noticed. The ministry of war has its offices in the immense military quartel (barracks) on the north side of the Praca da Republica, and the ministry of marine in the naval arsenal at the foot of Sao Bento Hill. The ministry of finance is in the Treasury building on Rua do Sacramento — an immense structure of no special architectural merit. The Senate occupies a plain unattractive building on the west side of the Praca da Republica, and the Chamber of Deputies an ugly colonial building in Rua da Misericordia, originally used as a city hall and jail. A new legislative palace is designed to occupy the block on the west side of the Praca Tiradentes. There are a number of theatres, but the city had no large theatre of architectural merit previous to the construction of the Municipal Theatre at the inter- section of the Avenida Central with Rua 13 de Maio, with an elegant marble facade in the French Renaissance style. Bull-fights have never been popular in Rio de Janeiro, but horse-racing is a favourite sport, and the Jockey Club maintains a racecourse in the Sao Fran- cisco Xavier suburb. Other notable buildings are the ornate Monroe palace at the intersection of the Central and Beira-Mar avenues, the Praca do Commercip (Commercial Exchange) on Rua 1° de Margo, the Caixa da Amortizagao on the Avenida Central, the custom-house with its extensive warehouses, the terminal station of the Central railway at the N.W. angle of the Praca da Republica, and the library building of the Gabinete Portuguez da Leitura with its exquisite " Manuelino " facade of Lisbon marble. Education. — Although much money is given to hospitals and asylums, Rio de Janeiro has no great educational institu- tions either public or private. The Medical School may be considered the only distinctively professional school in the city. The Polytechnic School, occupying an interesting old building on the Largo de Sao Francisco de Paula, is chiefly devoted to civil engineering. The Gymnasio Nacional, formerly the Collegio D. Pedro II., is a boys' college of a high school grade, located on Rua Floriano Peixoto, with an internato or boarding-school in Rua de S. Francisco Xavier. The college dates from 1735, when it was founded as an asylum for orphan boys destined for the Church. In 1837 it became a state institution and took the name of the Emperor Dom Pedro II. One of the most noteworthy schools of the city is the Lycen de Artes e Officios, located on Rua 13 de Maio, opposite the opera- house; it dates from 1858 and has been the means of giving instruction to a multitude of clerks, artisans and others, through its night classes. Another important school, partly of this class, is the Instituto Benjamin Constant, located in a fine new edifice on the Praia da Saudade, Botafogo. The public schools of Rio de Janeiro are defective both in organiza- tion and administration; the non-attendance of children from the higher classes, and the antagonism of the Church to schools under purely secular administration, must be held responsible for the backwardness of these schools. The episcopal seminary on Castle Hill, called the " Seminario Episcopal de Sao Jose," founded in 1739 and devoted exclusively to the education of priests, is the best classical school in the city. There are a number of charitable institutions devoted to the education of orphans, the blind and the deaf and dumb, which are admirably 355 equipped and administered. Among other educational in- stitutions are a conservatory of music, school of fine arts, normal school, a national library with upwards of 260,000 volumes and a large number of manuscripts, maps, medals and coins, the national observatory on Castle Hill, the national museum now domiciled in the Sao Christovao palace in the midst of a pretty park, a zoological garden in the suburb of Villa Isabel, and the famous Botanical Garden founded by Dom Joao VI. in 1808 and now a horticultural experiment station. Hospitals, &c. — Rio de Janeiro is well provided with hospitals, asylums and benevolent institutions. Chief of these is the Miseri- cordia Hospital, popularly known as the " Santa Casa," belonging to a religious brotherhood dating from 1591. In addition to a large income from rentals, the Santa Casa receives the product of certain port taxes in return for opening its wards to the crews of all vessels in port. Other public hospitals are a lepers' hospital in Sao Chris- tovao, the military and naval hospitals, the Sao Sebastiao hospital and the isolation and contagious diseases hospitals in Jurujuba. There are also a number of private hospitals maintained by church brotherhoods and charitable associations; among them are the Portuguese hospital in Rua de Santo Amaro and the Strangers' Hospital (American and British) in Botafogo. Most prominent among the asylums is the Hospicio Nacional for the insane, on the Praia da Saudade, Botafogo, which was erected 1842-52, and is one of the most completely equipped institutions of its class in the world. There are two public cemeteries: Sao Francisco de Xavier, in Sao Christovao, and Sao Joao Baptista, in Botafogo, the former having an unconsecrated section for Protestants. Be- sides these there are five private cemeteries, the one belonging to the British colony being on a hill overlooking the Gambda shore- line. Harbour, Communications and Commerce.-^-The port and harbour of Rio de Janeiro are the largest and most important in the republic. The entrance is open to vessels of the largest draught, and there is sufficient deep-water anchorage inside for the navies of the world. The lower anchorage, where the officers of health visit vessels, is below Ilha Fiscal, and the upper, or commercial anchorage, is in the broad- part of the bay above Ilha das Cobras, the national coasting vessels occupying the shallower waters near the Saude and Gamb6a districts. The custom-house occupies a considerable part of the shore-line in front of the old city, and has a protected basin for the discharge of lighters. The new port works, under construction since 1903, consist of a new water-front for the Saude, Gamboa and Sacco de Alferes districts, in which the shipping interests are centred, and a continuation of the sea-wall across the shallow Sao Christovao bay to the Ponta do Caju, the large reclaimed area to be filled in by the removal of some small hills. The commercial quays are built in deep water and permit the mooring alongside of the largest vessels. The total length of the commercial quays is about 3800 yds. Railway and tram- way connexions are provided and both electric and hydraulic power are available. Special surtaxes are levied on imports to meet the interest and redemption charges on the loans raised for the execution of these important works. Another improvement is the extension of the sea-wall southward from the ferry -slips (Praca 15 de Novembro) to the Ponta do Cala- bouco (war arsenal), providing protected basins for the arsenal and enclosing small reclaimed • areas. With the completion of these improvements the water-front of the city will consist entirely of deep-water walls from Botafogo to the Ponta do Caju, with the exception of a short section between the Ponta do Calabouco and the Avenida Central. The port is in regular communication with the principal ports of Europe and America. The coastwise service is good, though rates are high. Railway communication with the interior is maintained by the Central do Brazil (formerly the Dom Pedro II.), Leopoldina and Melhora- mentos lines, besides which there is a short passenger line up to the Corcovado about z| m. long, an electric line to Tijuca, and a narrow-gauge line running out to the Rio do Ouro water- works. There is daily communication with Petropolis by a branch line of the Leopoldina system, and also by a steamer to the head of the bay and thence by rail up the serra. Ferry-- boats cross the bay to Nictheroy at intervals of 20 minutes, and smaller craft provide communication with the islands of Gober- nador and Paqueta. 356 RIO DE JANEIRO Rio de Janeiro is the seaport for a large area of the richest, most productive and most thickly settled parts of Brazil, including the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes and a small part of eastern Sao Paulo. Its exports include coffee, sugar, hides, cabinet woods, tobacco and cigars, tapioca, gold, diamonds, manganese and sundry small products. Rio is also a distributing centre in the coasting trade, and many imported products, such as jerked beef (fame secca), hay, flour, wines, &c., appear among the coastwise exports, as well as domestic manufactures. The total exports for 1905 were officially valued at 62,572,033 milreis gold, or a little over one-sixth the exportation of the whole country. Formerly Rio led all other ports in the export of coffee, but the enormous increase in production in the state of Sao Paulo has given Santos the lead. The exports of coffee from Rio in 1908 amounted to 3,062,268 bags of 60 kilogrammes each, officially valued at about $27,846,000. The coffee-producing area tributary to this port is slowly decreasing, owing to the exhaustion of the soil and the greater productiveness of Sao Paulo. The imports include wheat, our, Indian corn, jerked beef (carne secca), lard, bacon, wines and liquors, butter, cheese, conserves of all kinds, coal, cotton, woollen, linen and silk textiles, boots and shoes, earthen- and glasswares, railway material, machinery, furniture, building material, including pine lumber, drugs and chemicals, and hardware. The imports For 1905 aggregated 103,874,724 milreis gold, or about two-fifths the importation of the whole republic. The shipping arrivals in 1908 were as follows: from foreign ports, 1195 steamers of 3,479,357 tons and 75 sailing vessels of 84,474 tons; from national ports, 243 foreign steamers of 582,633 tons, 773 national steamers of 475,587 tons and 294 national sailing vessels of 20,250 tons — in all 2580 vessels of 4,642,301 tons. Manufactures. — The industrial activities of Rio Janeiro have been largely increased since the organization of the republic through increased import duties on foreign products. There were a number of protected industries before this, but they made slight impression on imports. Rio de Janeiro has manufactures of flour from imported wheat, cotton, woollen and silk textiles, boots and shoes, ready- made clothing, furniture, vehicles, cigars and cigarettes, chocolate, fruit conserves, refined sugar, biscuits, macaroni, ice, beer, artificial liquors, mineral waters, soap, stearine candles, perfumery, feather flowers, printing type, &c. There are numerous machine end repair shops, the most important of which are the shops of the Central railway. One of the most important industrial enterprises in the city is the electric plant belonging to the Rio de Janeiro Light and Power Company, which supplies electric currents for public and private lighting, and power for the tramways and many industries. The hydro-electric works are situated about 50 m. N.W. of the city in a valley of the Serra do Mar, where a large reservoir has been created by building a dam across the 'Rio das Lages. Government. — Rio de Janeiro is governed by a prefect, who represents the national government, and a municipal council which represents the people. The prefect is appointed by the President of the republic for a term of four years, and the appointment must be confirmed by the Senate. There are seven direclorias, or boards, under the prefect, each one assigned to a special field of work, chief among which are education, health and public assistance, public works and transportation, and finance. The municipal council is elected by direct suffrage for a term of two years, and is composed of 15 members. The funded debt of the city on the 3Oth of June 1907 was £7,000,677, a part of which is guaranteed by the national government. There is some confusion in administration and accounts, however, and it is sometimes difficult to determine the exact situation. The Federal District is represented in Congress by 2 senators and 10 deputies, and is credited with the rights and privileges of citizenship. On the other hand, the city is a garrison town and a district under the direct administration ol the national executive, who appoints its chief executive, controls its police force, and exercises part control over its streets, squares and water front. In the work of improving the city, the national government assumed the expense of the commercial quays, the filling of the Sao Christovao bay, the opening of the Mangue canal and its embellishment, the opening of the Avenida Central, the extension of the sewage system and the addition of new sources to the water supply, while the city was responsible for the Avenida Beira-Mar, the opening of a new avenue from the Largo da Lapa westward to Rua Frei Caneca, the removal of the Morro do Senado, the widening of some streets crossing the Avenida Central and the opening and straightening of other streets. History. — The discovery of the Bay of Rio de Janeiro is attributed by many Portuguese writers to Andre Goncalves, who entered its waters on the ist of January 1502, and believed that it was the mouth of a great river, hence the name Rio de Janeiro (River of January). Another Portuguese navigator, Martim Affonso de Souza, visited it in 1531, but passed on to Sao Vicente, near Santos, where he established a colony. The first settlement in the bay was made by an expedition of French Huguenots under the command of Nicholas Durand Villegaignon, who established his colony on the small island that bears his name. In 1560 their fort was captured and destroyed by a Portuguese expedition from Bahia under Mem de Sa, and in 1567 another expedition under the same commander again destroyed the French settlements, which had spread to the mainland. The victory was won on the zoth of January, the feast-day of St Sebastian the Martyr, who became the patron saint of the new settlement and gave it his name — Sao Sebastiao do Rio de Janeiro. The French had named their colony La France Antarctique, and their island fort had been called Fort Coligny. In 1710 a French expedition of five vessels and about looo men under Duclerc attempted to regain possession, but was defeated; its commander was captured and later assassinated. This led to a second French expedition, under Duguay Trouin, who entered the bay on the 1 2th of September 1711, and captured the town on the 22nd. Trouin released Duclerc's imprisoned followers, exacted a heavy ransom and then withdrew. The discovery of gold in Minas Geraes at the end of the I7th century greatly increased the importance of the town. It had been made the capital of the southern captaincies in 1680, and in 1762 it became the capital of all Brazil. In 1808 the fugitive Portuguese court, under the regent Dom Joao VI., took refuge in Rio de Janeiro, and gave a new impulse to its growth. It was thrown open to foreign commerce, foreign mercantile houses were permitted to settle there, printing was introduced, industrial restrictions were removed, and a college of medicine, a military academy and a public library were founded. Dom Joao VI. returned to Portugal in 1821, and on the 7th of September 1822 Brazil was declared independent and Dom Pedro I. became its first emperor. There was no resistance to this declaration in Rio de Janeiro. There were some political disorders during the reign of Dom Pedro I., who was finally harassed into an abdica- tion in favour of his son, Dom Pedro II., on the 7th of April 1831. The regency that followed was one of many changes, and led in July 1840 to a declaration of the young prince's majority at the age of fifteen. A long and peaceful reign followed, disturbed only by the struggles of rival political factions. In 1839 a steamship service along the coast was opened, but direct com- munication with Europe was delayed until 1850, and with the United States until 1865. These services added largely to the prosperity of the port. The first section of the Dom Pedro II. railway was opened in 1858, and the second or mountain section in 1864, which brought the city into closer relations with the interior. In 1874 submarine communication with Europe was opened, which was soon afterwards extended southward to the Platine republics. The first coffee tree planted in Brazil was in a convent garden of Rio de Janeiro. On the 1 5th of November 1889 a military revolt in the city under the leadership of General Deodoro da Fonseca led to the declaration of a republic and the expulsion of the imperial family, which was accomplished without resistance or loss of life. Disorders followed, a naval revolt in 1891 causing the resignation of President Deodoro da Fonseca, and another in 1893-94 causing a blockade of the port for about six months and the loss of many lives and much property from desultory bombardments. There have been since that time some trifling outbreaks on the part of agitators allied with the extreme republican element, but at no time was the security of the government in danger. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Nearly all books relating to Brazil devote some attention to its capital city. The history of its settlement and colonial development will be found in Robert Southey, History of Brazil (3 vols., London, 1810-^19). For descriptions of the city, the customs and manners of its people and some of the larger political events during the first three-quarters of the igth century, see R. Walsh, Notices of Brazil in 1828 and 1829 (2 vols., London, 1830); Thomas Ewbank, Life in Brazil (New York, 1856); M. D. Moreira de Azevedp, O Rio de Janeiro (2 vols., Rio de Janeiro, 1877) ; and J. C. Fletcher and D. P. Kidder, Brazil and the Brazilians (gth ed., Boston, 1879), especially chapters iv. to xiy. For later descriptions, see A. J. Lamoureux, Hand-Book of Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro, 1887); Frank Vincent, Around and About South America (New York, 1890), chapters xxv. to xxix. ; Marguerite Dickins, Alon$ Shore with a Man-of-V/ar (Boston, 1893); Arthur Dias, // Brasile Attuale (Nivelle, Belgium, 1907; also in French and, Portuguese), pp. 367-449. RIO DE ORO— RIO GRANDE DO 357 RIO DE ORO, a Spanish possession on the N.W. coast of Africa. It is bounded W. by the Atlantic, E. and S. by Saharan territory under French protection. The northern frontier, where the protectorate adjoins the territory of the semi-independent tribes south of Morocco, is undefined. The most northerly point claimed by Spain on the coast is Cape Bojador. The southern and eastern boundaries were defined by a Franco- Spanish convention in 1900. The frontier traverses the middle of the Cape Blanco promontory, then runs eastward along the parallel of 21° 20' N. till it meets the meridian of 13° W., whence it turns first N.W. and afterwards N.E., meeting the tropic of Cancer at 12° W. and thereafter runs due N. Forming part of the Sahara, Rio de Oro is nearly waterless. Oases are few and the sparse population consists almost entirely of nomad Arabs and Berbers. They are Mahommedans. In the south is the hilly country called Adrar Suttuf, not to be confounded with Adrar Temur (see ADRAR and SAHARA). The estimated area of the protectorate is 70,000 sq. m. The peninsula of Rio de Oro, where is the principal Spanish settlement, occupies the central part of the coast-line in 23° 50' N., 16° W., and is united to the mainland by a sandy isthmus. Its length is 23 m., its breadth ij to 2 m. and it is on an average about 20 ft. above sea-level. The bay between peninsula and mainland — the so-called Rio de Oro — is 22 m. long, 5 broad, navigable over two-thirds of its extent, with good anchorage in most of the channel, but the bar at its mouth is not always easy to pass in rough weather. The peninsula has very sparse vegetation, except in its southernmost part near Cape Durnford. At the head of the bay is a small island — Isla Herne. The climate is generally temperate, and not unhealthy except in the autumn. Esparto grass and manzanilla are grown in many places, but European plants are not easily acclimatized. On the peninsula and in the neighbouring country there are many wolves, foxes, hyenas, gazelles, lizards, hares, pelicans and large crows. The natives rear cattle, sheep, camels, and have but few horses. In contrast with the sterility of the land the sea throughout the coast of Rio de Oro abounds in fish, especially cod. The fishing industry is in the hands of the Canary Islanders and of the French. The estuary between the mainland and the peninsula was taken by its Portuguese discoverers in the middle of the i5th century for a river, and, obtaining there a quantity of gold dust from the natives, they named it Rio d'Ouro (Gold River), Rio de Oro being the Spanish form. At a spot about 50 m. inland from the head of the estuary a Portuguese trading station was estab- lished, of which ruins exist, but the activity of the Portuguese was before long transferred to the true auriferous regions of the Gulf of Guinea. Spain's interest in the Saharan coast dates from the i3th century, but was particularly directed to that part nearest the Canary Islands, a strip of coast over which she now exercises no sovereignty. The site of the fort of Santa Cruz de Mar Pequena, established in 1476, though not identified, was north of Capo Bojador. The protection of the Canary Islanders engaged in the fisheries south of that point occasioned, however, the presence of Spanish warships in these waters, and small trading stations were formed at Rio de Oro, Cape Blanco and elsewhere. To preserve the interests thus acquired, Spain in January 1885 took the territories on the coast between capes Blanco and Bojador under her protection. The year before the Hispano- American Company had built a trading station on Rio de Oro peninsula, but in 1885 it was destroyed by the natives. The company renewed its operations, but subsequently ceded its rights to the Transatlantic Company of Barcelona. The exten- sion inland of Spanish influence was opposed by France, which claimed a protectorate over the Sahara. The conflicting claims of the two powers were finally settled by the convention of 1900, which fixed the frontier in the manner stated. The administra- tion is carried on under the control of the captain-general of the Canary Islands. RIO GRANDE, a North American river, which rises in the San Juan Mountains of southern Colorado, flows S.E. and S. in Colorado, S. by W. and S.E. through New Mexico, and S.E. between Texas and Mexico to the Gulf of Mexico. Its length is approximately 2200 m., and for about 1300 m. it forms the international boundary between the United States and Mexico. It presents many features of a complex physiographic type, being first a river of the Rocky Mountains, then of the in- terior deserts and then of the Atlantic Coastal Plain. It also presents a complicated geological history, as it includes what were originally several distinct streams. The Mexicans call it the Rio del Norte in its upper course, the Rio Bravo in the " Big Bend," from the mouth of the Conchas river to the mouth of the Devils river, and the Rio Grande only in its course through the Coastal Plain. From its headwaters, 12,000 ft. above the sea, it rushes rapidly down a mountain canyon to San Luis Valley, in Colorado. It flows with moderate speed through this broad valley, enters a long canyon with a maximum depth of 400 ft., about 4 m. above the boundary between Colorado and New Mexico, and is hemmed in between canyon walls rising as high as 1000 ft. or between the sides of narrow mountain • valleys throughout its course through New Mexico. It passes through a series of picturesque canyons, some of them 1750 ft. in depth, in the " Big Bend," and becomes a silt-laden stream with a shifting channel in its passage through the Coastal Plain. Except in the flood season of May and June, the quantity of water which, for irrigation and by evaporation, is taken from the Rio Grande between its entrance to the San Luis Valley and the mouth of the Conchas, is greater than that received, and as a con- sequence it is an intermittent stream in this region. The flow of the Conchas is constant, and in the'" Big Bend " the volume of the Rio Grande is enhanced by springs which break out in the bed. The total flow of the Rio Grande is ten times greater in some years than in others, and when its waters have been highest there have been great floods in its lower course and so much shifting of its banks as to cause international complications. Even in its course through the Coastal Plain its channel is so much obstructed by sand bars that it is of little importance for navigation. As the increasing diversion of the water of the Upper Rio Grande for irrigation in Colorado and New Mexico resulted in a scarcity of water for this purpose in Mexico, that country complained, and to remedy the evil the Reclamation Service of the United States proposed the construction by the United States of a storage dam across the river near Engle, New Mexico, which would form a storage reservoir having a capacity of 2,000,000 acre-feet and from which Mexico should be furnished with 60,000 acre-feet of water annually. Mexico agreed to this proposal and a treaty covering the matter was proclaimed in January 1907. The principal towns and cities on the river are: Brownsville, Texas; Matamoros, Mexico; Laredo, Texas; El Paso, Texas; and Ciudad Juarez, Mexico. RIO GRANDE DO SUL, a southern frontier state of Brazil, bounded N. by the state of Santa Catharina, E. by the Atlantic, S.. by Uruguay and W. by Uruguay and Argentina — the Uruguay river forming the boundary line with the latter. Area, 91,333 sq. m. Pop. (1000) 1,149,070, an increase of 251,615 since 1890. The northern part of the state lies on the southern slopes of the elevated plateau extending southward from Sao Paulo across the states of Parana and Santa Catharina, and is much broken by low mountain ranges whose general direction across the trend of the slope gives them the appearance of escarpments. A range of low mountains extends southward from the Serra do Mar of Santa Catharina and crosses the state into Uruguay. West of this range is a vast grassy plain devoted principally to stock-raising — the northern and most elevated part being suitable in pasturage and climate for sheep, and trje southern for cattle. East of it is a wide coastal zone only slightly elevated above the sea; within it are two great tide-water lakes — Lagda dos Patos and Lagda Mirim — which are separated from the ocean by two sandy, partially barren peninsulas. The coast is one great sand beach, broken only at one point — that of the outlet of the two lakes, called the Rio Grande, which affords an entrance to navigable inland waters and several ports. There are two RIO GRANDE DO SUL distinct river systems in Rio Grande do Sul — that of the eastern slope draining to the tide-water lakes, and that of the La Plata basin draining westward to the Uruguay. Fully one-third of the state belongs to the La Plata drainage basin. The larger rivers of the eastern group are the Jacuhy, Sinos, Cahy, Gravatahy and Camaquam, which flow into the Lagoa dos Patos, and the Jaguarao which flows into the Lag6a Mirim. All of the first named, except the Camaquam, discharge into one of the two arms or estuaries opening into the northern end of Lag6a dos Patos, which is called the Rio Guahyba, though in reality it is not a river. It is broad, comparatively deep and about 35 m. long, and with the rivers discharging into it affords upwards of 200 m. of fluvial navigation. The Jacuhy is one of the most important rivers of the state, rising in the ranges of the Coxilha (Cuchilla) Grande of the North and flowing S. and S.E. to the Guahyba estuary, with a course of nearly 300 m. It has two large tributaries — the Vaccacahy from the S. and the Taquary from the N. — besides many small streams. The Jaguarao, which forms part of the boundary line with Uruguay, is navigable 26 m., up to and beyond the town of Jaguarao. Of the many streams flowing northward and westward to the Uruguay, the largest are the Ijuhy- guassu, of the plateau region, the Ibicuhy, which has its source in the central part of the state, near Santa Maria, and flows westward to the Uruguay a short distance above Uruguayana and the Quarahim, or Quarahy, which forms part of the boundary line with Uruguay. The Uruguay river itself is formed by the confluence of the Rio das Canoas and Rio Pelotas in about long. 51° 30' W. With its southern confluent, the Rio Pelotas, which has its source in the Serra do Mar, on the Atlantic coast, it forms the northern and western boundary line of the state down to the mouth of the Quarahim, on the Uruguayan frontier. In addition to the Lagoa dos Patos and Lagoa Mirim there are a number of small lakes on the sandy, swampy peninsulas that lie between the coast and these two, and there are others of a similar character along the northern coast. The largest lake is the Lagoa dos Patos (Lake of the Patos — an Indian tribe inhabiting its shores at the time of the discovery), which lies parallel with the coast-line, N.E. and S.W., and is about 133 m. long exclusive of the two arms at its northern end, 25 and 35 m. long respectively, and of its outlet, the Rio Grande, about 24 m. long. Its width varies from 22 to 36 m. The lake is comparatively shallow and filled with sand banks, making its navigable channels tortuous and difficult. The Lag6a Mirim occupies a similar position farther S., on the Uruguayan frontier, and is about 108 m. long by 6 to 22 m. wide. It is more irregular in outline and discharges into Lag&a dos Patos through a navigable channel known as the Rio Sao Goncalo. A part of the lake lies in Uruguayan territory, but its navigation, as determined by treaty, belongs exclusively to Brazil. Both of these lakes are evidently the remains of an ancient depression in the coast-line shut in by sand beaches built up by the combined action of wind and current. They are of the same level as the ocean, but their waters are affected by the tides and are brackish only a short distance above the Rio Grande outlet. Rio Grande lies within the South Temperate zone and has a mild, temperate climate, except in the coastal zone where it is semi-tropical. There are only two well-marked seasons, though the transition periods between them (about two months each) are sometimes described as spring and autumn. The winter months, June to September, are characterized by heavy rains and by cold westerly winds, called minuanos, which sometimes lower the temperature to the freezing point, especially in the mountainous districts. Snow is unknown, but ice frequently forms on inland waters during cold winter nights, only to disappear with the first rays of the sun. In summer, which is nominally a dry season, light rains are common, northerly and easterly winds prevail, and the temperature rises _to 95° in the shade. Cases of insolation are not rare. Malaria is unusual and the state has a high reputation for healthiness, though insanitary conditions are responsiole for various diseases in large communities. The principal industry of the state is stock-raising, especially on the southern plains, where large estancias (ranches) are to be found. This industry originated with the Jesuit missions on the Uruguay early in the ijth century, and its development here has been much the same as in Argentina and Uruguay. No general effort was made before the 2oth century to improve the herds by the importa- tion of better breeds, and the industry was practically in a state of decay until higher tariff rates were imposed on imported came secca (jerked beef) toward the end of the 1 9th century. The export of live-stock is insignificant, the practice being to sell the cattle to the xarqueadas or saladeros where they are slaughtered for xarque, charqui or carne secca, which is usually prepared by salting and drying in the sun. The jerked beef is largely exported to other Brazilian states for consumption, while the hides and other by- products are exported to Europe and the United States. The importance of the industry is shown in the exports of 1905, in kilogrammes, viz.: jerked beef, 37,555,951; dry hides, 4,735,987; salted hides, 12,141,779; beef extract, 16,712; ox-tongues, 498,577; tallow, 6,174,189; and large quantities of leather, horns, hoofs, bone-ash and preserved meats. Horses, mules, sheep, goats and swine are also raised; the raising of sheep being fostered by the building of woollen factories, and that of swine by the higher duties on imported pork and lard. In some parts of the state agriculture claims much attention, especially in the forested districts of the north where colonies of foreign immigrants have been established. The principal products are wheat, Indian corn, rice, beans, pease, onions, garlic, farinha de mandioca (cassava flour), potatoes, tomatoes, cabbage, fruit, tobacco and peanuts— all of which find a ready market on the coast. Grapes are grown in several localities (Sao Leopoldo, Alegrete, Bage, &c.) for wine-making, and the industry has become important — the export in 1905 being 2,092,417 litres. The forest products include herva matte or Paraguay tea (Ilex paraguayensis), timbers and lumber, and vegetable fibre (crina vegetal). Coal of an inferior quality is mined at Sao Jeronymo, on a small tributary (Arroio dos Ratos) of the Jacuhy river, and has been discovered in other localities. Lime is burned at Cacapava, and at some other places. Gold, copper and iron are said to exist, but are not mined. Considerable progress has been made in manu- facturing industries, among whose products are: woollen, cotton and jute textiles, leather, wheat, flour, boots, shoes and sandals (tamnacos), wines and liquors, beer, macaroni, biscuits and other prepared foods, cigars and cigarettes, hats, matches, soap, candles and wrapping paper. Much of this diversity in production is due to the foreign element in the population. The railway lines in the state are: the Porto Alegre to Novo Hamburgo (27 m.), with an extension to Taquary (28 m.); Porto Alegre to Uruguayana, completed from Margem do Taquary ( Bank of the Taquary) to Cacequy (232 m.) ; Santa Maria to Passo Fundo (221 m.); Rio Grande to Bag6 (175 m.), with 14 m. in branches at Rio Grande; an extension from Cacequy to Bag6 (129 m.); and the Quarahim to Itaquy (109 m.). All these except the last have been taken over by the national government and leased to the Belgian " Compagnie auxiliare de Chemin de Fer au Br6sil," which has undertaken to complete the line from Cacequy to Uruguayana (161 m.), from Margem do Taquary to Neustadt, on the Novo Hamburgo jine (60 m.), and some other branches. The Quarahim to Itaquy line belongs to an English company and runs from the Uruguayan frontier, where it connects with the North-Western of Uruguay, northward to Uruguayana and the naval station of Itaquy. The population in 1900 was 1,149,070. There is a large foreign element: in 1905 the total number of foreigners residing in the state was estimated at 400,000 (not including children born in the country), and of Germans at 250,000. The first German colony was founded in 1824 and settled in 1825 in the rich forested country N. of Porto Alegre, and many large and prosperous communities have been established since then in spite of the wars and political agitations in the state. Several of these colonies, such as Sao Leopoldo, Novo Hamburgo and Conde d'Eu (now Garibaldi), have become important towns and are no longer under colonial administration. Italian colonies were subsequently established, also with good results, but an Irish colony founded at Monte Bonito, near Pelotas, about 1851, failed completely. The capital of Rio Grande do Sul is Porto Alegre at the northern extremity of Lag&a dos Patos, and its two next most important cities are Rio Grande and Pelotas, both at the southern extremity of the same lake. Among other important cities and towns, with population returns for 1900, are Alegrete (11,438), prettily situated in the W. part of the state on the Porto Alegre to Uruguayana railway; Bage (13,463), about 173 m. by rail N.W. of Rio Grande in a picturesque mountainous region, 702 ft. above sea-level; Jaguarao (9000), on a river of the same name and opposite the Uruguayan town of Artigas, with steamboat communication with Rio Grande; Cacapava (8781 in 1890) in a fine grazing district in the central part of the state, 1732 ft. above sea-level; Quarahim, or Quarahy (about 6500), a town of much commercial RIO GRANDE DO SUL 359 importance on the Quarahim river opposite the Uruguayan town of Santo Eugenio, and surrounded by a rich grazing country which supports one of the largest saladeros in the state; Sao Leopoldo; Santa Maria da Bocca do Monte; and Uruguayana. The territory was first settled along the Uruguay river by the Jesuits when they were compelled to abandon their missions on the upper Parana. Between 1632 and 1707, they founded on the E. side of the Uruguay seven missions — all under Spanish jurisdiction — which became highly prosperous, and at the time of their transfer from Spanish to Portuguese rule by a treaty of 1750 had an aggregate population of about 14,000, living in villages and possessing large herds of cattle and many horses. A joint effort of the two powers in 1753 to enforce the treaty, remove the Indians to Spanish territory, and mark the boundary line, led to resistance and a three years' war, which ended in the capture and partial destruction of the missions. On the coast the first recognized settlement — a military post at Estreito, near the present city of Rio Grande — was made in 1737. Before this, and as early as 1680, according to some chroniclers, the region S. of Santa Catharina was occupied by settlements, or penal colonies, of degradados (banished men) and immoral women from Santos, Sao Vicente and Sao Paulo, and was known as the " Continente de Sao Pedro." In 1738 the territory (which included the present state of Santa Catharina) became the Capitania d'El Rei and was made a dependency of Rio de Janeiro. Territorial dis- putes between Spain and Portugal led to the occupation by the Spanish of the town of Rio Grande (then the capital of the capitania) and neighbouring districts from 1763 to 1776, when they reverted to the Portuguese. The capture of Rio Grande in 1 763 caused the removal of the seat of government to Y'iamao at the head of Lagoa dos Patos; in 1773 Porto dos Cazaes, re- named Porto Alegre, became the capital. In 1801 news of war between Spain and Portugal led the inhabitants of Rio Grande to attack and capture the seven missions and some frontier posts held by the Spaniards since 1763; since 1801 the boundary lines established by treaty in 1777 have re- mained unchanged. The districts of Santa Catharina and Rio Grande had been separated in 1 760 for military convenience, and in 1807 the latter was elevated to the category of a capi- lania-geral, with the designation of " Sao Pedro do Rio Grande," independent of Rio de Janeiro, and with Santa Catharina as a dependency. In 1812 Rio Grande and Santa Catharina were organized into two distinct comarcas, the latter becoming an independent province in 1822 when the empire was organized. In 1835 a separatist revolution broke out in the province and lasted ten years. It was reduced more through the use of money and favours than by force of arms; but the province had suffered terribly in the struggle and did not recover its losses for many years. An incident in this contest was the enlist- ment of Garibaldi for a short time with the forces of the separa- tists. In 1865 a Paraguayan army invaded the state and on the 5th of August occupied the town of Uruguayana. On the 1 8th of September following, the Paraguayan general (Esti- garribia) surrendered without a fight — an unusual occurrence in the remarkable war that followed. Political agitations have been frequent in Rio Grande do Sul, whose people have some- thing of the temperament of their Spanish neighbours, but no important revolution occurred after the " ten years' war " (1835-45) until the presidency at Rio de Janeiro of General Floriano Peixoto, whose ill-considered interference with the state governments led to the revolt of 1892-94, under Gumers- indo Saraiva. In this struggle the revolutionists occupied Santa Catharina and Parana, capturing Curityba, but were eventually overthrown through their inability to obtain munitions of war. An incident in this struggle was the death of Admiral Saldanha da Gama, one of the most brilliant officers of the Brazilian navy and one of the chiefs of the naval revolt of 1893-94, who was killed in a skirmish on the Uruguayan frontier at the close of the war. RIO GRANDE DO SUL, or SAO PEDRO DO Rio GRANDE DO SUL (sometimes SAO PEDRO and commonly Rio GRANDE), a city and port of the state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, on the western side of the Rio Grande (as the outlet of the Lagoa dos Patos is called), about 6 m. from its mouth and nearly 780 m. S.W. of Rio de Janeiro, in lat. 32° 7' S., long. 52° 8' W. Pop. (1800) of the municipio (area, about 656 sq. m.) 24,653; of the city, including its suburbs, 20,193; (1000, estimate) of the city, 22,000, and of the city and its suburbs, 30,000. Rio Grande is the coast terminus of the Rio Grande to Bage railway, which now forms part of the railway system of the state leased to the Belgian Compagnie Auxiliare de Chemin de Fer au Bresil. Some of the principal streets are served by tramways, and the Rio Grande to Bage railway has an extension to its shipping wharf called " Estacao Maritima " (ij m.), a branch to some points on the river (1} m.), and a branch to Costa do Mar, on the ocean coast (n m.). The city is a port of call for several steamship lines, and has direct communication with European ports. The bar at the mouth of the river, however, restricts traffic to vessels of light draught, not exceeding 12 to 15 ft. Ex- tensive improvements, at an estimated cost of about 13$ millions of dollars, were undertaken in 1908 for deepening the bar to admit vessels of 30 ft. draught. The city is built on a low sandy peninsula, barely 5 ft. above sea-level, formed by two arms of the Rio Grande projecting westward from the main channel, the peninsula being part of a large sandy plain extending southward along the coast to Lagoa Mirim. The level of the plain is broken by ranges of sand dunes, some of which rise not far from the city on the south-and south-east. The openness of the surrounding country and the proximity of the sea give to Rio Grande unusually healthy conditions, which, however, are largely counteracted by defective sanitary arrangements. Not infrequently the deaths exceed the births, and epidemics of contagious diseases make deadly inroads upon the population. The city has been de- veloped irregularly, but the streets are for the most part broad, and the principal ones are well paved. Gas lighting was introduced about 1871, and in 1908 acetylene was used for public lighting. In one of the public squares is a shaft com- memorating the abolition of slavery, and said to be the only monument in Brazil of that character. There is a notable scarcity of shade trees in the streets and squares, though dowers, shrubbery and some kinds of fruit trees are grown. In pleasing contrast to the drifting sands which surround the city is the fertile Ilha dos Marinheiros (Sailor's Island) lying directly in front of the port; it is highly cultivated and supplies the market with fruit and vegetables. The water-front has been improved by substantial stone walls, which permit the mooring of light-draught vessels alongside. Among noteworthy public buildings and institutions are the municipal palace, the parochial church of Sao Pedro, dating from the l8th century, the modern church of N.S. de Bomfim, the beauti- ful Protestant Episcopal church (Gothic), the public hospital (Hospital de Caridade), the hospital of the Beneficencia Portugueza, the public library (Bibliotheca Riograndense), created and main- tained by private effort and containing about 30,000 volumes, the old custom-house and the quartel-gercU (military barracks). Rio Grande is wholly a commercial and industrial city. Its exports include salted jerked beef (carne secca. or xarque), preserved meats, tongues, hides, horns, hoofs, woollen fabrics, Paraguay tea, beans, onions, fruit, flour, farinha de mandioca (cassava flour), lard, soap, candles and leather. Its manufactures include cotton, woollen and jute fabrics, wheat flour, biscuits, cigars and cut tobacco, beer, artificial drinks, boots, shoes and sandals (alpergatas) , soap and candles, fireworks, ice, earthenware, hats, cast-iron and leather. The pioneer woollen factory in Brazil, and one of the largest in the country, is in Rio Grande. Rio Grande was founded in 1737 by Jos6 da Silva Paes, who built a fort on the river near the site of the present city and called it Estreito. In 1745 the garrison and settlement was removed by Gomes Freire d'Andrade to its present site, which became a " villa," in 1751, with the name of Sao Pedro do Rio Grande, and a " cidade " (city) in 1807. It was the capital of the captaincy down to 1763, when it was captured by a Spanish force from Buenos Aires under the command of its governor, Don Pedro Zeballos, the seat of government being then removed to Viamao at the northern end of Lag6a dos 36° RIOJA— RIOT Patos. The city was occupied by the national forces in the ten years' war which began in 1835, and in 1894 it was unsuccess- fully besieged by a small insurgent force that had attempted to overthrow the government at Rio de Janeiro. RIOJA, LA, an Andine province of Argentina, bounded N. by Catamarca, E. by Catamarca and Cordoba, S. by San Luis and San Juan and W. by San Juan and Chile. Area, 34,546 sq. m. Pop. (1895) 69,502; (1902, estimate) 82,099. The province is traversed from N. to S. by eastern ranges of the Andes and is separated from Chile by the Cordillera itself. The western part of the province is drained by the Bermejo, which flows south- ward into the closed lacustrine basin of Mendoza. The eastern side of the province is arid, but in the extreme N. some small streams flow northward into Catamarca. The scanty waters of these streams are used for irrigation purposes. The principal industry of the province is that of mining, its mineral resources including gold, silver, copper, nickel, tin, cobalt, coal, alum and salt. Its best known mines are those of the Sierra de Famatina, 16,400 ft. above sea-level, where an aerial wire line is used for transportation to Chilecito in the valley below. The develop- ment of mining industries is seriously hindered by lack of water. For the same reason, agriculture is in a very backward condition. The climate is hot and dry, and there is no cultivation of the soil except in the valleys of the Cordillera and a few other places where irrigation is possible. Under these conditions, there are grown wheat (a limited extent), grapes, oranges, olives and tobacco. Alfalfa is grown to a considerable extent and is used for feeding the herds of cattle driven across country to Chile. The capital of the province is La Rioja (pop., 1904, about 6000), on the eastern flank of the Sierra de Velasco, about 1770 ft. above sea- level and near the gorge of Sanagasta, through which a small stream, also called Rioja, flows northward and affords water for the gardens, vineyards and orchards that surround it. The wines of Rioja are highly esteemed and are an important source of income for the district. The town is connected by rail with Cordoba and Catamarca. It was founded in 1591 by Velasco and in 1894 was destroyed by an earthquake from which it has only partially recovered. The most important town in the province is the mining centre of Chilecito, or Villa Argentina (pop., 1904, about 4000), about 2950 ft. above sea-level near the Famatina mines. RIOM, a town of central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Puy-de-D&me, 8 m. N. by E. of Clermont- Ferrand by rail. Pop., town, 7839; commune, 10,627. Riom is situated on the left bank of the Ambene, on an eminence rising above the fertile plain of Limagne. It is surrounded with boule- vards and has wide streets, but the houses, being built of black lava, have a sombre appearance. Some belong to the isth and i6th centuries, and have turrets and carved stonework. The church of St Amable, of Romanesque and early Gothic archi- tecture, dates from the I2th century, but has been restored in modern times. It has fine carved woodwork of the I7th century. The church of Notre-Dame du Marthuret (isth century) has a well-known statue of the Virgin at its western entrance. The Sainte-Chapelle of the i4th and isth centuries is a relic of the palace of Jean de Berry, duke of Auvergne, and contains fine stained glass. Near it stands a statue of the chancellor Michel de I'H&pital, who was born near Riom. The rest of the site of the palace is occupied by the law courts. Other interesting buildings are the belfry of the i6th century and a mansion of the same period known as the Maison des Consuls. The town possesses numerous fountains, some of which are of the Renaissance period. Riom is the seat of a court of appeal, a court of assizes and a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and commerce and a communal college. It has a state manufactory of tobacco, and carries on the preparation of fruit preserves. Trade is in grain, wine, vegetables, fruit, nut-oil and Volvic stone. Riom (Ricomagus or Ricomum of the Romans) was long the rival of Clermont. Along with Auvergne it was seized for the crown by Philip Augustus, and it was the capital of this province under the dukes of Berry and Bourbon. RIO NEGRO, a territory of Argentina lying between the Colorado river and the 42nd parallel S. lat., within the geographical area formerly known as Patagonia, bounded N. by the territories of Neuquen and La Pampa, E. by the province of Buenos Aires and the Atlantic, S by the territory of Chubut and W. by Chile and Neuquen. Area, about 75,924 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 9241; (1904, estimate) 18,648. That part of it lying between the Colorado and Negro rivers has much of the formation and characteristics of the " sterile pampas," but with irrigation the greater part of it can be utilized for agriculture and grazing. South of the Negro the country is arid, barren and lies in great shingle-covered terraces sloping eastward to the Atlantic; its larger part is practically uninhabitable, only the river valleys and the foot-hills of the Andes having a regular water supply. The rivers of the territory are the Colorado, which forms a part of its northern boundary, and the Negro, formed by the con- fluence of the Limay (which forms part of the western boundary) and Neuquen on the boundary between Rio Negro territory and the territory of Neuquen. These rivers have no tributaries of im- portance within the territory, but the Limay receives some small streams from the Andean slopes. Lake Nahuel-Huapi lies partly in this territory (see NEUQUEN), and there are several small lakes scattered over the shingly steppes. The Atlantic coast-line of the territory has one deep indentation — the Gulf of San Matias — but, owing to the arid surroundings, there are no ports or towns upon it. The only industry of importance is grazing, cattle being raised for export to Chile, and a few sheep for their wool. The capital is Viedma (pop. in 1895, estimate, 1500), on the right bank of the Rio Negro, 22 m. from its mouth and opposite Carmen de Patagones, a town and port of Buenos Aires. There are other small settlements on the Rio Negro, which is navigable up to the Neuquen frontier (about 450 m.), but the only place of importance is General Roca (about 2300), a military and supply station situated a few miles below the confluence of the Limay and Neuquen rivers and connected with Bahia Blanca and Buenos Aires by a branch of the Great Southern railway. RIO PARDO (formerly Villa do Rio Pardo), a town of Brazil in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, on the left bank of the Jacuhy at its confluence with the Pardo. Area (of the municipality) 1737 sq. m. Pop. (1890) of the municipality, 19,346; (1908, estimated) of the town, 3500. The town is about 80 m. due west of Porto Alegre, with which it is connected by rail and steamer. The Jacuhy is navigable by small steamers to this place, which was once an important military station and commercial centre. Its military importance has considerably declined through railway extension. The surrounding districts are fertile but only slightly cultivated, and stock-raising is its chief industry. The town had its origin in a frontier fort built at this point by the Portuguese in 1751, but did not reach the dignity of a " villa " until 1809. RIOT (O. Fr. riote, of uncertain etymology), the gravest kind of breach of the peace, short of treason, known to the English law. It consists in a tumultuous disturbance of the peace by an assemblage of three or more persons who, with intent to help one another against any one who opposes them in the execution of some enterprise, actually execute that enterprise in a violent and turbulent manner, to the terror of the people. It is not necessary that violence should be used to any person or damage done to any property. Whether the enterprise itself is lawful or unlawful is not material, the gist of the offence lying in the mode in which the enterprise is carried out (The Trafalgar Square Riots, 1888, 16 Cox. Cr. Cas. 420, 427; Stephen, Dig. Crim. Law, 6th ed., art. 77). Nor is it material whether the enterprise is of a private or a public nature, though in the latter case the rioters may also be guilty of sedition or treason. An assembly in its inception perfectly lawful may become a riot if the persons assembled proceed to form and execute a common purpose in the manner above stated, although they had no such purpose when they first assembled. Riot differs from " Affray " in the number of persons necessary to constitute the offence, from an " Un- lawful Assembly " in that actual tumult or violence is an RIOT 361 essential element, and from " Rout," which may be described as a beginning or endeavour to create a riot. It was considered as early as the I4th century that the English common law gave an insufficient remedy against riot. In 1360 the statute of 34 Edward III. gave jurisdiction to justices to restrain, arrest and imprison rioters. In 1393 the statute of 17 Richard II. conferred similar powers on the sheriff and posse comitatus. Numerous other acts extending the common law were passed, especially in the Tudor reigns (see Stephen, History of the Criminal Law, vol. i. p. 202). Both these acts above mentioned are still on the statute book, but the earliest act now in force of real importance as to this offence is the Riot Act (1716), which creates certain statutory offences for riot attended by circumstances of aggravation. That act makes it the duty of a justice, sheriff, mayor or other authority, wherever twelve persons or more are unlawfully, riotously and tumultuously assembled together, to the disturbance of the public peace, to resort to the place of such assembly and read the following proclamation: " Our Sovereign Lord the King chargeth and commandeth all persons being assembled immediately to dis- perse themselves, and peaceably to depart to their habitations or to their lawful business, upon the pains contained in the act made in the first year of King George for preventing tumultuous and riotous assemblies. God save the King." It is a felony to obstruct the reading of the proclamation or to remain or continue together unlawfully, riotously and tumultu- ously for one hour after the proclamation was made or for one hour after it would have been made but for being hindered. The act requires the justices to seize and apprehend all persons continuing after the hour, and indemnifies them and those who act under their authority from liability for injuries caused thereby. The punishment for the felony is penal servitude for life or for a term of not less than three years, or imprison- ment with or without hard labour for not more than two years. Prosecutions for an offence against the act must be commenced within twelve months after the offence. By s. ii of the Malicious Damage Act 1861 (which is a re- enactment of a similar provision made in 1827 in consequence of the frame-breaking riots) , it is a felony for persons riotously and tumultuously assembled together to the disturbance of the public peace to unlawfully and with force demolish or begin to demolish or pull down or destroy any building, public building, machinery or mining plant. The punishment is the same as for a felony under the Riot Act. By s. 12 it is a misdemeanour to injure or damage such building, &c. The punishment is penal servitude from three to seven years, or imprisonment as in the case of the two felonies above described. Under the Shipping Offences Act (1793) a riotous assemblage of three or more seamen, ship's carpenters and other persons, unlawfully and with force preventing and hindering or obstruct- ing the loading or unloading or the sailing or navigation of any vessel, or unlawfully and with force boarding any vessel with intent to prevent, &c., is punishable on a first conviction as a misdemeanour by imprisonment from six to twelve months, and on a second conviction as a felony by penal servitude from three to fourteen years. And under the Offences against the Person Act 1861 (s. 40) summary penalties are provided for forcible interference with seamen in the exercise of their lawful occupation. Besides these enactments there are others aimed at similar offences, such as smuggling, forcible entry and detainer, tumultuous petitioning (1661, 13 Charles II.), holding large political meetings within a certain distance of Westminster Hall during the sitting of parliament (Seditious Meetings Act 1817). For these offences see Stephen, Dig. Cr. Law, 6th ed., arts. 81-87. It is the duty of a magistrate at the time of a riot to assemble subjects of the realm, whether civil or military, for the purpose of quelling the riot. In this duty he is aided by the common law, and a statute of 1414 (Henry V.), under which all subjects of the realm are bound to assist on reasonable warning, and by various enactments enabling the authorities to call out the militia, yeomanry and reserve forces for the suppression of riot, and to close public-houses where a riot is apprehended (Licensing Act 1872). It is his duty to keep the peace; if the peace be broken, honesty of intention will not avail him if he has been guilty of neglect of duty. The question is whether he did all that he knew was in his power and which could be expected from a man of ordinary prudence, firmness and activity. The law as thus stated is gathered from the opinions of the judges on the trials of the lord mayor of London and the mayor of Bristol on indictments for neglect of duty at the time of the Gordon riots of 1780 and the Bristol riots in 1831.* In addition to his liability to an indictment at common law, a defaulting magistrate is subject under the provisions of acts of 1411 (Henry IV.) and 1414 (Henry V.) to a penalty of £100 for every default, the default to be inquired of by commission under the great seal. A matter of interest is the extent of the protection afforded by the Riot Act to soldiers acting under the commands of their officers. The question was dealt with by Lord Bowen and his fellow-commissioners in the report on the Featherstone riots (Parl. Paper, 1893-1894, c. 7234). The substance of their views is as follows: — By the law of England every one is bound to aid in the suppression of riotous assemblages. The degree of force, how- ever, which may be lawfully employed in their, suppression depends on the nature of each riot, for the force used must always be moderated and proportioned to the circumstances of the case and to the end to be attained. The taking of life can only be justified by the necessity for prdtecting persons or property against various forms of violent crime, or by the necessity of dispersing a riotous crowd which is dangerous unless dispersed, or in the case of persons whose conduct has become felonious through disobedience to the provisions of the Riot Act, and who resist the attempt to disperse or apprehend them. The necessary prevention of such outrage on person or property justifies the guardians of the peace in the employment against a crowd of even deadly weapons. Officers and soldiers are under no special privileges and subject to no special re- sponsibilities as regards the principle of the law. A soldier for the purpose of establishing civil order is only a citizen armed in a particular manner. He cannot because he is a soldier be exonerated if without necessity he takes human life. The duty of magistrates and peace officers to summon or abstain from summoning the assistance of the military depends in like manner on the necessities of the case. A soldier can act only by using his arms. The weapons he carries are deadly. They cannot be employed at all without danger to life or limb, and in these days of improved rifles and perfected ammunition without some risk of danger to distant and possibly innocent bystanders. To call for assistance against rioters from those who can interfere only under such grave conditions ought, of course, to be the last expedient of the civil authorities. But when the call for help is made and a necessity for assistance from the military has arisen, to refuse such assistance is in law a misdemeanour. The whole action of the military when once called in ought from first to last to be based on the principle of doing, and doing without fear, that which is absolutely necessary to prevent serious crime, and of exercising care and skill with regard to what is done. No set of rules exists which governs every instance or defines beforehand any contingency that may arise. The presence of a magistrate is not essential, but is usual, and of the highest value to aid the commander of the troops by local knowledge. But his presence or absence has no legal effect on the duties or responsibilities of the military to use their arms when it becomes necessary to do so, and without recklessness or negligence and with reasonable care and caution; and where they have so acted the killing of a rioter is justifiable homicide, and the killing of an innocent bystander is homicide by mis- adventure. It is not usual to resort to extremities with rioters until after reading the proclamation under the Riot Act (1716), 1 Reports of these trials will be found in the State Trials, New Series, vol. iii. pp. I, 1 1. Most of the important cases of riot are collected or referred to in that series. 362 RIO TINTO but this preliminary is by no means a condition precedent to the exercise of the common-law powers of suppressing riots. The crown cannot charge upon the local rates the expense of maintaining soldiers called into a district by the magistrates to suppress a riot (re Glamorgan County Council, L.R. 1899, 2 Q.B. 536); but the cost of extra police drafted in for the like purpose falls on the rates of the district into which they are drafted (see Police Act 1890, s. 25). Until 1886 persons whose property was damaged by riot had a civil remedy of an exceptional character by action against the hundred in which the riot took place. This remedy was a survival of the pre-Conquest liability of the hundred to guarantee the orderly conduct of its inhabitants. The hundred was made liable in case of robbery by the Statute of Winchester (i285).1 That and subsequent acts were repealed in the reign of George IV., and their provisions were consolidated by an act of 1827 which gave a remedy against the hundred in the case of felonious demolition of churches, chapels, houses, machinery, &c., being feloniously demolished by rioters. The last instance of the use of this exceptional remedy was in the case of a riot at Worthing, and the remedy was abolished in 1886. When the Piccadilly riots occurred in that year no one knew that the injured shops were in the hundred of Ossulston, and difficulties arose in applying the old procedure. So an ex post facto statute was passed "(the Metropolitan Police Compensation Act 1886) for a special settlement of the claims, and the old statutes were repealed and replaced by the Riot Damage Act 1886. Under this act compensation is payable where rioters have injured or destroyed houses, shops, buildings, fixed or movable machinery and appliances prepared or used for or in connexion with manufactures or agriculture, or for mines or quarries, or vessels stranded or in distress (see WRECK), or have injured, stolen, or destroyed property in houses, shops or buildings. The compensation is payable out of the police rate for the district in which the damage is done; or if it was done afloat, for the district nearest to the scene of action. The claim is made on the police authority for the district. The time and form for making claims and the mode of fixing the amount of compensation is regulated by rules made by the Home Secretary on the 3oth of June 1894 (Stat. R. and O. 1894, No. 636). In adjusting the amount regard is had to the conduct of the claimant, viz. as to precautions taken by him, his share, if any, in the riot, or provocation offered to the rioters. Failure to carry out a programme for athletic sports has been held to debar a claimant from compensation for damage done by a riot among the disappointed spectators who had paid to see the sports. The claimant must give credit for insurance money, or any other compensation received in respect of the damage; but the insurers or persons who paid such com- pensation may file a claim against the police rate for the amount paid by them. Persons dissatisfied with the award of the police authority may sue for the recovery of their claim subject to a liability to pay all the costs if they do not get judgment for more than the amount awarded. The action, if it is not for more than £100, is to be brought in the county court. The remedy is available in the case of stranded ships plundered by rioters (s. 515 of the Merchant Shipping Act 1894). The Riot Act does not extend to Ireland, but similar provisions are contained in an act of the Irish Parliament passed in 1787 as amended by acts of 1831 and 1842. These acts create a special offence punishable by penal servitude for life, viz. sending notices, letters or messages inciting or tending to riot. Under the Criminal Procedure Ireland Act 1887 (a temporary act) summary proceedings may be taken against rioters. The civil remedy against the county or borough for malicious injury to property, real or personal, including ships in distress and their cargo, is wider than in England or Scotland, but it includes malicious injury by rioters where 1 There is a curious exception still on the Statute-book depriving persons robbed while travelling on the Lord's Day of any right to compensation from the hundred (Lord's Day Act 1677, s. 5). the injury is a crime within the Malicious Damage Act of 1861. Claims are now dealt with in the county court, and not as formerly by the grand jury and judge of assize (Local Government Ireland Act 1898, s. 5). In Scotland a riot may be either " rioting and mobbing " or " rioting and breach of the peace." The first is much the same as riot in English law. Mobbing consists in the assembling of a number of people and then combining against order or peace to the alarm of the lieges (Alison, Cr. Law of Scotland, vol. i. p. 509; Macdonald, Criminal Law, 180). The second offence occurs when concourse or a common purpose are wanting. Numerous acts against rioting and unlawful convoca- tion were passed by the Scottish parliament, beginning in 1487. The Riot Act (1716) applies to Scotland. There is a civil remedy against the county or burgh in which a riot takes place in respect of damage done by the rioters to houses, churches, buildings and ships, and buildings or engines used in trade or manufacture. The remedy is given by a series of statutes of 1716, 1812, 1816, 1817 and 1894. The procedure for its enforcement is now regulated by the Riotous Assemblies (Scotland) Act 1822, and amending statutes. The county or burgh authorities may adjust claims without litigation, and pay them out of the general assessments. British Dominions. — In India the offence of riot, as defined by s. 146 of the Penal Code, consists in the use of force or violence by an unlawful assembly (which must consist of at least five persons, s. 141), or by any member thereof in the prosecution of the common object of such assembly (see Mayne, Ind. Criminal Law, ed. 1896, p. 489). In Ceylon and the Straits Settlements provisions based on the Indian Code are in force. In most of the settled Colonies the English law as to riot applies subject to local legislation. The Criminal Codes of Canada (1892, ss. 79-86), New Zealand (1893, ss. 83-89) and Queensland (1899, ss. 61-67) adopt the substance of the English law as to riot, in terms borrowed from the English draft Code of 1880. In those of the West Indies whose common law is based on that of France, Holland or Spain, the English law as to riot has been applied by ordinance, e.g. in British Guiana (Criminal Code 1893, tit. xix), and St Lucia (Criminal Code 1888, tit. xxv). In the South African colonies the English law of riot does not apply, but under the Dutch Roman law there exists a similar offence, known as " public violence " (vis publica), i.e. the use of violence and force by which the public rest and order is endangered and the authority of the lawful authorities and officials is set at naught. The offence was capital (see Van Leeuwen, Roman-Dutch Law, tr. by Kotze, 1886, vol. ii. p. 294; Morice, English and Roman-Dutch Law, 1903, p. 334). Similar provisions based on the French Penal Code are in force in Mauritius (Penal Code of 1838). United States. — In the United States the law is based upon that of England (see Bishop, Amer. Cr. L., 8th ed., 1892, vol. i. s. 534, vol. ii. ss. 1143 et seq.). In some states there is a statutory proclamation for the dispersion of rioters in terms almost identical with those of the British Riot Act. The city, town, or county is by the statutes of many states rendered liable for damage caused by rioters, with or without a remedy over against the persons who did the damage (see revised Laws of Massachusetts, ed. 1902, chap. 211, sects. 2, 8). RIO TINTO (MiNAS DE Rio TINTO), a mining town of south- western Spain, in the province of Huelva; near the source of the river Tinto, and at the terminus of a light railway from the port of Huelva. Pop. (1900) 11,603. Ri° Tinto is one of the greatest copper-mining centres in the world; and it is from the discoloration of its waters by copper ore that the river derives its name. Besides the town of Minas, several villages are peopled by the native miners, whose numbers exceed 10,000; and one is occupied solely by British mine officials. The surrounding country is covered for miles with heaps of slag, and has been reduced to a desert. In 1903 the output of the mines included 840,000 tons of copper ore, worth more than £$00,000, besides a relatively small quantity of iron and manganese. Almost the entire product is despatched to Huelva for shipment to Great RIOU— RIPON, IST MARQUESS OF Britain. Rio Tinto was probably first exploited by the Cartha- ginians; vestiges of later Roman workings may still be seen. After the Moorish conquest, in 711, it was neglected until 1725, when the mines were leased to a Swede named Wolters. Their modern importance dates from 1872, when a syndicate of London and Bremen capitalists purchased them from the Spanish government for nearly £4,000,000. RIOU, EDWARD (1758 ?-i8oi), British sailor, entered the navy at an early age. In 1780 he was promoted lieutenant, and nine years later he was in command of the " Guardian " when that vessel, crowded with convicts, struck a hidden rock off the African coast. Riou, after parting with as many of his men as the boats would hold, not only successfully navigated his half- sinking ship 400 leagues to the Cape of Good Hope, but kept order amongst the panic-stricken convicts, an achievement which had few parallels in naval annals, and won Lieutenant Riou's immediate promotion. He did not long remain a com- mander and in 1791 he was posted. Under Sir John Jervis he was present at the operations about Martinique and Guadeloupe in 1 794, and in the "Amazon" he accompanied the expedition under Sir Hyde Parker to the Baltic in 1801. His frigate led the way through the Channel at Copenhagen, and in the battle he was attached as commodore of a light squadron to Nelson's division. Through the grounding of three ships of the line, Riou and his frigates found themselves opposed to the full force of the great Trekroner battery. Early in the fight he was wounded, but refused to leave the deck, and, as he was sitting on a gun-carriage and directing his men's fire, he was cut in two by a cannon ball. Nelson, who had not known him before this expedition, had conceived a great affection for Riou, and spoke of his loss as " irreparable." Brenton, the naval historian, declared that he had all the qualities of a perfect officer. Parliament com- memorated the memory of the " gallant good Riou " by a memorial in St -Paul's Cathedral. RIOUW, RHIOUW or BINTANG, an archipelago of the Dutch East Indies, E. of Sumatra, and separated from the Malay Peninsula by the Straits of Singapore. With the Lingga, Karimon, Tambelan, Anambas andNatuna Islands, to the N.E., E. and S., and the territory of Indragiri in Sumatra, it forms the Dutch residency of Riouw and dependencies. The seat of government is at Tanjong Pinang, a small port of 4060 inhabit- ants (including 160 Europeans and about 2000 Chinese), on the S.W. coast of the chief island, Bintang or Riouw. The total area of the residency is about 17,550 sq. m., and its population (1905) 112,216, of whom considerably over a quarter are Chinese. These cultivate gambier and pepper successfully in Bintang, and there is a considerable trade in wood. Bintang has an area of about 440 sq m., and is surrounded by many rocks and small islands, making navigation dangerous. The soil is not fertile, and much of it is swampy. There is an assistant residency of Lingga, to which belongs the island of Singkep, where extensive tin-deposits are worked. Geologically the Riouw and Lingga Islands are appendages of the Malay Peninsula, not of Sumatra. Bintang is mentioned by Marco Polo under the name of Pentam, which is not far from the genuine Malay name Bentan, said to mean a half-moon. After the Portuguese conquest of Malacca (1511), the expelled Mahommedan dynasty took up its residence on Bintang, where it long fostered piracy. RIPLEY, GEORGE (1802-1880), American critic and man of letters, was born at Greenfield, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of October 1802. He graduated first in his class at Harvard in 1823. From 1826 to 1840 he was pastor of a Unitarian church in Boston, subsequently retiring from the active ministry alto- gether. It was during those years that there grew up in New England that form of thought or philosophy known as Tran- scendentalism. Ripley was prominent, if not the leader, in all practical manifestations of the movement; and it was largely by his earnestness and practical energy that certain of its more tangible results were brought about. The first meeting of the Transcendental Club was held at his house in September 1836. He was a founder and a chief supporter of the magazine, the Dial, which was the organ of the school from 1841 to 1844. Most important of all, however, he was the originator of " The Brook Farm Institute of Education and Agriculture." Until the abandonment of this experiment in 1847, Ripley was its leader, cheerfully taking upon himself all kinds of tasks, teaching mathematics and philosophy in the school, milking cows and attending to other bucolic duties, and after June 1845 editing the weekly Harbinger, an organ of " association," which he continued to edit in New York from 1847 until it was dis- continued in 1849. The failure of Brook Farm (q.v.) left Ripley poor and feeling keenly the defeat of his project; but the event forced him at last to devote himself to that career of literary labour in which the real success of his life was achieved. In 1849 he joined the staff of the New York Tribune, and in a short time became its literary editor. This position, which, through his steadiness, scholarly conservatism and freedom from caprice as a critic, soon became one of great influence, he held until his death in New York City on the 4th of July 1880. During the greater part of the time of his connexion with the Tribune, Ripley was also an adviser of a prominent publishing house, an occasional contributor to the magazines, and a co- operator in several literary undertakings. The chief of these was the American Cyclopaedia, which as the New American Cyclopaedia — so named to distinguish it from Francis Lieber's Encyclopaedia Americana — was issued, under the editorship of Ripley and Charles A. Dana, in 1857-63, a revised edition, with the word " new " dropped from the title, being issued under the same editorship in 1873-76. He also issued, in translation, a series of Specimens of Foreign Standard Literature (14 vols., 1838-42). Ripley was twice married, first in 1827 to Miss Sophia Willard Dana (d. 1861), a daughter of Francis Dana and a conspicuous figure at Brook Farm; and second, in 1865, to a young German widow, Mrs Augusta Schloss- berger, who survived him and subsequently married Alphonse Pinede. A biography of Ripley (Boston, 1882), written by the Rev. O. B. Frothingham, forms one of the volumes of the " American Men of Letters Tl series. (E. L. B.) RIPLEY, a market town in the Ilkeston parliamentary division of Derbyshire, England, 10 m. N. by E. of Derby, on a branch of the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) io,m. It lies on high ground between the valleys of the Derwent and the Erewash. In the neighbourhood there are extensive collieries, and coke is largely manufactured. Besides iron foundries, blast furnaces and boiler works, the town possesses silk and cotton mills. The charter for the market was granted by Henry III. The district has a large industrial population. To the west of Ripley lies the township of HEAGE (pop. 2889). RIPON, GEORGE FREDERICK SAMUEL ROBINSON, IST MARQUESS OF (1827-1909), British statesman, only son of the ist earl of Ripon and his wife Lady Sarah, daughter of Robert Hobart, 4th earl of Buckinghamshire, was born in London on the 24th of October 1827. The Robinson family was descended from an eminent Hamburg merchant, William Robinson (1522-1616), who represented York in parliament in Elizabeth's reign. His great-grandson was in 1660 created a baronet. Thomas Robinson, ist Baron Grantham (1695- 1770), son of a later holder of the baronetcy, was created a peer in 1761, having been an indefatigable diplomatist pleni- potentiary at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, and secretary of state. The 2nd Baron Grantham (1738-1786), ambassador at Madrid, and foreign secretary under Lord Shelburne, had two sons. The elder of these, succeeding as 3rd Baron Grantham (1781-1859), became in 1833 2nd Earl de Grey, in right of his maternal aunt, and assumed the surname of de Grey; he was lord-lieutenant of Ireland (1841-44). The younger, Frederick John (1782-1859), created Viscount Code- rich in 1827 and earl of Ripon in 1833, was the well-known " Prosperity Robinson " who was chancellor of the exchequer from 1823 to 1827; as Lord Goderich he became prime minister (and a peculiarly weak one) from August 1827 to January 1828, colonial secretary in 1831 and 1832, lord privy RIPON seal (1833-34), president of the Board of Trade (1841-43), and president of the India board (1843-46). His son, the future marquess, began his political life as altachS to a special mission to Brussels in 1849. In 1851 he married Henrietta Vyner (d. 1907), and their eldest son, after- wards known as Earl de Grey, was born in 1852. Under his courtesy title of Viscount Goderich he was returned to the House of Commons for Hull in 1852 as an advanced Liberal. In 1853 he was elected for Huddersfield, and in 1857 for the West Riding of Yorkshire. In January 1859 he succeeded to his father's title, and in November of the same year to that of his uncle, Earl de Grey. A few months after entering the Upper House he was appointed under-secretary for war, and in February 1861 under-secretary for India. Upon the death of Sir George Cornewall Lewis in April 1863 he became secre- tary for war, with a seat in the cabinet. In 1866 he was ap- pointed secretary of state for India. On the formation of the Gladstone administration in December 1868, Lord Ripon was appointed lord president of the council, and held that office until within a few months of the fall of the government in 1873, when he resigned on purely private grounds. In 1869 he was created a Knight of the Garter. In 1871 Lord Ripon was appointed chairman of the High Joint-Commission on the Alabama claims, which arranged the treaty of Washington. In recognition of his services he was elevated to a marquessate (1871). In 1874 he became a convert to Roman Catholicism, and this involved his resignation of the office of grand master of the English Freemasons. On the return of Gladstone to power in 1880 Lord Ripon was appointed viceroy of India, the appointment exciting a storm of controversy, the marquess being the first Roman Catholic to hold the viceregal office. He went out to reverse the Afghan policy of Lord Lytton, and Kandahar was given up, the whole of Afghanistan being secured to Abdur Rahman. The new viceroy was also called upon to decide grave questions between the native population and the resident British, and he resolved upon a liberal policy towards the former, among his measures being the repeal of the Vernacular Press Act, the extension of local government and the appointment of an Education Commission. He extended the rights of the natives, and in certain directions curtailed the privileges of Europeans. Several of the viceroy's measures, notably the Ilbert Bill of 1883 — so named after its author Sir Courtenay Ilbert — irritated the Anglo-Indian population, and it was fiercely assailed. The purpose of this bill was disclosed in the statement that " the government of India had decided to settle the question of jurisdiction over European British subjects in such a way as to remove from the code, at once and completely, every judicial disqualification which is based merely on race distinctions," in fact to subject Europeans in certain cases to trial by native magistrates. This announcement raised a storm of indignation among the European community in India, and the government were obliged virtually, though not avowedly, to abandon their measure. Act III. of 1884 was a compromise, which, while subjecting Europeans to the jurisdiction of native district magis- trates or sessions judges, reserved to them the right to demand trial by a jury of which at least half should be Europeans. There probably never was a viceroy so unpopular among Anglo-Indians or so popular with the natives. On Lord Ripon's departure from India in November 1884 there were extraordinary manifestations in his favour on the part of the Hindu population of Bengal and Bombay, and more than a thousand addresses were presented to him. On his arrival in England the marquess delivered a number of vigorous speeches in defence of his admins tration. In 1886 he became first lord of the admiralty in the third Gladstone ministry; and on the return of the Liberals to power in 1892 he was appointed colonial secretary, which post he continued to hold until the resignation of the government in 1895. He was included in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's cabinet at the close of 1905 as lord privy seal, an office which he retained in 1908 when Mr Asquith formed his new ministry, but which he resigned later in the same year. He died at his seat, Studley Royal, near Ripon, on the gth of July 1909, when his only son, Earl de Grey, who has been treasurer of the queen's household since 190-1, became the 2nd marquess. For many years Lord Ripon was president of the Yorkshire College of Science at Leeds, and chairman of the West Riding County Council. RIPON, a cathedral city and municipal borough in the Ripon parliamentary division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 214 m. N.N.W. from London, on the North-Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 8230. It is pleasantly situated at the confluence of the streams Laver and Skell with the river Ure, which is crossed by a fine bridge of nine arches. The streets are for the most part narrow and irregular, and, although most of the houses are comparatively modern, some of them retain the picturesque gables characteristic of earlier times. The cathedral, although not ranking among those of the first class, is cele- brated for its fine proportions, and is of great interest from the various styles of architecture which it includes. Its entire length from E. to W. is 266 ft., the length of the transepts 130 ft., and the width of the nave and aisles 87 ft. Besides a large square central tower, there are two western towers. The cathedral was founded on the ruins of St Wilfrid's abbey about 680, but of this Saxon building nothing now lemains except the crypt, called St Wilfrid's Needle. The present building was begun by Archbishop Roger (1154-81), and to this Tran- sition period belong the transepts and portions of the choir. The western front and towers, fine specimens of Early English, were probably the work of Walter de Grey, archbishop of York (d. 1255), and about the close of the century the eastern portion of the choir was rebuilt in the Decorated style. The nave, portions of the central tower, and two bays of the choir are Perpendicular, having been rebuilt towards the close of the isth century. Earlier than the rest of the fabric (except the crypt) is part of the chapter-house and the vestry, adjoining the south side of the choir, and terminating eastward in an apse. This is pure Norman work, and there is a crypt of that period beneath, which was formerly filled with unburied bones. There are a number of monuments of historical and antiquarian interest. The diocese includes rather less than one-third of the parishes of Yorkshire, and also a small part of Lancashire. The bishop's palace, a modern building in Tudor style, is situated in extensive grounds about a mile from the town. In the vicinity is the domain of Studley Royal, the seat of the marquess of Ripon, which contains the celebrated ruins of Fountains Abbey (q.v.). The principal secular buildings are the town hall, the public rooms, and the mechanics' institution (1894) where technical and other classes are held. There are several old charities, including the hospital of St John the Baptist, founded in 1109 but modernized; the hospital of St Anne, founded probably in the reign of Henry VI. by an unknown benefactor; and the hospital of St Mary Magdalene for women. This last was founded by Thurstan, archbishop of York (1114-41), as a secular community, one of the special duties of which was to minister to lepers. In the i3th century a master and chaplain took the place of the lay brethren, and in 1334 a chantry was founded. The chapel remains, with its interesting Norman work, its low side-windows, said to have allowed the lepers to follow the services, and its pre-Reformation altar of stone, a rare example. There is a considerable trade in varnish, and the saddle-trees and other leather goods pro- duced here are in high repute. The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen, and 12 councillors. Area, 1809 acres. Ripon (In Rhypum, Ad Ripam) owed its origin to the mon- astery founded in the 7th century. A certain king, Alchfrith, is said to have given the site of the town to Eata, abbot of Melrose, to found a- monastery, but before it was completed Eata was deposed for refusing to celebrate Easter according to the Roman usage, and St Wilfrid was appointed the first abbot. Another version of the story, however, says that the land was given to St Wilfrid, who himself built the monastery. Ripon is said to have been made a royal borough by Alfred the Great, and King ^Ethelstan, after his victory at Brunanburh RIPON— RIPPERDA 365 in 937, is stated to have granted to the monastery sanctuary, freedom from toll and taxes, and the privilege of holding a court, although both charters attributed to him are known to be spurious. At the same time he is said to have given the manor to Wulfstan, archbishop of York. About 950 the monastery and town were destroyed by King Edred during his expedition against the Danes, but the monastery was rebuilt by the arch- bishops of York, and about the time of the Conquest was changed to a collegiate church. In 1318, when the Scots in- vaded England, Ripon only escaped being burnt a second time by the payment of 1000 marks. The custom of blowing the wakeman's horn every night at nine o'clock is said to have originated about A.D. 700. It was probably at first a means of calling the people together in case of a sudden invasion, but was afterwards a signal for setting the watch. A hom with a baldric and the motto " Except the Lord keep the city the watchman waketh but in vain " forms the mayor's badge. The archbishops of York as lords of the manor had various privileges in the town, among which were the right of holding a market and fair, and Archbishop John, being summoned in the reign of Henry I. to answer by what right he claimed these privileges, said that he held them by prescription and by the charter of King ^Ethelstan. Henry I. afterwards granted or confirmed to Archbishop Thomas a fair on the feast of St Wilfrid and four following days. The fairs and markets be- longed to the archbishops of York until they were transferred to the bishop of Ripon in 1837. In 1857 they were transferred to the ecclesiastical commissioners, from whom they were purchased by the corporation of Ripon in 1880. From before the Conquest until the incorporation charter of 1604 Ripon was governed by a wakeman and 12 elders, or aldermen, but in 1604 the title of wakeman was changed to mayor, and 12 aldermen and 24 common councilmen were appointed. The manufacture of cloth was at one time carried on in Ripon, but was almost lost in the i6th century when the town was visited by Leland. The making of spurs succeeded the cloth manu- facture and became so noted that the saying " as true as Ripon rowells " was a well-known proverb. This manufacture died out in the i8th century. Ripon was summoned to send two members to parliament in 1295, and occasionally from that time until 1328-29. The privilege was revived in 1553, after which the burgesses continued to send two members until 1867, when they were allowed only one. This latter privilege was taken away by the Redistribution Bill of 1885, and it now gives its name to one of the divisions of the county. See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; and W. Harrison, Ripon Millenary: a Record of the Festival and a History of the City, arranged under its Wakemen and Mayors from the year 1400 (1892). RIPON, a city of Fond du Lac county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., on Silver Creek, about 22 m. W. of Fond du Lac, and about 75 m. N.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890), 3358; (1900), 3818, of whom 885 were foreign-born; (1905), 3811; (1910), 3739- Ripon is served by the Chicago & North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways. The city has a Carnegie library, which also houses the library of the Ripon Historical Society, and is the seat of Ripon College (non- sectarian, co-educational), which was founded in 1850 as the Lyceum of Ripon, and was named Ripon College in 1864; in 1908 it had 23 instructors and 279 students. There are grain elevators and various manufactories, among the products of which are cheese and other creamery products, flour, knit goods, pickles and canned goods, woodenware, washing machines and gloves. The site of Ripon was purchased in 1838 by John Scott Horner (1802-1883), of Virginia, secretary and acting-governor of Michigan Territory in 1835, and the first secretary of Wis- consin Territory in 1836-37, who named the village when it was established in 1849 from the seat of his ancestors in Yorkshire. In May 1844 a settlement, named Ceresco or " the Wisconsin Phalanx," a Fourierist community,1 organized 'The charter, granted by the legislature in 1845, contained the following features: (i) property to be held in common; in Southport (now Kenosha), had been established in the vicinity. A " Long House," 400 ft. in length, was erected, which contained tenements, an amusement or lecture hall, and a dining-room where all ate at a common table, and where board was provided at cost, sometimes as low as sixty-three cents per week. The " class of usefulness " was divided into three groups, agricultural, mechanical and educational, with such subdivisions as necessity dictated, and an exact account of labour was kept. The community prospered materially from the start. In the second season it consisted of thirty families with property valued at $27,725; in 1846 there were 180 resident members, and the net profit for the year was $9029. Eventually differences of opinion arose as to the division of labour, and the common dining-hall did not prove popular. Rivalry developed with the village of Ripon, and the community gave up its charter at the close of 1850, dividing property valued at $40,000 among the share- holders. On the whole it was one of the most successful ex- periments in communism ever tried in America. In 1858 Ripon absorbed the village of Ceresco and was chartered as a city. At Ripon started one of the disconnected movements that resulted in the founding of the Republican party. See D. P. Mapes, History of Ripon (Milwaukee, Wis., 1873); Consul W. Butterfield, History of Fond du Lac County (1880) ; W. A. Hinds, American Communities and Co-operative Colonies (3rd ed., Chicago, 1908), and F. A. Flower, History of the Republican Parly (1884). RIPPERDA, JOHN WILLIAM, BARON, and afterwards duke of (1680-1737), political adventurer and Spanish minister, was a native of Groningen in the Netherlands. According to a story which he himself set going during his adventures in Spain, his family was of Spanish origin. But there does not appear to be any foundation for this assertion. The name was not uncommon in Groningen, and was borne by several persons of some note in the i6th and i7th centuries, one of whom was a follower of William the Silent. They were people of some position, possessing " lordships " at Jansinia, Poelgast, and other places, and some at least of them were Roman Catholics. John William, if he was, as he asserted, born a Roman Catholic, conformed to Dutch Calvinism in order to obtain his election as delegate to the states-general from Groningen. In 1715 he was sent by the Dutch government as ambassador to Madrid. Saint-Simon says that his char- acter for probity was even then considered doubtful. The fortune of Orry, Alberoni and other foreigners in Spain, showed that the court of Philip V. offered a career to adventurers. Ripperda — whose name is commonly spelt. Riperda by the Spaniards — devoted himself to the Spanish government, and professed himself a Roman Catholic. He first attached himself to Alberoni, and after the fall of that minister he became the agent of Elizabeth Farnese, the restless and intriguing wife of Philip V. Though perfectly unscrupulous in money matters, and of a singularly vain and blustering disposition, he did under- stand commercial questions, and he has the merit of having pointed out that the poverty of Spain was mainly due to the neglect of its agriculture. But his fortune was not due to any service of a useful kind he rendered his masters. He rose by undertaking to aid the queen, whose influence over her husband was boundless, in her schemes for securing the succession to Parma, Plasencia and Tuscany for her sons. Ripperda was sent as special envoy to Vienna in 1725. He behaved with ridiculous' violence, but the Austrian government, which was under the influence of its own fixed idea, treated him seriously. The result of ten months of very strange diplomacy was a treaty by which the emperor promised very little, but and shares to be sold at $25; (2) land to be limited to 40 acres for each member of the corporation; (3) a unanimous vote of the managers necessary for admission; (4) an annual settlement of profits on the basis of one-quarter credit to dividend on stock, and three-quarters credit to labour; (5) free public schools, capital paying three-quarters and labour one-quarter of cost; and (6) complete religious toleration and no involuntary • taxation for church support. 366 RISHANGER— RISTITCH Spain was bound to pay heavy subsidies, which its exhausted treasury was quite unable to afford. The emperor hoped to obtain money. Elizabeth Farnese hoped to secure the Italian duchies for her sons, and some vague stipulations were made that Charles VI. should give his aid for the recovery by Spain of Gibraltar and Minorca. When Ripperda returned to Madrid at the close of 1725 he asserted that the emperor expected him to be made prime minister. The Spanish sovereigns, who were overawed by this quite unfounded assertion, allowed him to grasp the most important posts under the crown. He excited the violent hostility of the Spaniards, and entered into a complication of intrigues with the French and English governments. His career was short. In 1726 the Austrian envoy, who had vainly pressed for the payment of the promised subsidies, came to an explanation with the Spanish sovereigns. It was discovered that Ripperda had not only made promises that he was not authorized to make, but had misappropriated large sums of money. The sovereigns who had made him duke and grandee shrank from covering themselves with ridicule by revealing the way in which they had been deceived. Ripperda was dismissed with the promise of a pension. Being in terror of the hatred of the Spaniards, he took refuge in the English embassy. To secure the favour of the English envoy, Colonel William Stanhope, afterwards Lord Harrington, he betrayed the secrets of his government. Stanhope could not protect him, and he was sent as a prisoner to the castle of Segovia. In 1728 he escaped, probably with the connivance of the govern- ment, and made his way to Holland. His last years are obscure. It is said that he reverted to Protestantism, and then went to Morocco, where he became a Mahommedan and commanded the Moors in an unsuccessful attack on Cejuta. But this story is founded on his so-called Memoirs, which are in fact a Grub- street tale of adventure published at Amsterdam in 1740. All that is really known is that he did go to Morocco, and that he died at Tetuan in 1737. See Arnold Ritter von Arneth, Prinz Eugen von Savoyen (Vienna, 1864), for the negotiations of 1725, and Gabriel Syveton, Une Cour et un aventurier au XVIII' siecle (Paris, 1896). His Memoirs were translated into English by J. Campbell, London, I750- RISHANGER, WILLIAM (c. 1250-0. 1312), English chronicler, made his profession as a Benedictine at St Alban's abbey in 1271, of which he perhaps became the official chronicler. The most important of his writings is the Narratio de bellis apud Lewes et Evesham. Though written many years afterwards and drawn from other sources, it is a spirited account of the barons' war. He ,is so great an admirer of Simon de Montfort that this work has been called a hagiography. He is credited with the authorship of a chronicle covering the period 1250- 1306; this has been disputed, but the work is printed under his name by Riley. Another work of his, of not much im- portance, is a chronicle entitled Recapilulalis brevis de gestis domini Edwardi, &c. He is probably not the author of other works commonly attributed to him. AUTHORITIES. — Wilhelmi Rishanger chronica et annales, Rolls Series, Introduction ed. H. T. Riley; the Narratio de bellis apud Lewes et Evesham, ed. J. O. Halliwell, Camden Society, 1840. RISK, hazard, chance of danger or loss, especially the chance of loss to property or goods which an insurance company undertakes to make good to the insurer in return for the re- current payment of a sum called the premium (see INSURANCE). The word appears late in English, and in the I7th century in the Fr. form risque or It. risco or risgo, for risico, risigo; cf. Sp. riesgo. The Med. Lat. riscus, rischium, and risicum are found, according to Du Cange (Gloss., qq.v.), as early as the I3th century. Skeat (Etym. Diet., 1910) accepts Diez's sugges- tion that the word is originally a sailor's term, and is to be referred to Sp. risco, a steep rock, from Lat. resecare, to cut back, shut off; thus Sp. arriesgar, to run into danger, means literally " to go against a rock." RIST, JOHANN VON (1607-1667), German poet, was born at Ottensen in Holstein on the 8th of March 1607; the son of the Lutheran pastor of that place. He received his early training in Hamburg and Bremen; after studying theology at Rinteln and Rostock, he became in 1633 private tutor in a family of Heide, and two years later (1635) was appointed pastor of the village of Wedel on the Elbe, where he laboured until his death on the 3ist of August 1667. Rist first made his name known to the literary world by a drama, Perseus (1634), which he wrote while at Heide, and in the next succeeding years he produced a number of dramatic works of which the allegory Das friedewiinschende TeutsMand (1647) and Das friedejauchzends Teutschland (1653) (new ed. of both by H. M. Schletterer, 1864) are the most interesting. Rist soon became the central figure in a school of minor poets, and honours were showered upon him from every side. The emperor Ferdinand III. crowned him laureate in 1644, ennobled him in 1653, and invested him with the dignity of a Count Palatine, an honour which enabled him to crown, and to gain numerous poets for the Elbschwanen order, a literary and poetical society which he founded in 1656. He had already, in 1645, been admitted, under the name " Daphnis aus Cimbrien," to the literary order of Pegnitz, and in 1647 he became, as " Der Rustige," a member of the Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft. It is, however, as a writer of church hymns (see HYMNS) that Rist is best known to fame. Among these several are still retained in the evangelical hymn book: e.g. O Eivigkeit, du Donnerwort and Ermunt're dich, mein schwacher Geist. Collections of his poems appeared under the titles Musa Teutonica (1634) and Himmlische Lieder (1643)- Selections of Rist's writings have been published by W. Miiller in vol. viii. of his Bibliothek deutscher Dichter des 17. Jahrh. (1822- 1838), and by K. Goedeke and E. Goeze (1885). See T. Hansen, Johann Rist und seine Zeit (1872); K. T. Gaedertz, J. Rist als niederdeutscher Dramatiker (Jahrb.f. niederdeutsche Sprache, vol. vii., 1881); and M. von Waldberg's article in the Allg. deutsche Bio- graphie. RISTITCH (or RISTICH), JOVAN (1831-1899), Servian states- man, was born at Kragugevats in 1831. He was educated at Belgrade, Heidelberg, Berlin and Paris. After failing to obtain a professorship in the high school of Belgrade, he was appointed in 1861 Servian diplomatic agent at Constantinople. His reputation was enhanced by the series of negotiations which ended in the withdrawal of the Turkish troops from the Servian fortresses in 1867. On his return from Constanti- nople he was offered a ministerial post by Prince Michael, who described him as " his right arm," but declined office, being opposed to the reactionary methods adopted by the prince's government. He had already become the recognized leader of the Liberal party. After the assassination of Prince Michael in 1868, he was nominated member of the council of regency, and on the 2nd January 1869 the first Servian con- stitution, which was mainly his creation, was promulgated. When Prince Milan attained his majority in 1872, Ristitch became foreign minister; a few months later he was appointed prime minister, but resigned in the following autumn (1873). He again became prime minister in April 1876, and conducted the two wars against Turkey (July i87O-March 1877 and December i877-March 1878). At the congress of Berlin he laboured with some success to obtain greater advantages for Servia than had been accorded to her by the treaty of San Stefano. The provisions of the treaty of Berlin, however, disappointed the Servians, owing to the obstacles now raised to the realization of the national programme; the Ristitch government became unpopular, and resigned in 1880. In 1887 King Milan (who had assumed the royal title in 1882), alarmed at the threatening attitude of the Radical party, recalled Ristitch to power at the bead of a coalition cabinet; a new constitution xwas granted in 1888, and in the following year the king abdicated in favour of his son, Prince Alexander. Ristitch now became head of a council of regency, entrusted with power during the minority of the young king, and a Radical ministry was formed. In 1892, however, Ristitch transferred the government to the Liberal party, with which he had always been connected. This step and the subsequent RISTORI— RITSCHL, A. 367 conduct of the Liberal politicians caused serious discontent in the country. On the ist (i3th) of April 1893 King Alexander, by a successful stratagem, imprisoned the regents and ministers in the palace, and, declaring himself of age, recalled the Radicals to office. Ristitch now retired into private life. He died at Belgrade on 4th September 1899. Though cautious and deliberate by temperament, he was a man of strong will and firm character. He was the author of two published works: The External Relations of Servia from 1848 to 1867 (Belgrade, 1887) and A Diplomatic History of Servia (Belgrade, 1896). 0- D. B.) RISTORI, ADELAIDE (1822-1906), Italian actress, was born at Cividale del Friuli on the 3oth of January 1822, the daughter of strolling players. As a child she appeared upon the stage, and at fourteen made her first success as Francesca da Rimini in Silvio Pellico's tragedy. She was eighteen when for the first time she played Mary Stuart in an Italian version of Schiller's play. She had been a member of the Sardinian company and also of the Ducal company at Parma for some years before her marriage (1846) to the marchese Giuliano Capranica del Grille (d. 1861); and after a short retirement she returned to the stage and played regularly in Turin and the provinces. It was not until 1855 that she paid her first professional visit to Paris, where the part of Francesca was chosen for her debut. In this she was rather coldly received, but she took Paris by storm in the title r61e of Alfieri's Myrrha. Furious partisanship was aroused by the appearance of a rival to the great Rachel. Paris was divided into two camps of opinion. Humble playgoers fought at gallery doors over the merits of their respective favourites. The two famous women never actually met, but the French actress seems to have been convinced that Ristori had no feelings towards her but those of admiration and respect. A tour in other countries was followed (1856) by a fresh visit to Paris, when Ristori appeared in Montanelli's Italian translation of Legouve's Medea. She repeated her success in this in London. In 1857 she visited Madrid, playing in Spanish to enthusiastic audiences, and in 1866 she paid the first of four visits to the United States, where she won much applause, particularly in Giacometti's Elizabeth, an Italian study of the English sovereign. She finally retired from professional life in 1885, and died on the gth of October 1906 in Rome. She left a son, the marchese Georgio Capranica del Grillo. Her Studies and Memoirs (1888) provide a lively account of an interesting career, and are particularly valuable for the chapters devoted to the psychological explanation of the characters of Mary Stuart, Elizabeth, Myrrha, Phaedra and Lady Macbeth, in her interpretation of which Ristori com- bined high dramatic instinct with the keenest and most critical intellectual study. See also Kate Field, Adelaide Ristori: A Biography (New York, 1867) ; E. Peron Kingston, Adelaide Ristori: A Sketch of her Life (1856); Daily Telegraph (London, Oct. 10, 1906). RITCHIE, CHARLES THOMSON RITCHIE, IST BARON (1838-1906), English politician, was born at Dundee, and educated at the City of London school. He went into business, and in 1874 was returned to parliament as Conservative member for the Tower Hamlets. In 1885 he was made secretary to the Admiralty, and from 1886 to 1892 president of the Local Govern- ment Board, in Lord Salisbury's administration, sitting as member for St George's in the East. He was responsible for the Local Government Act of 1888, instituting the county councils; and a large section of the Conservative party always owed him a grudge for having originated the London County Council. In Lord Salisbury's later ministries, as member for Croydon, he was president of the Board of Trade (1895-1900), and home secretary (1895-1900); and when Sir Michael Hicks-Beach retired in 1902, he became chancellor of the exchequer in Mr Balfour's cabinet. Though in his earlier years he had been a " fair-trader," he was strongly opposed to Mr Chamberlain's movement for a pre- ferential tariff (see the articles on BALFOUR, A. J., and CHAMBER- LAIN, J.), and he resigned office in September 1903. In December 1905 he was created a peer, but he was in ill-health, and he died at Biarritz on the 9th of January 1906. RITCHIE, DAVID GEORGE (1853-1903), Scottish philosopher, was born at Jedburgh, son of the Rev. George Ritchie, D.D. He had a distinguished university career at Edinburgh, and Balliol College, Oxford, and after being fellow of Jesus and tutor of Balliol was elected professor of logic and metaphysics at St Andrews. He was president of the Aristotelian Society in 1898. Among his works are: Darwinism and Politics (1889); Prin- ciples of Stale Interference (1891); Darwin and Hegel (1893); Natural Rights (1895); a translation with R. Lodge and P. E. Matheson of Bluntschli's Theory of the State (1885) ; many articles in Mind, Philosophical Review, &c. His Philosophical Studies was edited with a memoir by R. Latta (1005). RITSCHL, ALBRECHT (1822-1889), German theologian, was born at Berlin on the 25th of March 1822. His father, Georg Karl Benjamin Ritschl (1783-1858), became in 1810 pastor at the church of St Mary in Berlin, and from 1827 to 1854 was general superintendent and evangelical bishop of Pomerania. Albrecht Ritschl studied at Bonn, Halle, Heidelberg and Tubingen. At Halle he came under Hegelian influences through the teaching of Julius Schaller (1810-1868) and J. H. Erdmann (b. 1805). In 1845 he was entirely captivated by the Tubingen school, and in his work Das Evangelium Marcions und das kanonische Evangelium des Lukas, published in 1846, he appears as a disciple of F. C. Baur. This did not last long with him, however, for the second edition (1857) of his most important work, on the origin of the old Catholic Church (Die Entstehung der alt-kathol. Kirche), shows considerable divergence from the first edition (1850), and reveals an entire emancipation from F. C. Baur's method. Ritschl was professor of theology at Bonn (extraordinarius 1852; ordinarius 1859) and Gottingen (1864; Consistorialrath also in 1874), his addresses on religion delivered at the latter university snowing the impression made upon his mind by his enthusiastic studies of Kant and Schleier- macher. Finally, in 1864, came the influence of Rudolf Lotze. He wrote a large work on the Christian doctrine of justification and atonement, Die Christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Versohnung, published during the years 1870-74, and in 1880-86 a history of pietism (Die Geschichte des Pietismus). His system of theology is contained in the former. He died at Gottingen on the 2oth of March 1889. His son, OTTO RITSCHL (b. 1860), after studying at Gottingen, Bonn and Giessen, became professor at Kiel (extraordinarius) in 1889 and afterwards at Bonn (extraordinarius 1894; or- dinarius 1897). He has published, amongst other works, Schleiermachers Stellung zum Christentum in seinen Reden iiber die Religion (1888), and a Life of his father (2 vols., 1820-96). Ritschl claims to carry on the work of Luther and Schleier- macher, especially in ridding faith of the tyranny of scholastic philosophy. His system shows the influence of Kant's destruc- tive criticism of the claims of Pure Reason, recognition of the value of morally conditioned knowledge, and doctrine of the kingdom of ends; of Schleiermacher's historical treatment of Christianity, regulative use of the idea of religious fellowship, emphasis on the importance of religious feeling; and of Lotze's theory of knowledge and treatment of personality. Ritschl's work made a profound impression on German thought and gave a new confidence to German theology, while at the same time it provoked a storm of hostile criticism: his school has grown with remarkable rapidity. This is perhaps mainly due to the bold religious positivism with which he assumes that spiritual experience is real and that faith has not only a legiti- mate but even a paramount claim to provide the highest inter- pretation of the world. The life of trust in God is a fact, not so much to be explained as to explain everything else. Ritschl's standpoint is not that of the individual subject. The objective ground on which he bases his system is the religious experi- ence of the Christian community. The " immediate object of theological knowledge is the faith of the community," and from this positive religious datum theology constructs a " total view of the world and human life." Thus the essence of Ritschl's work is systematic theology. Nor does he painfully work up to his master-category, for it is given in the knowledge 368 RITSCHL, F. W. of Jesus Christ revealed to the community. That God is love and that the purpose of His love is the moral organization of humanity in the " Kingdom of God " — this idea, with its immense range of application — is applied in Ritschl's initial datum. From this vantage-ground Ritschl criticizes the use of Aristotel- ianism and speculative philosophy in scholastic and Protestant theology. He holds that such philosophy is too shallow for theology. Hegelianism attempts to squeeze all life into the categories of logic: Aristotelianism deals with " things in general " and ignores the radical distinction between nature and spirit. Neither Hegel- ianism nor Aristotelianism is " vital " enough to sound the depths of religious life. Neither conceives " God " as correlative to human " trust " (cf. Theologie und Metaphysik, esp. p. 8 seq.). But Ritschl's recoil carries him so far that he is left alone with merely " practical " experience. " Faith " knows God in His active relation to the " kingdom," but not at all as " self-existent." His limitation of theological knowledge to the bounds of human need might, if logically pressed, run perilously near phenomenalism ; and his epistemology ( we only know things in their activities ") does not cover this weakness. In seeking ultimate reality in the circle of " active conscious sensation," he rules out all " meta- physic." Indeed, much that is part of normal Christian faith — e.g. the Eternity of the Son — is passed over as beyond the range of his method. Ritschl's theory of "value-judgments" (Werthur- theile) illustrates this form of agnosticism. Religious judgments of value determine objects according to their bearing on our moral and spiritual welfare. They imply a lively sense of radical human need. This sort of knowledge stands quite apart from that produced by " theoretic " and " disinterested " judgments. The former moves in a world of " values," and judges things as they are related to our " fundamental self-feeling. ' The latter moves in a world of cause and effect. (N.B. Ritschl appears to confine Metaphysic to the category of Causality.) The theory as formulated has such grave ambiguities, that his theology, which, as we have seen, is wholly based on uncompromising religious realism, has actually been charged with individualistic subjectivism. If Ritschl had clearly shown that judgments of value enfold and transform other types of knowledge, just as the " spiritual man " includes and trans- figures but does not annihilate the " natural man," then within the compass of this spiritually conditioned knowledge all other know- ledge would be seen to have a function and a home. The theory of value-judgments is part too of his ultra-practical tendency: both " metaphysic " and " mysticism " are ruthlessly condemned. Faith-knowledge appears to be wrenched from its bearings and sus- pended in mid-ocean. Perhaps if he had lived to see the progress of will-psychology he might have welcomed the hope of a more spiritual philosophy. A few instances will illustrate Ritschl's positive systematic theo- logy. The conception of God as Father is given to the community in Revelation. He must be regarded in His active relationship to the " kingdom," as spiritual personality revealed in spiritual pur- posiveness. His " Love " is His will as directed towards the realiza- tion of His purpose in the kingdom. His " Righteousness " is His fidelity to this purpose. With God as " First Cause " or " Moral Legislator" theology has no concern; nor is it interested in the " speculative " problems indicated by the traditional doctrine of the Trinity. " Natural theology " has no value save where it leans on faith. Again, Christ has for the religious life of the community the unique value of Founder and Redeemer. He is the perfect Revelation of God and the Exemplar of true religion. His work in founding the kingdom was a personal vocation, the spirit of which He communicates to believers, " thus, as exalted king," sustaining the life of His Kingdom. His Resurrection is a necessary part of Christian belief (G. Ecke, pp. 198-99). "Divinity" is a predi- cate applied by faith to Jesus in His founding and redeeming activity. We note here that though Ritschl gives Jesus a unique and unapproachable position in His active relation to the kingdom, he declines to rise above this relative teaching. The " Two Nature " problem and the eternal relation of the Son to the Father have no bearing on experience, and therefore stand outside the range of theology. Once more, in the doctrine of sin and redemption, the governing idea is God's fatherly purpose for His family. Sin is the contra- diction of that purpose, and guilt is alienation from the family. Redemption, justification, regeneration, adoption, forgiveness, reconciliation all mean the same thing— the restoration of the broken family relationship. All depends on the Mediation of Christ, who maintained the filial relationship even to His death, and communicates it to the brotherhood of believers. Everything is defined _ by the idea of the family. The whole apparatus of " forensic " ideas (law, punishment, satisfaction, &c.) is summarily rejected as foreign to God's purpose of love. Ritschl is so faithful to the standpoint of the religious community, that he has nothing definite to say on many inevitable questions, such as the relation of God to pagan races. His school, in which J. G. W. Herrmann, Julius Kaftan and Adolf Harnack are the chief names, diverges from his teaching in many directions; e.g. Kaftan appreciates the mystical side of religion, Harnack's criticism is very different from Ritschl's arbitrary exegesis. They are united on the value of faith- knowledge as opposed to " metaphysic." See A. Ritschl, Die Christliche Lehre von der Rechtfertigung und Versohnung (3rd ed., 1889) ; Unterricht in der Christltchen Lehre (very many editions) ; and Theologie und Metaphysik (2nd ed., 1887), give his main position. Many historical and other works besides. — E. Bertrand, Une nouvelle conception de la redemp- tion. La Doctrine de la justification el de la reconciliation dam le systeme de Ritschl (1891); H. Schoen, Les Origines historiques de la theologie de Ritschl (1893); G. Ecke, Die theologische Schule, A. Ritschl's und die evangelische Kirche der Gegenwart (1897); James Orr, The Ritschlian Theology and the Evangelical Faith (London, 1898); and A. E. Garvie, The Ritschlian Theology (Edinburgh, 1899), in both of which the bibliography of the movement is given. Cf. Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology in Germany since Kant (1890). The German literature on the subject is very large; see article in Herzog-Hauck, vol. xvii. RITSCHL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1806-1876), German scholar, was born in 1806 in Thuringia. His family, in which culture and poverty were hereditary, were Protestants who had migrated several generations earlier from Bohemia. Ritschl was fortunate in his school training, at a time when the great reform in the higher schools of Prussia had not yet been thoroughly carried out. His chief teacher, Spitzner, a pupil of Gottfried Hermann, divined the boy's genius and allowed it free growth, applying only so much either of stimulus or of restraint as was absolutely needful. After a wasted year at the university of Leipzig, where Hermann stood at the zenith of his fame, Ritschl passed in 1826 to Halle. Here he came under the powerful influence of Reisig, a young " Her- mannianer " with exceptional talent, a fascinating personality and a rare gift for instilling into his pupils his own ardour for classical study. The great controversy between the " Realists " and the " Verbalists " was then at its height, and Ritschl naturally sided with Hermann against Boeckh. The early death of Reisig in 1828 did not sever Ritschl from Halle, where he began his professorial career with a great reputation and brilliant success, but soon hearers fell away, and the pinch of poverty compelled his removal to Breslau, where he reached the rank of " ordinary " professor in 1834, and held other offices. The great event of Ritschl's life was a sojourn of nearly a year in Italy (1836-37), spent in libraries and museums, and more particularly in the laborious examination of the Ambrosian palimpsest of Plautus at Milan. The remainder of his life was largely occupied in working out the material then gathered and the ideas then conceived. Bonn, whither he removed on his marriage in 1839, and where he remained for twenty-six years, was the great scene of his activity both as scholar and as teacher. The philological seminary which he controlled, although nominally only joint-director with Welcker, became a veritable officina litterarum, a kind of Isocratean school of classical study; in it were trained many of the fore- most scholars of the last forty years. The names of Georg Curtius, Ihne, Schleicher, Bernays, Ribbeck, Lorenz, Vahlen, Hiibner, Biicheler, Helbig, Benndorf, Riese, Windisch, who were his pupils either at Bonn or at Leipzig, attest his fame and power as a teacher. In 1854 Otto Jahn took the place of the venerable Welcker at Bonn, and after a time succeeded in dividing with Ritschl the empire over the philological school there. The two had been friends, but after gradual estrange- ment a violent dispute arose between them in 1865, which for many months divided into two hostile forces the universities and the press of Germany. Both sides were steeped in fault, but Ritschl undoubtedly received harsh treatment from the Prussian government, and pressed his resignation. He ac- cepted a call to Leipzig, where he died in harness in 1876. Ritschl's character was strongly marked. The spirited element in him was^powerful, and to some at times he seemed overbearing, but his nature was noble at the core; and, though intolerant of inefficiency and stupidity, he never asserted his personal claims in any mean or petty way. He was warmly attached to family and friends, and yearned continually after sympathy, yet he established real intimacy with only a few. He had a great faculty for organization, as is shown by his RITSON— RITTER, H. 369 administration of the university library at Bonn, and by the eight years of labour which carried to success a work of infinite complexity, the famous Priscae Latinitatis Monumenla Epi- graphica (Bonn, 1862). This volume presents in admirable facsimile, with prefatory notices and indexes, the Latin in- scriptions from the earliest times to the end of the republic. It forms an introductory volume to the Berlin Corpus Inscrip- tionum Lalinarum, the excellence of which is largely due to the precept and example of Ritschl, though he had no hand in the later volumes. The results of Ritschl's life are mainly gathered up in a long series of monographs, for the most part of the highest finish, and rich in ideas which have leavened the scholarship of the time. As a scholar, Ritschl was of the lineage of Bentley, to whom he looked up, like Hermann, with fervent admiration. His best efforts were spent in studying the languages and literatures of Greece and Rome, rather than the life of the Greeks and Romans. He was sometimes, but most unjustly, charged with taking a narrow view of " Philologie." That he keenly ap- preciated the importance of ancient institutions and ancient art both his published papers and the records of his lectures amply testify. He devoted himself for the most part to the study of ancient poetry, and in particular of the early Latin drama. This formed the centre from which his investigations radiated. Starting from this he ranged over the whole remains of pre-Ciceronian Latin, and not only analysed but augmented the sources from which our knowledge of it must come. Before Ritschl the acquaintance of scholars with early Latin was so dim and restricted that it would perhaps be hardly an exaggeration to call him its real discoverer. To the world in general Ritschl was best known as a student of Plautus. He cleared away the accretions of ages, and by efforts of that real genius which goes hand in hand with labour, brought to light many of the true features of the original. It is infinitely to be regretted that Ritschl's results were never combined to form that monumental edition of Plautus of which he dreamed in his earlier life. Ritschl's examination of the Plautine MSS. was both laborious and brilliant, and greatly extended the knowledge of Plautus and of the ancient Latin drama. Of this, two striking examples may be cited. By the aid of the Ambrosian palimpsest he recovered the name T. Maccius Plautus, for the vulgate M. Accius, and proved it correct by strong extraneous arguments. On the margin of the Palatine MSS. the marks C and DV continually recur, and had been variously explained. Ritschl proved that they meant " Canticum " and " Diverbium," and hence showed that in the Roman comedy only the conversations in iambic senarii were not intended for the singing voice. Thus was brought into strong relief a fact without which there can be no true appreciation of Plautus, viz. that his plays were comic operas rather than comic dramas. In conjectural criticism Ritschl was inferior not only to his great predecessors but to some of his contemporaries. His imagination was in this field (but in this field only) hampered by erudition, and his judgment was unconsciously warped by the desire to find in his text illustrations of his discoveries. But still a fair proportion of his textual labours has stood the test of time, and he rendered immense service by his study of Plautine metres, a field in which little advance had been made since the time of Bentley. In this matter Ritschl was aided by an accomplishment rare (as he himself lamented) in Germany the art of writing Latin verse. In spite of the incompleteness, on many sides, of his work Ritschl must be assigned a place in the history of learning among a very select few. His studies are presented principally in his Opuscula collected partly before and partly since his death. The Trinummus (twice edited) was the only specimen of his contemplated edition of Plautus which he completed. The edition has been continued by some of his pupils — -Goetz, Loewe and others. The facts of Ritschl's life may be best learned from the elaborate biography by Otto Ribbeck (Leipzig, 1879). An interesting and discriminating estimate of Ritschl's work is that by Lucian Mueller (Berlin, 1877). (J. S. R.) RITSON, JOSEPH (1752-1803), English antiquary, was born at Stock ton-on-Tees, of a Westmorland yeoman family, on the 2nd of October 1752. He was educated for the law, and settled in London as a conveyancer when twenty-two. He devoted his spare time to literature, and in 1782 published au attack on Warton's History of English Poetry. The fierce and insulting tone of his Observations, in which Warton was treated as a showy pretender, and charged with cheating and lying to cover his ignorance, made a great sensation in literary circles. In nearly all the small points with which he dealt Ritson was in the right, and his corrections have since been adopted, but the unjustly bitter language of his criticisms roused great anger at the time, much, it would appear, to Rit son's delight. In 1783 Johnson and Steevens were assailed in the same bitter fashion as Warton for their text of Shakespeare. Bishop Percy was next subjected to a furious onslaught in the preface to a collection of Ancient Songs (printed 1787, dated 1700, published I7Q2). The only thing that can be said in extenuation of Ritson's unmatchable acrimony is that he spared no pains himself to ensure accuracy in the texts of old songs, ballads and metrical romances which he edited. His collection of the Robin Hood ballads is perhaps his greatest single achievement. Scott, who admired his industry and accuracy in spite of his temper, was almost the only man who could get on with him. On one occasion, when he called in Scott's absence, he spoke so rudely to Mrs Scott that Leyden, who was present, threatened to " thraw his -neck " and throw him out of the window. Spelling was one of his eccentricities, his own name being an example: Ritson is short pronunciation for Richardson. As early as 1796 Ritson showed signs of mental collapse, and on the icth of September 1803 he became completely insane, barricaded himself in his chambers at Gray's Inn, made a bonfire of manuscripts, and was finally forcibly removed to Hoxton, where he died on the 23rd of the month. RITTENHOUSE, DAVID (1732-1796), American astronomer, was born at Germantown, Pennsylvania, on the 8th of April 1732. First a watchmaker and mechanician he afterwards became treasurer of Pennsylvania (1777-89), and from 1792 to 1795 director of the U.S. mint (Philadelphia). He was largely occupied in 1763 and in 1779-86 in settling the boundaries of several of the states. He was a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and a member of the American Philosophical Society; and was elected president of the latter society in 1791. As an astronomer, Rittenhouse's principal merit is that he introduced in 1 786 the use of spider lines in the focus of a transit instrument. His priority with regard to this useful invention was acknow- ledged by E. Troughton, who brought spider lines into universal use in astronomical instruments (see von Zach's Monatliche Correspondenz, vol. ii. p. 215), but Felice Fontana (1730- 1805), professor of physics at the university of Pisa, and afterwards director of the museum at Florence, had already anticipated the invention in 1775, though no doubt this fact was unknown to Rittenhouse. His researches were published in the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society (1785- 1799). He died at Philadelphia on the 26th of June 1796. See Memoir (1813) by William Barton. RITTER, HEINRICH (1791-1869), German philosopher, was born at Zerbst on the 2ist of November 1791, and died at Gottingen on the 3rd of February 1869. He studied philosophy and theology at Gottingen and Berlin until 1815. In 1824 he became extraordinary professor of philosophy at Berlin, whence he was transferred to Kiel, where he occupied the chair of philosophy from 1833 to 1837. He then accepted a similar position at the university of Gottingen, where he remained till his death. His chief work was a history of philosophy (Geschichte der Philosophic) published in twelve volumes at Hamburg from 1829 to 1853. This book is the product of a wide and thorough knowledge of the subject aided by an impartial critical faculty, and its value is demonstrated by the 37° RITTER, K.— RITUAL fact that it has been translated into almost all the languages of Europe. He wrote also accounts of ancient schools of philosophy, the lonians, the Pythagoreans and the Megarians. Beside these important historical works, he published a large number of treatises of which the following may be mentioned: Versuch zur Verstandigung iiber die neuesle deutsche Philosophic zeit Kant (1853); Die christliche Philosophic bis auf die neuesten Zeiten (2 vols., 1858-59), a work which supplemented the Geschichte; Abriss der philosophischen Logik (1824); Ueber das Verhaltnis der Philosophic zum Leben (1835); Historia philosophiae Graeco-Romanae (in collaboration with Preller, 1838; 7th ed., 1888); Kleine philosophische Schriften (1839-40); System der Logik und Metaphysik (1856); Encyklopddie der philosophischen Wissenschaften (1862-64); Ernest Renan, uber die Naturwissenschaften und die Geschichte (1865); Ueber das Base und seine Folgen (1869). Of these latter, the one best known in England is the History of Greek and Roman Philosophy, which, by reason of the excellence of its arrangement and its judicious quotations and notes, is almost indispensable to the student of ancient philosophy. RITTER, KARL (1779-1859), German geographer, was born at Quedlinburg on the 7th of August 1779, and died in Berlin on the 28th of September 1859. His father, a physician, left his family in straitened circumstances, and Karl was received into the Schnepfenthal institution then just founded by Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (1744-1811) for the purpose of testing his educational theories. The Salzmann system was practically that of Rousseau; conformity to natural law and enlightenment were its watchwords; great attention was given to practical life; and the modern languages were carefully taught, to the complete exclusion of Latin and Greek. Ritter already showed geographical aptitude, and when his schooldays were drawing to a close his future course was determined by an introduction to Bethmann Hollweg, a banker in Frankfort. It was arranged that Ritter should become tutor to Hollweg's children, but that in the meantime he should attend the university at his patron's expense. His duties as tutor in the Hollweg family began at Frankfort in 1798 and continued for fifteen years. The years 1814-19, which he spent at Gottingen in order still to watch over the welfare of his pupils, were those in which he began to devote him- self exclusively to geographical inquiries. He had already travelled extensively in Europe when in 1817-18 he brought out his first masterpiece, Die Erdkunde im Verhaltnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte des Menschen (Berlin, 2 vols., 1817- 1818). In 1819 he became professor of history at Frankfort, and in 1820 professor extraordinarius of history at Berlin, where shortly afterwards he began also to lecture at the military college. He remained in this position till his death. The second edition of his Erdkunde (1822-58) was conceived on a much larger scale than the first, but he completed only the sections on Africa and the various countries of Asia. The service rendered to geography by Ritter was especially notable because he brought to his work a new conception of the subject. Geography was, to use his own expression, a kind of physiology and comparative anatomy of the earth: rivers, mountains, glaciers, &c., were so many distinct organs, each with its own appropriate functions; and, as his physical frame is the basis of the man, determinative to a large extent of his life, so the structure of each country is a leading element in the historic progress of the nation. Moreover, Ritter was a scientific compiler of the first rank. Among his minor works may be mentioned Vorhalle europaischer Volkergeschichten vor Herodot (Berlin, 1820); Die Stupas . . . an der indobaktrischen Konigsstrasse und die Kolosse von Bamiyan (1838); Einleitung zur allgemeinen vergleichenden Geographie (Berlin, 1852); " Bemerkungen iiber Veranschaulichungsmittel raumlicher Ver- haltnisse bei graphischen Darstellungen durch Form u. Zahl," in the Trans, of the Berlin Academy, 1828. After his death selec- tions from his lectures were published under the titles Geschichte der Erdkunde (1861), Allgemeine Erdkunde (1862), and Europa (1863). Several of his works (e.g. the " Palestine " volumes of his Erdkunde) were translated into English. " Karl Ritter " foundations were established in his memory at Berlin and Leipzig, for the furtherance of geographical study. See G. Kramer, Karl Ritter, ein Lebensbild (Halle, 1864 and 1870; 2nd ed., 1875) ; W. L. Gage, The Life of Karl Ritter (London, 1867) ; F. Marthe, " Was bedeutet Karl Ritter fiir die Geographie," in Zeitsch. derGes.f. Erdk. (Berlin, 1879). All Ritter' s works mentioned above were published at Berlin. RITUAL (from Lat. ritus, a custom, especially a religious rite or custom), a term of religion, which may be defined as the routine of worship. This is a " minimum definition "; " ritual " at least means so much, but may stand for more. Without some sort of ritual there could be no organized method in religious worship. Indeed, viewed in this aspect, ritual is to religion what habit is to life, and its rationale is similar, namely, that by bringing subordinate functions under an effort- less rule it permits undivided attention in regard to vital issues. This analogy — for it is safer to regard such applications of individual psychology to social phenomena as only analogies — may be carried a step further. Just as the main business of habit is to secure bodily equilibrium in order to allow free play to the mental life, so the chief task of routine in religion is to organize the activities necessary to its stability and con- tinuance as a social institution, in order that all available spontaneity and initiative may be directed into spiritual channels. Such organization will naturally affect far more than the forms of worship; but these at least, to judge from the past history of religion, cannot but submit extensively to its influence. The nature of religion, as the sociologist under- stands it, is bound up with its congregational character. In order that inter-subjective relations should be maintained between fellow-worshippers, the use of one or another set of conventional symbols is absolutely required; for example, an intelligible vocabulary of meet expressions, or (since this is, perhaps, not indispensable) at any rate sounds, sights, actions and so on, that have come by prescription to signify the common purpose of the religious society, and the means taken in common for the realization of that purpose. In this sense, the term " ritual," as meaning the prescribed ceremonial routine, is also extended to observances not strictly religious in character. But, whilst ritual at least represents routine, it tends, his- torically speaking, to have a far deeper significance for the religious consciousness. A recurrent feature of religion, which many students of its phenomena would even consider constant and typical, is the attribution of a more or less self-contained and automatic efficacy to the ritual procedure as such. Before proceeding to considerations of genesis, it will be convenient briefly to analyse the notion as it appears in the higher religions. Two constituent lines of thought may be distinguished. Firstly, there is the tendency to pass beyond the purely petitionary attitude which as such can imply no more than the desire, hope or expectation of divine favour, and to take for granted the consummation sought, a deity that answers, a grace and blessing that are communicated. Only when such accomplish- ment of its end is assumed can efficacy be held to attach to the act of worship. Secondly, there is the tendency to identify such a self-accomplishing act of worship with its objective expression in the ritual that for purposes of mutual under- standing makes the body of worshippers one. The Magical Element in Ritual. — Exactly similar tendencies — to impute efficacy, and to treat the ritual procedure as the source of that efficacy — are typically characteristic of magic, and their reappearance in religion can hardly be treated as a coincidence, seeing that magic and religion would appear to have much in common, at any rate during the earlier stages of their development. In magic a suggestion is made orally, or by dramatic action, or most often in both ways together, that is held ipso facto to bring about its own accomplishment. A certain conditionality attaches to the magical operation, inasmuch as each magician is subject to interference on the part of other magicians who may neutralize his spell by a RITUAL 371 counter spell of equal or greater power; nevertheless, the in- trinsic tone is that of a categorical assertion of binding force and efficacy. Again, in magic the self-realizing force is apt to seem to reside in the suggestional machinery rather than in the spiritual qualifications of the magician, though this is by no means invariably the case. On the whole, however, spells and ceremonies are wont to be regarded as an inheritable and transferable property containing efficacy in themselves. And what is true of magic is equally true of much of primitive, and even of relatively advanced, religion. Dr J. G. Frazer has pronounced the following to be marks of a primitive ritual: negatively, that there are no priests, no temples and no gods (though he holds that departmental, non-individual " spirits " are recognized) ; positively, that the rites are magical rather than propitiatory (The Golden Bough, and ed. ii. 191). If we leave it an open question whether, instead of " spirits," it would not be safer to speak of " powers " (to which not a soul-like nature, but simply a capacity for exercising magic, is attributed), this characterization may be accepted as apply- ing to many, if not to all, the rites of primitive religion. Thus the well-known totemic ceremonies of Central Australia afford a striking example of rites of a deeply religious import — in the sense that the purpose they embody is that of consecrating certain functions of the common life (see RELIGION) — yet almost wholly magical in form. They resolve themselves on analysis into (i) direct acts of magical suggestion, and (2) acts commemorative of the magical doings of mythical ancestors, the purport of which may be regarded as indirectly and con- structively magical, on the principle that in magic to mention a thing's origin is to control it, to recount another's wonder- working is to reproduce his power, and so on. It is to be noted, however, that other Australian rites are found, notably those that accompany initiation in the south-eastern region, over which anthropomorphic beings having enough individuality to rank as " gods " undoubtedly preside; but even here, though traces of propitiatory worship may be discernible (the evidence being scanty and conflicting), acts of pure magic are decidedly to the fore. And what is true of the most primitive and unreflective forms of cult remains true of more advanced types which have become relatively self-conscious. There is little or no felt opposition between processes imply- ing control and processes of a propitiatory character in the religion of the Pueblo Indians, which American ethnologists have been so successful in expounding, or, to mount to a still higher level, in the Vedic, Assyrian or Egyptian cults. The leading idea, we may even say, is that expressed so happily by a character in Kenan's Le Pretre de Nemi: " L'ordre du monde depend de 1'ordre des rites qu'on observe " (cf. A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion, 2nd ed. i. 251). As regards the most developed forms of religion, whilst the old procedure largely survives unchanged, its original intention is disowned by theologians, though it may be doubted if the popular mind is always strong enough to withstand the appeal of prima facie appearance. This proneness to impute efficacy to ritual is immensely reinforced by another social proclivity, more or less distinct in its ultimate nature, which causes the rite to rank as a divine ordinance or command. Naturally if the god manifests himself by means of certain forms, if he is reputed to have founded or revealed them, or if he has been known to evince displeasure at departures from them, there is strong reason to think that such forms are efficacious, and that in a sense of themselves, namely, by being what they are. At the sociological level of thought this divine sanction has to be treated as the echo of a social sanction which ratifies and protects religious custom. In early society the influence of what Walter Bagehot (in Physics and Politics, gth ed. p. 102) calls the " persecuting tendency " in enforcing custom is on the whole not markedly in evidence. The lact is that imitation in a homogeneous group produces such unanimity that, with the help of some education, notably the instruction given at the time of initiation, all non- conformity is nipped in the bud. Of the Central Australian ceremonies we read that they " had to be performed in precisely the same way in which they had been in the Alcheringa (lit. ' dream-time ' = age of mythical tribal ancestors). Everything was ruled by precedent; to change even the decoration of a per- former would have been an unheard-of thing; the reply, ' It was so in the Alcheringa,' was considered as perfectly satisfactory by way of explanation " (B. Spencer and F. Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia, 324). Here we perceive the social sanction of public opinion insensibly merging in a supernatural sanction. The tribe is a religious partnership with a divine past with which it would not willingly break. As Mr Lang well puts it, " Ritual is preserved because it preserves luck " (loc. cit.). Given an intrinsic sacredness, it is but a step to associate definite gods with the origin or purpose of a rite, whose interest it thereupon becomes to punish omissions or innovations by the removal of their blessing (which is little more than to say that the rite loses its efficacy), or by the active infliction of disaster on the com- munity. In the primitive society it is hard to point to any custom to which sacredness does not in some degree attach, but, naturally, the more important and solemn the usage, the more rigid the religious conservatism. Thus there are indications that in Australia, at the highly sacred ceremony of circumcision, the fire-stick was employed after stone implements were known; and we have an exact parallel at a higher level of culture, the stone implement serving for the same operation when iron is already in common use (Spencer and Gillen, ib. 401 : cf. E. B. Tylor, Early History of Mankind, 3rd ed. p. 217). The Interpretation of Ritual. — A valuable truth insisted on by the late W. Robertson Smith (Religion of the Semites, 17 sqq.) is that in primitive religion it is ritual that generates and sustains myth, and not the other way about. Sacred lore of course cannot be dispensed with; even Australian society, which has hardly reached the stage of having priests, needs its Oknirabata or " great instructor " (Spencer and Gillen, ib. 303) . The function of such an expert, however, is chiefly to hand on mere rules for the performance of religious acts. If his lore include sacred histories, it is largely, we may suspect, because the description and dramatization of the doings of divine persons enter into ritual as a means of magical control. Similarly, the sacred books of the religions of middle grade teem with minute prescrip- tions as to ritual, but are almost destitute of doctrine. Even in the highest religions, where orthodoxy is the main requirement, and ritual is held merely to symbolize dogma, there is a remark- able rigidity about the dogma that is doubtless in large part due to its association with ritual forms many of them bearing the most primeval stamp. As regards the symbolic interpretation of ritual, this is usually held not to be primitive; and it is doubtless true that an unreflective age is hardly aware of the difference between " outward sign " and " inward meaning," and thinks as it were by means of its eyes. Nevertheless, it is easier to define fetishism (a fetish " differing from an idol in that it is worshipped in its own character, not as the symbol, image or occasional residence of a deity," New English Dictionary, Oxford, 1901) than it is to bring such a fetishism home to any savage people, the West African negroes not excluded (cf . A. B . Ellis, The Tshi-speaking Peoples of the Cold Coast of W. Africa, 192). It is the magic power, virtue or grace residing in, and proceeding from, the material object — a power the communica- bility of which constitutes the whole working hypothesis of the magico-religious performance — that is valued in those cases where native opinion can be tested. Moreover, it must be remembered that in the act of magic a symbolic method is consciously pursued, as witness the very formulas employed: " As I burn this image, so may the man be consumed," or the even more explicit, " It is not wax I am scorching; it is the liver, heart and spleen of So-and-so that I scorch " (W. W. Skeat. Malay Magic, 570) ,where appearance and reality are distinguished in order to be mystically reunited. Now it is important to observe that from the symbol as embodying an imperative to the symbol as expressing an optative is a transition of meaning that involves no change of form whatever; and, much as theorists love to contrast the suggestional and the petitionary attitudes, 372 RITUAL it is doubtful if the savage does not move quite indifferently to and fro across the supposed frontier-line between magic and religion, interspersing " bluff " with blandishment, spell with genuine prayer. Meanwhile the particular meanings of the detailed acts composing a complicated piece of ritual soon tend to lose themselves in a general sense of the efficacy of the rite as a whole to bring blessing and avert evil. Nay, unintelligibility is so far from invalidating a sacred practice that it positively supports it by deepening the characteristic atmosphere of mystery. Even the higher religions show a lingering predilection for cabalistic formulas. Changes in Ritual. — Whilst ritual displays an extraordinary stability, its nature is of course not absolutely rigid; it grows, alters and decays. As regards its growth, there is hardly a known tribe without its elaborate body of magico-religious rites. In the exceptional instances where this feature is relatively absent (the Masai of E. Africa offer a case in point), we may suspect a disturbance of tradition due to migration or some similar cause. Thus there is always a pre-existing pattern in accordance with which such evolution or invention as occurs proceeds. Unconscious evolution is perhaps the more active factor in primitive times; imitation is never exact, and small variations amount in time to considerable changes. On the other hand, there is also deliberate innovation. In Australia councils of the older men are held day by day during the performance of their ceremonies, at which traditions are repeated and procedure determined, the effect being mainly to preserve custom but undoubtedly in part also to alter it. Moreover, the individual religious genius exercises no small influence. A man of a more original turn of mind than his fellows will claim to have had a new ceremony imparted to him in a vision, and such a ceremony will even be adopted by another tribe which has no notion of its meaning (Spencer and Gillen, ib. 272, 278, 281 n.). Meanwhile, since little is dropped whilst so much is being added, the result is an endless complication and elaboration of ritual. Side by side with elaboration goes systematization, more especially when local cults come to be merged in a wider unity. Thereupon assimilation is likely to take place to one or another leading type of rite — for instance, sacrifice or prayer. At these higher stages there is more need than ever for the expert in the shape of the priest, in whose hands ritual procedure becomes more and more of a conscious and studied discipline, the naive popular elements being steadily eliminated, or rather transformed. Not but what the trans- ference of ritualistic duties to a professional class is often the signal for slack and mechanical performance, with consequent decay of ceremonial. The trouble and worry of having to comply with the endless rules of a too complex system is apt to operate more widely — namely, in the religious society at large — and to produce an endless crop of evasions. Good examples of these on the part alike of priests and people are afforded by Toda religion, the degenerate condition of which is expressly attributed by Dr W. H. R. Rivers to " the over-development of the ritual aspect of religion" (The Todas, 454-55). It is interesting to observe that a religion thus atrophied tends to revert to purely magical practices, the use of the word of power, and so on (ib. ch. x.). It is to be noted, however, that what are known as ritual substitutions, though they lend themselves to purposes of evasion (as in the well-known case of the Chinese use of paper money at funerals), rest ultimately on a principle that is absolutely fundamental in magico-religious theory — namely, that what suggests a thing because it is like it or a part of it becomes that thing when the mystic power is there to carry the suggestion through. The Classification of Rites. — More than one basis of division has suggested itself. From the sociological point of view perhaps the most important distinction in use is that between public and private rites. Whilst the former essentially belong to religion as existing to further the common weal, the latter have from the earliest times an ambiguous character, and tend to split into those which are licit — " sacraments," as they may be termed — and those which are considered anti-social in tendency, and are consequently put beyond the pale of religion and assigned to the " black art " of magic. Or the sociologist may prefer to correlate rites with the forms of social organization — the tribe, the phratry, the clan, the family and so on. Another interesting contrast (seeing how primary a function of religion it is to establish a calendar of sacred seasons) is that between periodic and occasional rites — one that to a certain extent falls into line with the previous dichotomy. A less fruitful method of classing rites is that which arranges them according to their inner meaning. As we have seen, such meaning is usually acquired ex post facto, and typical forms of rite are used for many different purposes; so that attempts to differentiate are likely to beget more equivocations than they clear up. The fact is that comparative religion must be content to regard all its classifications alike as pieces of mere scaffolding serving temporary purposes of construction. Negative Rites. — A word must be added on a subject dealt with elsewhere (see TABOO, GENNA), but strictly germane to the matter in hand. What have the best, if not the sole, right to rank as taboos are ritual interdictions (see M. Mauss in L' Annie sociologique, ix. 249). Taboo, as understood in Polynesia, the home of the word, is as wide as, and no wider than, religion, representing one side or aspect of the sacred (see RELIGION). The very power that can help can also blast if approached improperly and without due precautions. Taboos are such precautions, abstinences prompted, not by simple dread or dislike, but always by some sort of respect as felt towards that which in other circumstances or in other form has healing virtue. Thus the negative attitude of the observer of taboo involves a positive attitude of reverence from which it becomes in practice scarcely distinguishable. To keep a fast, for instance, is looked upon as a direct act of worship. It must be noted, too, that, whereas taboo as at first conceived belongs to the magico-religious circle of ideas, implying a quasi-physical transference of sacredness from what has it to one not fit to receive it, it is very easily reinterpreted as an obligation imposed by the deity on his worshippers. The law observed by a primitive religious community abounds in negative precepts, and if early religion tends to be a religion of fear it is because the taboo-breaker provides the most palpable objective for human and divine sanctions. In the higher religions, to be pure remains amongst the most laudable of aspirations, and, even though the ceremonial aversion of a former age has be- come moralized, and a purity of heart set up as the ideal, it is on " virtues of omission " that stress is apt to be laid, so that a timorous propriety is too often preferred to a forceful grappling with the problems of life. There are signs, however, that the religious consciousness has at length come to appreciate the fact that the function of routine in religion as elsewhere is to clear the way for action. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — A comprehensive study of ritual as such from the comparative standpoint remains yet to be written. Some leading ideas on the subject are struck out by E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture' (1903), ch. 18; and A. Lang, Myth, Ritual and Religion2 (1899); whilst the whole of J. G. Frazer's vast collection of facts in The Golden Bough'' (1900) illustrates ritual, more especially on its magical side; see also W. Robertson Smith, Lectures on the Religion of the Semites (1889). A very valuable work of restricted range but embodying a method that might fruitfully be applied to the whole subject of ritual is H. Hubert and M. Mauss, " Essai sur la nature et sur la fonctipn du sacrifice" in L'Annee sociologique, ii.; in close connexion with the above should be studied S. Levi, La Doctrine du sacrifice dans les Brahmanas (1899); W. Caland and V. Henry, L'Agnistoma, description complete de la forme normale du sacrifice de Soma dans le culte vcdique (1906); see also H. Oldenberg, Die Religion des Veda (1894); A. Hillebrant, Ritual Litteratur: Vedische Opfer und Zauber (1896). Admirable descriptions of Australian ritual are to be found in B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, The Native Tribes of Central Australia (1899) and The Northern Tribes of Central Australia (1904). On North American rituals very excellent studies exist in A. C. Fletcher, "The Hako: A Pawnee Ceremony," in zznd Report of Bureau of American Ethnology; see also various papers by the same authoress in Peabody Reports; likewise in J. W. Fewkes, " Tusayan Katchinas," in Ifth Rep. of B. of A. Eth.; and id., " Hopi Katchinas," in 2ist Rep.; M. C. Stevenson, "_The Zuni Indians, in 2$rd Rep.; cf. F. H. Gushing, "Zuni Fetiches," in 2nd Rep. The following works pay special attention to ritual RITUAL MURDER— RIVE-DE-GIER 373 features: L. R. Farnell, The Cults of the Greek States (1896-1907); A. Moret, Le Rituel du culte divin journalier en Egypte (1902) ; A. de Marchi II culto private di Roma antica (1902). (R. R. M.) RITUAL MURDER, a general term for human sacrifice in connexion with religious ceremonies. False accusations as to the practice of ritual murder by Jews and Christians have often been made. " The Christians of the second and third centuries suffered severely under them " (Strack). Justin Martyr (150-160) in his Second Apology (ch. 12) vigorously defends the Christian community against this charge; Octavius, Minucius Felix, Tertullian, Origen and other Church Fathers all refer to the subject and indignantly repudiate the atrocious libel that the Eucharist involved human sacrifice. The myth was revived against the Montanists, and in the later middle ages against various sects of heretical Christians. In recent years the accusation has been again levelled against " foreigners " during the disturbances in China. The chief sufferers, however, from the charge were the Jews. The charge was never coherently defined, but a notion prevailed that at the Passover Christian blood was used in Jewish rites. For this belief there is no foundation whatever, as is proved in the classical treatise1 on the subject by Hermann L. Strack, Regius Professor of Theology at Berlin University. The first occasion on which the medieval Jews were accused of the murder of a Christian child was at Norwich in 1144. In the following century other instances of the charge occurred on the Con- tinent, and by this time (middle of the I3th century) the legend had grown into a belief that " the Jews of every province annually decide by lot " which congregation or town is to be the scene of the mythical murder. It is easy to understand how in ages when the Jews were everywhere regarded with superstitious awe, such stories to their detriment would find ready credence, but the revival of the myth in recent times by the anti-Semite is a deplorable instance of degeneration. It is only necessary here to refer to the Lincoln case (1255), the Trent case (1475) and more recently the Damascus case (1840), the Tisza-Eszlar affair (1882), the Xanten charge (1891) and the Polna case (1899). All of these charges— sometimes invented by malicious seceders from the Jewish fold — were followed by spoliation and tragic persecution of the Jews. On the other hand many Jewish proselytes to Christianity have strenuously defended the Jews from the charge, among them may be particularly named Prof. D. Chwolson (Blutan- klage, 1901). In 1840 a protest against the charge was signed by 58 Jewish-Christians, the list being headed by M. S. Alex- ander, Anglican bishop at Jerusalem. Further testimonies of a similar kind are collected in Strack (op. cit. p. 239). Many of the popes have issued bulls exonerating the Jews (cf. Strack, p. 250); similarly temporal princes have often taken a similar step (ibid. p. 260). Many Christian scholars and ecclesiastics have felt it their duty to utter protests in favour of the Jews. Among them have been the most eminent Christian students of Rabbinism of recent times, e.g. Professors Alexander McCaul, P. Lagarde, Franz Delitzsch, A. Merx, T. Noldeke, C. Siegfried, A. Wunsche, G. H. Dalman and J. von Dollinger. A careful examination of the evidence (with a complete acquittal of the Jews) is contained in a notable work by a Catholic priest, F. Frank, Der Rilualmord wr dem Gerichtshofen der Wahrheit und der Gerechtigkeit (1901, 1902). The literature on the other side is entirely antisemitic and in no instance has it survived the ordeal of criticism. The most notorious exponent of the charge was A. Rohling, the worthlessness of whose writings on the subject is exposed by (among many others) Strack (op. cit. pp. 155 seq.). A list of some of the most "important of the cases is given by J. Jacob in the Jewish Encyclopedia, iii. 266-67. (I. A.) RIVA, a fortified district town of Tirol, Austria, near the Italian frontier. Pop. (1900) 7550. It is a lake port anc steamship station at th,e northern extremity of the Lago d Garda. There are two forts on the Monte Brione a little over 1 Das Blut im Glauben und Aberglauben (Eng. trans., The Jew and Human Sacrifice, London, 1909). a mile north-east of the town, and the old castle of La Rocca was reconstructed and extended in accordance with modern requirements in 1850. The Minorite Church (1603), with altar pictures by Guido Reni and other Italian painters, is much frequented as a place of pilgrimage. In addition to its ransit trade and the entertainment of visitors, the principal resources of the town are the manufacture of paper, iron wares and pottery, the cultivation of the silk-worm and the olive ;ree, and a considerable commerce in timber, planks and coal. Riva is connected with the Ledro valley by a picturesque road which passes in a series of tunnels and galleries along the rocky and precipitous west shore of the lake. RIVAL, one who competes with another, one who strives :o out-do or excel another or to gain an object or end before or in preference to another. The Latin rivalis, which was !n classical Latin used of a competitor in love, meant by de- rivation one who used the same brook or stream (rivus) as another, hence a neighbour; thus in the Digest, xliii. 20, i. 26, " si inter rivales, id est qui per eundem rivum aquam ducunt, sit contentio de aquae usu." The term naturally applied more particularly to those who lived on opposite sides of a stream which would be a frequent subject of dispute as to rights. RIVAROL, ANTOINE DE (1753-1801), French writer and epigrammatist, was born at Bagnols in Languedoc on the 26th of June 1753, and died at Berlin on the nth of April 1801. It seems that his father was an innkeeper but a man of cultivated tastes. The son assumed the title of comte de Rivarol, and asserted his connexion with a noble Italian family, but his enemies said that the name was really Riverot, and that the family was not noble. After various vicissitudes he appeared in Paris in 17.77. After winning some academic prizes, Rivarol distinguished himself in the year 1784 by a treatise Sur I'universalite de la langite franfaise, and by a translation of the Inferno. The year before the Revolution broke out he, with some assistance from a man of similar but lesser talent, Champcenetz,2 compiled a lampoon, entitled Petit Almanack de nos grands hommes pour 1788, in which some writers of actual or future talent and a great many nobodies were ridiculed in the most pitiless manner. When the Revolution developed the importance of the press, Rivarol at once took up arms on the Royalist side, and wrote in the Journal politique of Antoine Sabatier de Castres (1742-1817) and the Actes des Apdtres of Jean Gabriel Peltier (1770-1825). But he emigrated in 1792, and established himself at Brussels, whence he removed successively to London, Hamburg and Berlin. Rivarol has had no rival in France except Piron in sharp conversational sayings. These were mostly ill-natured, and mostly have a merely local application. Their brilliancy, however, can escape no one. His brother, Claude Frangois (1762-1848), was also an author. His works include Isman, ou le fatalisme (1795), a novel; Le Veridique (1827), comedy; £550} sur les causes de la revolution }ran$aise (1827). The works of Antoine de Rivarol were published in five volumes (Paris, 1805); selections (Paris, 1858) with introductory matter by Sainte-Beuve and others, and that edited in 1862 (2nd ed., 1880) by M. de Lescure, may be specified. See also M. de Lescure's Rivarolet la societe franc.aise pendant la revolution el f emigration (1882), and Le Breton's Rivarol, sa vie, ses idfes (1895). RIVE-DE-GIER, a town of east-central France, in the department of Loire, 14 m. E.N.E. of St Etienne, on the railway to Lyons. Pop. (1906) 15,338. Situated on the Gier and the Canal de Givors, it is principally dependent on the coal industry, giving its name to a coal- basin which is a continuation of that of St Etienne. It has glass works, the products of which are celebrated on account of the fineness and purity of the sand found on the banks of 1 Louis Rene Quantin de Richebourg, Chevalier de Champcenetz (1760-1794), died on the scaffold. He is not to be confounded with Louis Pierre, marquis de Champcenetz, governor of the Tuilcries in 1789, who escaped in 1792 through the protection of Mme. Elliott, mistress of the due d'Orleans. 374 RIVER— RIVER ENGINEERING the Rhone and the Sa6ne. There are also iron and steel works where iron goods and ironmongery of all kinds are manufactured. Rive-de-Gier is a place of some antiquity, as appears from remains of Gallo-Roman buildings, and mosaics and coins found at various times. In the time of Henry IV. the working of the mines had already given to the locality a measure of importance. RIVER, any considerable stream of water flowing in a defined channel. The origin and subsequent formation of rivers and the valleys along which they flow are considered under GEOGRAPHY, § Principles of Geography, and GEOLOGY, § viii. The word " river " is an adaptation of the 0. Fr. rivere (mod. riviere), which descends through Med. Lat. rivera, Low. Lat. riparia, in the sense of river-bank and river, from ripa, bank. The Latin for a stream or river is rivus, whence rivulas, a small stream, Eng. " rivulet," which is, therefore, distinct in origin from " river," though probably the sense of rivus influenced the Med. Lat. rivera. The etymology of rivus and ripa is disputed; some scholars refer both to the root ri-, to drop, flow; others take ripa to be from the root seen hi Gr. epdirtiv, to tear, English " rive," the sense being a broken cliff or steep bank. RIVER BRETHREN, the name of a group of three Christian communities in the United States of America, descended from Swiss settlers near the Susquehanna river in Pennsylvania in 1750. The first pastor was Jacob Engle, who became head of the community in 1770. Their system is based on literal obedience to the commands of the New Testament, and they have points of similarity both with the Mennonites and with the Dunkards. They practise foot-washing and baptism by trine immersion; are strict Sabbatarians and simple in their manner of life. The three branches are: (i) The Brethren in Christ, who are the most, elaborately organized and are numerous in Ohio, Pennsylvania and Kansas; they have also formed churches in New York and in Canada, and missions in South Africa, India and Texas. In 1909 they had 174 ministers, and 65 churches with 3675 communicants. (2) The Old Order, or Yorker Brethren, consists of a small body which separated from the main body in 1843 and maintained more strictly the original practice. They are found specially in York county, Pennsylvania (whence the name " Yorkers "). In 1909 they had 24 ministers, 9 churches, and 423 com- municants. (3) The United Zion's Children date from 1853, when a small body left the parent communion on minor questions of administration. They had in 1909 22 ministers and 28 churches with 749 communicants, all in Pennsylvania. RIVER ENGINEERING. Before undertaking works for the improvement of rivers, either with the object of mitigating the effects of their inundations, or for increasing and extending their capabilities for navigation, it is most important that their physical characteristics should be investigated in each case, for these vary greatly in different rivers, being dependent upon the general configuration of the land, the nature of the surface strata and the climate of the country which the rivers traverse. Physical Characteristics of Rivers The size of rivers above any tidal limit and their average fresh- water discharge are proportionate to the extent of their basins, and the amount of rain which, falling over these basins, reaches the river channels in the bottom of the valleys, by which it is conveyed to the sea. River Basins. — The basin of a river is the expanse of country, bounded by a winding ridge of high ground, over which the rainfall flows down towards the river traversing the lowest part of the valley; whereas the rain falling on the outer slope of the encircling ridge flows away to another river draining an adjacent basin. River basins vary in extent according to the configura- tion of the country, ranging from the insignificant drainage-areas of streams rising on high ground very near the coast and flowing straight down into the sea, up to immense tracts of great con- tinents, when rivers, rising on the slopes of mountain ranges far inland, have to traverse vast stretches of valleys and plains before reaching the ocean. The size of the largest river basin of any country depends on the extent of the continent in which it is situated, its position in relation to the hilly regions in which rivers generally rise and the sea into which they flow, and the distance between the source and the outlet of the river drain- ing it. Great Britain, with its very limited area, cannot possess large river basins, its largest being that of the Thames with an area of 5244 sq. m. Even on the mainland of Europe, river basins augment in extent on proceeding eastwards with the increasing width of the continent; in France the largest basin is that of the Loire with an area of 45,000 sq. m., while the Rhine has a basin of 86,000 sq. m. with a length of 800 m., the Danube a basin of 312,000 sq. m. with a length of 1700 m., and the Volga a basin of 563,000 sq. m. with a length of 2000 m. The more extensive continents of Asia, Africa and North and South America possess still larger river basins, the Obi in Siberia having a basin of about 1,300,000 sq. m. and a length of 3200 m., the Nile a basin of 1,500,000 sq. m. with a length of over 4000 m., and the Missis- sippi, flowing from north to south, having a basin of 1,244,000 sq. m. with a length of 4200 m. The vast basin of the Amazon of 2,250,000 sq. m. is due to the chain of the Andes almost bordering the Pacific coast-line, so that the river rising on its eastern slopes has to traverse nearly the whole width of South America at its broadest part before reaching the Atlantic Ocean. Available Rainfall. — The rainfall varies considerably in different localities, both hi its total yearly amount and in its distribution throughout the year; also its volume fluctuates from year to year. Even in small river basins the variations in rainfall may be considerable according to differences in elevation or distance from the sea, ranging, for instance, in the Severn basin, with an area of only 4350 sq. m., from an average of under 30 in. in the year to over 80 in. The proportion, moreover, of the rain falling on a river basin which actually reaches the river, or the available rainfall in respect to its flow, depends very largely on the nature of the surface strata, the slope of the ground and the extent to which it is covered with vegetation, and varies greatly with the season of the year. The available rainfall has, indeed, been found to vary from 75% of the actual rainfall on impermeable, bare, sloping, rocky strata, down to about 15% on flat, very permeable soils. Fall of Rivers. — The rate of flow of rivers depends mainly upon their fall, though where two rivers of different sizes have the same fall, the larger river has the quicker flow, as its retardation by friction against its bed and banks is less in proportion to its volume than that of the smaller river. The fall of a river corre- sponds approximately to the slope of the country it traverses; and as rivers rise close to the highest part of their basins, gener- ally in hilly regions, their fall is rapid near their source and gradually diminishes, with occasional irregularities, till, in tra- versing plains along the latter part of their course, their fall usually becomes quite gentle. Accordingly, in large basins, rivers in most cases begin as torrents with a very variable flow, and end as gently flowing rivers with a comparatively regular discharge. Variations in the Discharge of Rivers. — The irregular flow of rivers throughout their course forms one of the main difficulties in devising works, either for mitigating inundations or for increasing the navigable capabilities of rivers. In tropical countries, subject to periodical rains, the rivers are in flood during the rainy season and have hardly any flow during the rest of the year; whilst in temperate regions, where the rainfall is more evenly distributed throughout the^year, evaporation causes the available rainfall to be much less in hot summer weather than in the winter months, eo that the rivers fall to their low stage in the summer and are very liable to be in flood in the winter. In fact, with a temperate climate, the year may be divided into a warm and a cold season, extending from May to October and from November to April respectively; the rivers are low and moderate floods are of rare occurrence during the first period, and the rivers are high and subject to occasional heavy floods after a RIVER ENGINEERING 375 considerable rainfall during the second period in most years. The only exceptions are rivers which have their sources amongst mountains clad with perpetual snow, and are fed by glaciers; their floods occur in the summer from the melting of the snows and ice, as exemplified by the Rhone above the Lake of Geneva, and the Arve which joins it below. But even these rivers are liable to have their flow modified by the influx of tributaries subject to different conditions, so that the Rhone below Lyons has a more uniform discharge than most rivers, as the summer floods of the Arve are counteracted to a great extent by the low stage of the Saone flowing into the Rhone at Lyons, which has its floods in the winter when the Arve on the contrary* is low. Transportation of Materials by Rivers. — Another serious ob- stacle encountered in the improvement of rivers consists in the large quantity of detritus brought down by them in flood-time, derived mainly from the disintegration of the surface-layers of the hills and slopes in the upper parts of the valleys by glaciers, frost and rain. The power of a current to transport materials varies with its velocity, so that torrents with a rapid fall near the sources of rivers can carry down rocks, boulders and large stones, which are by degrees ground by attrition in their onward course into shingle, gravel, sand and silt, simultaneously with the gradual reduction in fall, and, consequently, in the transporting force of the current. Accordingly, under ordinary conditions, most of the materials brought down from the high lands by the torrential water-courses are carried forward by the main river to the sea, or partially strewn over flat alluvial plains during floods; and the size of the materials forming the bed of the river or borne along by the stream is gradually reduced on proceeding seawards, so that in the Po, for instance, pebbles and gravel are found for about 140 m. below Turin, sand along the next 100 m., and silt and mud in the last no m. When, however, the fall is largely and abruptly reduced, as in the case of rivers emerging straight from mountainous slopes upon flat plains, deposit necessarily occurs, from the materials being either too large or too great in volume to be borne along by the enfeebled current ; and if the impeded river is unable to spread this detritus over the plains, its bed becomes raised by deposit, causing the river in flood-time to rise to a higher level. The materials, moreover, which are carried in suspension or rolled along the bed of the river to the sea, tend to deposit when the flow of the river slackens and is finally brought to rest on encountering the great inert mass of the sea, especially in the absence of a tide and any littoral current, and this is the cause of the formation of deltas with their shallow outlets, barring the approach to many large rivers. Influence of Lakes on Rivers. — Sometimes a peculiar depression along part of a valley, with a rocky barrier at its lower end, causes the formation of a lake in the course of the river flowing down the valley. The intervention of a lake makes the river, on entering at the upper end, deposit all the materials with which it is charged in the still waters of the lake; and it issues at the lower end as a perfectly clear stream, which has also a very regular discharge, as its floods, in flowing into the lake, are spread over a large surface, and so produce only a very slight raising of the level. This effect is illustrated by the river Rhone, which enters the Lake of Geneva as a very turbid, torrential, glacier stream, and emerges at Geneva as a sparkling, limpid river with a very uniform flow, though in this particular case the improvement is not long maintained, owing to the confluence a short distance below Geneva of the large, rapid, glacial river, the Arve. The influence of lakes on rivers is, indeed, wholly beneficial, in consequence of the removal of their burden of detritus and the regulation of their flow. Thus the Neva, conveying the outflow from Lake Ladoga to the Baltic, is relieved by the lake from the detritus brought down by the rivers flowing into the lake; and the Swine outlet channel of the Oder into the Baltic is freed from sediment by the river having to pass through the Stettiner Haff before reaching its mouth. The St Lawrence, again, deriving most of its supply from the chain of Great Lakes of North America, possesses a very uniform flow. River Channels. — The discharge of the rainfall erodes the beds of rivers along the lowest parts of the valleys; but floods occur too intermittently to form and maintain a channel large enough to contain the flow. A river channel, indeed, generally suffices approximately to carry off the average flow of the river, which, whilst comprising considerable fluctuations in volume, furnishes a sufficiently constant erosive action to maintain a fairly regular channel; though rivers having soft beds and carrying down sediment erode their beds during floods and deposit alluvium in dry weather. As the velocity of a stream increases with its fall, the size of a channel conveying a definite average flow varies inversely with the fall, and the depth inversely with the width. A river channel, accordingly, often presents considerable irregularities in section, forming shallow rapids when the river flows over a rocky barrier with a con- siderable fall, and consisting of a succession of pools and shoals when the bed varies in compactness and there are differences in width, or when the river flows round a succession of bends along opposite banks alternately. A river flowing through a flat alluvial plain has its current very readily deflected by any chance obstruction or by any difference in hardness of the banks, and generally follows a winding course, which tends to be intensified by the erosion of the concave banks in the bends from the current impinging against them in altering its direction round the curves. Some- times also a large river, bringing down a considerable amount of detritus, shifts its course from time to time, owing to the obstruction produced by banks of deposit, as exemplified by the Po in traversing the portion of the Lombardy plains between Casale and the confluence of the Ticino. Floods of Rivers. — The rise of rivers in flood-time depends not merely on the amount of the rainfall, but also on its dis- tribution and the nature of the strata on which it falls. The upper hilly part of a river basin consists generally of imperme- able strata, sometimes almost bare of vegetation; and the rain flowing quickly down the impervious, sloping ground into the water-courses and tributaries feeding the main river produces rapidly rising and high floods in these streams, which soon pass down on the cessation of the rain. The river Marne, draining an impermeable part of the Upper Seine basin, is subject to these sudden torrential floods in the cold season, as illustrated by a diagram of the variations in height of the river at St Dizier from November to March 1903-4 (fig. 2). On the contrary, rain falling on permeable strata takes longer in reaching the rivers; and the floods of these rivers rise more gradually, are less high, continue longer and subside more slowly than in rivers draining impervious Strata, as indicated by the diagram of the Little Seine at Nogent during the same period, which has a permeable basin (fig. i). A main river fed by several tributaries, some from impermeable and others from permeable strata, experiences floods of a mixed character, as shown by the diagram of the same floods in 1903-4 of the Seine at Paris, below the confluence of the torrential Marne and Yonne, where the floods of the gently flowing Upper Seine and other tributaries with permeable basins also contribute to the rise of the river (fig. 3). High floods are caused by a heavy rainfall on land already sodden by recent rains at a period of the year when evaporation is inactive, and especially by rain falling on melting snow. A fairly simultaneous rainfall over the greater part of a moderate- sized river basin is a tolerably common occurrence; and under such conditions, the floods coming from the torrential tri- butaries reach their maximum height and begin to subside before the floods from the gently flowing tributaries attain their greatest rise. Exceptional floods, accordingly, only occur in a main river when a heavy rainfall takes place at such periods over different parts of the basin that the floods of the various tributaries coincide approximately in attaining their maximum at certain points in the main river. Mitigation of Floods and Protection from Inundations. — As the size of the channel of a river is generally quite inadequate to carry down the discharge of floods, the river overflows its RIVER ENGINEERING banks in flood-time and inundates the adjacent low-lying lands to an extent depending upon the level of the ground and the HOf* OCCC.MKH . ilANUAHY. FCBRUARY. HAHCH. a Z3 30. S 10 15 20 2,3 31 S IO IS SO SS 3/. S IO IS SO S3 29. J to IS 20 2S 3i / l^=- In. - ^7 fO ns 7 -s orr V rn •— •. • — f 'f ,x- — ^, "»«» ;- ^ /• ~7 -— -> HOIf" DECEMBER. JANUARY. FEBRUARY. MARCH. --/ \- /fl in \ d w * ^ orr. me £ - /- - "\ \ - - — — - / \ "-~, \ — /-v. J v< *^*. — -. J MOV" DtCEMtER. JANUARY. FEBRUARY. MARCH. /SAT 10 s 0 0 T S 2 1. - In y i /ft ^ 0 2 Hi S J 7W . , •) I Cc O '2 rrn n< s- \ 5' i S J /SfZ 10 S / \ \ f\ \r- ^ •^ / r V V ~\ / "* — X. —s >\ J ^ Flood Diagrams, Seine basin, 1903-1904. FIG. i. — Little Seine at Nogent. FIG. 2. — Marne at St Dizier. FIG. 3. — Seine at Paris. volume and height of the flood. An enlargement of the bed of the river, principally by deepening it, in order to increase its discharging capacity sufficiently to prevent inundations, is precluded by the cost, and also, in rivers bringing down sediment, by the large deposit that would take place in the enlarged channel from the reduction in the velocity of the current when the flood begins to subside. Where, however, the depth of a tidal river has been considerably increased by dredging for the extension of its sea-going trade, the enlarge- ment of its channel and the lowering of its low-water line have greatly facilitated the passage of land floods from the river above for some distance up, and consequently reduced their height; for instance, the Glasgow quays along the deepened Clyde are no longer subject to inundation, and the lands and quays bordering the Tyne have been relieved from flooding for nearly 10 m. above Newcastle by the deepening of the river from Elswick to the sea (fig. 18). Sometimes works are carried out in a river valley for dim- inishing the height of floods by delaying the discharge of part of the rainfall into the main river; whilst others are designed to increase the discharging efficiency of the river channels. In certain cases, moreover, it is very important to restrict or to prevent the inundation of some riparian districts by embank- ments; and occasionally low-lying lands are so unfavourably situated that pumping has to be resorted to for the removal of their drainage waters. Works in River Valleys for diminishing Floods. — Rain falling on bare, impervious, hilly slopes rapidly flows into the nearest water-course, carrying with it any loose soil or disintegrated materials met with in its rush down the ravines, thereby in- tensifying the torrential character of the river, increasing the height of its floods and adding to the sediment obstructing its course to the sea. By encouraging the growth of vegetation and restricting its use for pasturage, and by planting trees on the mountain slopes, which have often been denuded of their natural covering by the reckless clearing of forests, the flow of the rain off the slopes is retarded; the soil, moreover, is bound together by the roots of the plants, and the surface strata are protected from disintegration by the covering of grass and leaves, so that the amount of detritus carried down into the river is greatly reduced. Proposals have sometimes been made to reduce the height of floods in rivers and restrict the resulting inundations by impounding some of the flood discharge by the construction of one or more dams across the upper valley of a river, and letting it out when the flood has passed down. This arrangement, however, is open to the objection that in the event of a second flood following rapidly on the first, there might not be time to empty the reservoir for its reception. The cost, moreover, of the formation of such reservoirs could rarely be justified merely far the purpose of reducing' the flood-level along an ordinary river valley. Nevertheless, when this provision against floods can be combined with the storage of water- supply for a town, it becomes financially practicable. Thus two masonry dams erected across the narrow valley of the river Furens, a torrential tributary of the Loire, form two reservoirs for the supply of the town of St Etienne, in which the water is kept down several feet below the full level in order to provide for the reception of the surplus flood-waters, and thereby protect St Etienne from inundation. Storage reservoirs also, formed solely for water-supply or irrigation, provided adequate compensation water is discharged from them during dry weather, are advantageous, like lakes, in regulating the flow of the river below. When a river flowing through flat plains has a very small fall, it requires a proportionately large channel to carry away the drainage waters of the valley; and, accordingly, the low- lying lands bordering the river are very subject to inundations if the rainfall over the higher ground is allowed to flow straight down into the bottom of the valley. By intercepting, how- ever, the flow off the high parts of the valley in small channels excavated along the slopes, termed " catch-water drains," the ample fall available from this higher elevation can be utilized for conveying the flow farther down the valley; and the congested river is thereby relieved for a certain part of its length from the rainfall over the higher ground. Methods of increasing the Discharging Efficiency of River Channels. — The discharging efficiency of a river within the limits of its bed depends on the fall and the cross-section of the channel. The only way of increasing the fall is to reduce the length of the channel by substituting straight cuts for a winding course. This involves some loss of capacity in the channel as a whole, and in the case of a large river with a considerable flow it is very difficult to maintain a straight cut, owing to the tendency of the current to erode the banks and form again a sinuous channel. Even if the cut is preserved by protecting the banks, it is liable to produce changes, shoals and a raising of the flood-level in the channel just below its termination. Never- theless, where the available fall is exceptionally small, as in lands originally reclaimed from the sea, such as the English fen districts, and where, in consequence, the drainage is in a great measure artificial, straight channels have been formed for the rivers; and on account of the importance of preserving these fertile, low-lying lands from inundation, additional straight channels have been provided for the discharge of the rainfall, known as drains in the fens. Except where a town is exposed to inundations, a considerable modification of the course of a river and an enlargement of its channel do not produce a reduction in the damage from its floods com- mensurate with the expenditure involved. The removal of obstructions, whether natural or artificial, from the bed of a river furnishes a simple and efficient means of increasing the discharging capacity of its channel, and, consequently, of lowering the height of floods; for every impediment to the flow, in proportion to its extent, raises the level of the river above it so as to produce the additional arti- ficial fall necessary to convey the flow through the restricted channel, thereby reducing the total available fall. Accidental obstructions, brought down by floods, such as trunks of trees, boulders and accumulations of gravel, require to be periodic- ally removed. In the absence of legal enactments for the RIVER ENGINEERING 377 conservancy of rivers, numerous obstructions have in many cases been placed in their channel, such as mining refuse, sluice- gates for mills, fish-traps, unduly wide piers for bridges and solid weirs, which impede the flow and raise the flood-level. Stringent prohibitions with regard to refuse, the enlargement of sluice-ways and the compulsory raising of their gates for the passage of floods, the removal of fish-traps which are fre- quently blocked up by leaves and floating rubbish, a reduction in the number and width of the piers of bridges when rebuilt, and the substitution of movable weirs for solid weirs, greatly facilitate the discharge of a river, and consequently lower its flood-level. Prediction of Floods in Rivers. — By erecting gauges in a fairly large river and its tributaries at suitable points, and keeping continuous records for some time of the heights of the water at the various stations, the rise of the floods in the different tributaries, the periods they take in passing down to definite stations on the main river, and the influence they severally exercise on the height of the floods at these places, are ascer- tained. With the help of these records, by observing the times and heights of the maximum rise of a particular flood at the stations on the various tributaries, the time of arrival and height of the top of the flood at any station on the main river can be predicted with remarkable accuracy two or more days beforehand. By telegraphing these particulars about a high flood to places on the lower river, the weir-keepers are enabled to open fully beforehand the movable weirs for the passage of the flood, and the riparian inhabitants receive timely warning of the impending inundation. Embankments along Rivers to prevent Inundations. — Where portions of a riverside town are situated below the maximum flood-level, or when it is important to protect land adjoining a river from inundations, the overflow of the river must be confined within continuous embankments on both sides. By placing these embankments somewhat back from the margin of the river-bed, a wide flood-channel is provided for the dis- charge of the river directly it overflows its banks, whilst leaving the natural channel unaltered for the ordinary flow. Low embankments may be sufficient where only exceptional summer floods have to be excluded from meadows. Occasionally the embankments are raised high enough to retain the floods during most years, whilst provision is made for the escape of the rare exceptionally high floods at special places in the embank- ments, where the scour of the issuing current is guarded against, and the inundation of the neighbouring land is least injurious. In this manner, the increased cost of embankments raised above the highest flood-level of rare occurrence is saved, and the danger of breaches in the banks from an unusually high flood-rise and rapid flow, with their disastrous effects, is avoided. Both the above methods afford the advantage of relieving the embanked channel of some of the sediment deposited in it by the confined flood-waters, when the surplus flow passes over the embankments. When complete protection from inundations is required, the embankments have to be raised well above the highest flood-level, after allowing for the additional rise resulting from the confinement of the flood within the embankments, instead of spreading over the low-lying land; and they have to be made perfectly watertight and strong enough to resist the water-pressure and current of the highest floods. The system has been very extensively adopted where large tracts of fertile alluvial land below flood-level stretch for long dis- tances away from the river. Thus the fens of Lincolnshire, Cambridgeshire and Norfolk are protected from inundations by embankments along their rivers and drains; a great portion of Holland is similarly protected; and the plains of Lombardy are shut off from the floods of the Po by embankments along each side of the river for a distance of about 265 m., ex- tending from Cornale, 89 m. below Turin, to its outlet. The system has been developed on a very extensive scale along the alluvial valley of the Mississippi, which is below the high flood-level of the river from Cape Girardeau, 45 m. above Cairo, to the Gulf of Mexico, and has a length of 600 m. in a straight line with a width ranging between 20 and 80 m., and an area of 20,790 sq. m. These embankments, having been begun by the French settlers in Louisiana, are called levees, and have a total length of 1490 m. They, however, do not afford complete protection from inundations, as they are not quite continuous and are not always strong enough to withstand the water-pressure of high floods, which have at Vicks- burg a maximum rise of 59 ft. above the lowest stage of the river, and tend to increase in height owing to the improved drainage following on the extension of cultivation. Breaches, or crevasses as they are termed in the United States, resulting from a deficiency in the strength or consistency of the banks, or from their being overtopped or eroded by the current, produce a sudden rush of the flood-waters through the opening, which is much more damaging to the jand in the neighbourhood of the breach than a gradual jnundation. Moreover, the velocity of the outflowing water is intensified by the sloping down of the land on these alluvial plains for some distance away from the river, owing to the raising of the ground nearest the river by the gradual deposit of layers of sediment from the flood-waters when they begin to overflow the river banks. The levees on the Mississippi are breached in weak places every year during the spring floods, and are liable to be destroyed along con- siderable lengths by the rapid erosion resulting from their being overtopped by exceptional floods at intervals of about ten years; and in places they are undermined and overthrown by changes in the course of the river from the caving-in of concave banks at bends, necessitating reconstruction some distance back from the river at points thus threatened. When towns have been established below the flood-level of an adjoining river, like New Orleans on the Mississippi and Szegedin on the Theiss in Hungary, the channel of the river should be improved to facilitate the passage of floods past the town. The town also must be enclosed within very solid embankments, raised above the highest possible flood-level, to obviate the contingency of an exceptional flood, or a gradually raised flood-level, overtopping the protecting bank at a Tow part, leading to an inevitable breach and a catastrophe such as overwhelmed the greater part of Szegedin in March 1879. Effect of Embankments in raising the River Bed. — A most serious objection to the formation of continuous, high em- bankments along rivers bringing down considerable quantities of detritus, especially near a part where their fall has been abruptly reduced by descending from mountain slopes on to alluvial plains, is the danger of their bed being raised by deposit, producing a rise in the flood-level, and necessitating a rais- ing of the embankments if inundations are to be prevented. Longitudinal sections of the Po taken in 1874 and 1901 show that its bed was materially raised in this period from the confluence of the Ticino to below Caranella, in spite of the clearance of sediment effected by the rush through breaches; and therefore the completion of the embankments, together with their raising, would only eventually aggravate the injuries of inundations they have been designed to prevent, as the escape of floods from the raised river must sooner or later occur. The periodical devastating floods of the Hwang Ho or Yellow River in China are due to the raising of the bed of its embanked channel by detritus brought down from the hills, followed by the raising of the banks, whereby the river is forced to flow above the level of the plains. When the river was first embanked, a consider- able space was left between it and its banks on each side, which allowed for deviations in the channel, and also afforded a fair area for the deposit of detritus away from its bed, and a good width for the discharge of floods. Later, however, in order to appropriate and bring under regular cultivation the riparian land thus prudently left within the embankments and exposed to every flooa, lines of inner embankments were formed close to the river, thereby greatly confining the flood-waters, and, consequently, raising the flood-level and the river-bed, besides exposing these embankments to under- mining by merely a moderate change in position of the river channel. This reckless policy of securing additional land regardless of con- sequences has greatly contributed to the more frequent occurrence of the very widespread inundations resulting from the bursting of the vast volume of pent-up flood-waters through breaches in the banks, which descend with torrential violence upon the plains below, causing great destruction of life and property. The restriction of the floods on the lower Mississippi by the levees, placed about double the width apart of the ordinary channel, has caused the river to enlarge its very soft alluvial bed, resulting in a lowering of the water-line at the low stage; and it is, therefore, anticipated that the further scour by floods when the levees have been made continuous will, in this instance, prevent any material raising of the flood-level by the levees. Protection of Vessels during Floods. — On large open rivers, where vessels during high floods are exposed to injury from 378 RIVER ENGINEERING large floating debris and ice floes, shelter can be provided for them in refuge ports, formed in a recess at the side under the protection of a solid jetty or embankment constructed in the river parallel to the bank, these ports being closed against floods at their upper end and having their entrance at the lower end facing down-stream. Many such ports have been provided on several German and North American rivers; where the port, being near a town, is lined with quay walls, it can also be used for river traffic, a plan adopted at the refuge port on the Main just below Frankfort (fig. 8). Regulation of Rivers for Navigation. As rivers flow onward towards the sea, they experience a considerable diminution in their fall, and a progressive increase in the basin which they drain, owing to the successive influx of their various tributaries. Thus gradually their current becomes more gentle and their discharge larger in volume and less subject to abrupt variations; and, consequently, they become more suitable for navigation. Eventually, large rivers, under favourable conditions, often furnish important natural highways for inland navigation in the lower portion of their course, as, for instance, the Rhine, the Danube and the Mississippi; and works are only required for preventing changes in the course of the stream, for regulating its depth, and especially for fixing the low-water channel and concen- trating the flow in it, so as to increase as far as practicable the navigable depth at the lowest stage of the water-level. Regulation works for increasing the navigable capabilities of rivers can only be advantageously undertaken in large rivers with a moderate fall and a fair discharge at their lowest stage; for with a large fall the current presents a great impediment to up-stream navigation, and there are generally great varia- tions in water-level, and when the discharge becomes very small in the dry season it is impossible to maintain a sufficient depth of water in the low-water channel. Removal of Shoals. — The possibility of securing uniformity of depth in a river by the lowering of the shoals obstructing the channel depends upon the nature of the shoals. A soft shoal in the bed of a river is- due to deposit from a diminution in velocity of flow, produced by a reduction in fall and by a widening of the channel, or to a loss in concentration of the scour of the main current in passing over from one concave bank to the next on the opposite side. The lowering of such a shoal by dredging merely effects a temporary deepening, for it soon forms again from the causes which produced it. The removal, moreover, of the rocky obstructions at rapids, though increasing the depth and equalizing the flow at these places, produces a lowering of the river above the rapids by facilitating the efflux, which may result in the appearance of fresh shoals at the low stage of the river. Where, however, narrow rocky reefs or other hard shoals stretch across the bottom of a river and present obstacles to the erosion by the current of the soft materials forming the bed of the river above and below, their removal may prove a permanent improvement by enabling the river to deepen its bed by natural scour. The deepening of the bed of a non-tidal river along a considerable length by dredging merely lowers the water-level of the river during the low stage; and though this deepening facilitates the passage of floods in the first instance, it does not constitute a permanent improvement even in this respect, for the deposit of the detritus brought down by the river as the floods abate soon restores the river to its original condition. Nevertheless, where sand-banks obstruct and divert the low-state channel of a river at its low stage, as in parts of the Mississippi below Cairo, it has been found possible before the river has fallen to its lowest level to form a channel through these sand-banks, with a depth of 9 or 10 ft. and 250 ft. wide, by suction dredgers, aided by revolving cutters or water-jets (see DREDGING), which discharge the sand through floating tubes into a part of the river away from the channel ; and the navigation can thus be maintained throughout the low stage at a reasonable cost. Though, however, these channels across the shoals, connect- ing the deeper parts of the river, can be easily kept open on the Mississippi till the return of the floods, they are obliterated by the currents in flood-time, and have to be dredged out again afresh every year on the abatement of the floods. Regulation of the Low-Water Channel. — The capability of a river to provide a waterway for navigation during the summer or throughout the dry season depends upon the depth that can be secured in the channel at the lowest stage. Owing to the small discharge and deficiency in scour during this period, it is important to restrict the width of the low-water channel, and concentrate the flow in it, and also to fix its position so that, forming the deepest part of the bed along the line of the strongest current, it may be scoured out every year by the floods, instead of remaining an undefined and shifting channel. This is effected by closing subsidiary low-water channels with dikes across them, and narrowing the channel at the low stage by low-dipping cross dikes extended from the river banks down the sfope, and pointing slightly up-stream so as to direct the water flowing over them into a central channel (figs. 4 and 5). The contraction also of the channel is often still more effectually accomplished at some parts, though at a greater cost, by low Regulation Works. FIGS. 4 and 5. — River Rhone. FIG. 6. — River Rhine. longitudinal dikes placed along either side of the low-water channel, some distance forward from the banks but connected with them generally at intervals by cross dikes at the back to prevent the current from scouring out a channel behind them during floods (figs. 4 and 6). By raising these dikes only slightly above the surface of the bed of the river, except where it is expedient to produce accretion for closing an old. disused channel or rectifying the course of the river, the capacity of the channel for discharging floods is not affected; for the slight obstruction to the flow pro- duced by the dikes at the sides is fully compensated for by the deepening of the low-water channel in the central course of the river. This system of obtaining a moderate increase in depth during the low stage of a river, whilst leaving the river quite open for navigation, has been adopted with satisfactory results on several large rivers, of which the Rhone, the Rhine and the Mississippi furnish notable examples. Regulation works were preferred on the Rhone to canalization from Lyons nearly to its outlet, in spite of its large fall, which reaches in some places I in 250, on account of the considerable quantities of shingle and gravel carried down by the river; the comparative regularity of the discharge, owing to the flow being derived from tributaries having their floods at different times of the year, has aided the effects of the works, which have produced an increase of about 3! ft. in the available navigable depth below Lyons at the lowest water-level. Owing, however, to the unfavour- able natural condition of the river, the depth does not exceed 5 ft. at this stage; and the rapid current forms a serious impediment to up-stream navigation. The Rhine is much better adapted for improvement by regulation works than the Rhone, for it has a basin more than double the area of the Rhone basin, and its fall does not exceed 3-1 ft. per mile up at Strassburg and 2-5 ft. per mile through the rocky defile from Bingen to Kaub, and is much less along most of the length below Strassburg. These works systematically carried out in wide shallow reaches between the Dutch frontier and Mainz, aided by dredging where necessary, have secured a navigable depth at the low stage of the river of 10 ft. from the frontier to Cologne, 8J ft. from Cologne to Kaub, and 6j ft. through the rocky defile up to Bingen, beyond which the same depth is maintained up to Phihppsburg, 22j m. above Mannheim. Works, moreover, are in progress by which it is anticipated that the minimum depth of 63 ft. will be extended up to Strassburg by 1916. The Mississippi also, with its extensive basin and its moderate fall in most parts, is well suited for having its navigable depth increased RIVER ENGINEERING 379 by regulation works, which have been carried out below St Paul in shallow and shifting reaches, with the object of obtaining a mini- mum navigable depth during the low stage of 6 ft. along the upper river from St Paul to St Louis just below the confluence of the Missouri, and 8 ft. thence to Cairo at the mouth of the Ohio. Various materials are used for the regulation works according to the respective conditions and the materials available in the locality. On the Rhone below Lyons with its rapid current, the dikes have been constructed of rubble-stone, consolidated above low water with concrete. The dikes on the Rhine consist for the most part of earthwork mounds protected by a layer of rubble-stone or pitch- ing on the face, with a rubble mound forming the toe exposed to the current; but occasionally fascines are employed in conjunction with stone or simple rubble mounds. The dams closing subsidiary channels on the Mississippi are almost always constructed of fascine mattresses weighted with stone; but whereas the regulating dikes on the upper river are usually similar in construction, a common form for dikes in the United States consists of two parallel rows of piles filled in between with brushwood or other materials not affected by water, and protected at the sides from scour by an apron of fascines and stone. Other forms of dikes sometimes used are timber cribs filled with stone, single rows of sheet piling, permeable dikes composed of piles supporting thin curtains of brushwood for promoting silting at the sides, and occasionally rubble-stone in places needing special protection. Protecting and Easing Bends. — Unless the concave banks of a river winding through wide, alluvial plains are protected from the scour of the current, the increasing curvature presents serious impediments to navigation, sometimes eventually becoming so intensified that the river at last makes a short cut for itself across the narrow strip of land at the base of the loop it has formed. This, however, pro- duces considerable changes in the channel below, and disturbances in the navigable depth. Protection, accordingly, of concave banks is necessary to prevent excessive curvature of the channel and changes in the course of a river. On the Mississippi the very easily ordinary summer level has to be raised by impounding the flow with weirs at intervals across the channel (see WEIR), while a lock (see CANAL and DOCK) has to be provided alongside the weir, or in a side channel, to provide for the passage of vessels (fig. 8). A river is thereby converted into a succession of fairly level reaches rising in steps up-stream, providing a comparatively still- water navigation like a canal; but it differs from a canal in the introduction of weirs for keeping up the water-level, in the provision for the regular discharge of the river at the weirs, and in the two sills of the locks being laid at the same level instead of the upper sill being raised above the lower one to the extent of the rise at the lock, as usual on canals. Canalization secures a definite available depth for navigation; and the discharge of the river generally is amply sufficient for maintaining the impounded water- level, as well as providing the necessary water for locking. The navigation, however, is liable to be stopped during the descent of high floods, which in many cases rise above the locks (fig. 7); and it is necessarily arrested in cold climates on all rivers by long, severe frosts, and especially on the break-up of the ice. Instances of Canalized Rivers. — Many small rivers, like the Thames above its tidal limit, have been rendered navigable by canalization, and several fairly large rivers have thereby provided a good depth for vessels for considerable distances inland. Thus the canalized Seine has secured a navigable depth of loj ft. from its tidal limit up to Paris, a distance of 135 m., and a depth of 6J ft. up to Mon- tereau, 62 m. higher up. Regulation works for improving the river Main, from its confluence with the Rhine opposite Mainz up FRANKFORT. OFFENBACH. OKRIFTEL. KOSTHEIM. VERTICAL SCALE 1,000 o 50 24MIUS FIG. 7. — Canalized River Main. eroded banks are protected along their upper, steeper part by stone pitching or a layer of concrete, and below low-water level by fascine mattresses weighted with stone, extended a short distance out on the bed to prevent erosion at the toe. Dikes, also, projecting into the channel from the banks reduce the curvature of the navigable channel by pushing the main current into a more central course ; whilst curved longitudinal dikes placed in the channel in front of concave banks (figs. 4 and 6) are still more effective in keeping the current away from the banks, which is sometimes still further pro- moted by dipping cross dikes in front (fig. 5). Regulation of Depth. — The regulation works at bends, besides arresting erosion, also reduce the differences in depth at the bends and the crossings, since they diminish the excessive depth round the concave banks and deepen the channel along the crossings, by giving a straighter course to the current and concentrating it by a reduction in width of the channel between the bends (figs. 4 and 5). Where there are deep pools at intervals in a river, shoals are always found above them, owing to the increased fall which occurs in the water line on approaching the pool, to compensate for the very slight inclination of the water-line in crossing the pool, which serves for the discharge of the river through the ample cross-section of this part of the river-bed. These variable depths can be regulated to some extent by rubble dikes or fascine mattress sills deposited across the bed of the pool, so as to reduce its excessive depth, but not raised high enough to interfere at all with the navigable depth. These obstructions in the pool raise the water-line towards its upper end, in order to provide the additional fall needed to effect the discharge through the pool with its diminished cross section; and this raising of the water-line increases the depth over the shoal above the pool, so that the general depth in these irregular parts of a river is rendered more uniform, with benefit to navigation. Canalization of Rivers. Rivers whose discharge is liable to become quite small at their low stage, or which have a somewhat large fall, as is usual in the upper part of rivers, cannot be given an adequate depth for navigation by regulation works alone; and their to Frankfort, having failed to secure a minimum depth of 3 ft. at the low stage of the river, canalization works were carried out in 1883-86 by means of five weirs in the 22 m. between the Rhine and Frankfort, and provided a minimum depth of 6J ft. (figs. 7 and 8). FIG. 8. — Locks, Weir and Haven near Frankfort. This depth was subsequently increased by dredging the shoaler portion towards the upper end of each reach, due to the rise of the river-bed up-stream, so as to attain a minimum depth of ^\ ft. just below the lowest lock, and 7f to 8J ft. in the other reaches: whilst a sixth weir was erected at Offenbarh above Frankfort (fig. 7). The Great Kanawha, Ohio, and other rivers, furnish instances of canalization works in the United States. Limits to Canalization.— On ascending a river it becomes increas- ingly difficult to obtain a good depth by canalization in the upper part, owing to the progressive inclination of the river-bed ; thus, even on the Seine, with its moderate fall, whereas a depth of loj ft. has been obtained on the Lower Seine by weirs placed on the average I3J m. apart, on the Upper Seine weirs are required at intervals of only about 4! m. to attain a depth of 6J ft. Accordingly, the higher parts of rivers are only suitable for floating down trunks of trees felled on the hills, or rough rafts of timber, conveying small loads of produce, which are broken uo on reaching their destination. Moreover, sometimes an abrupt fall or rocky shoals make it necessary to abandon a section of the nver and to continue the navigation by lateral canal. Small River Outlets exposed to Littoral Drift. Rivers with a small discharge flowing straight into the sea on an exposed coast are more or less obstructed at their outlet 38o RIVER ENGINEERING by drift of shingle or sand carried along the coast by the waves in the direction of the prevailing winds. When the flow falls very low in dry weather, the outlet of a river is sometimes completely closed by a continuous line of beach, any inland or tidal waters merely trickling through the obstruction; and it is only on the descent of floods that the outlet is opened out. In rivers which always have a fair fresh- water discharge, or a small fresh-water flow combined with a tidal flow and ebb, the channel sometimes has its direct outlet closed, and is deflected parallel to the shore till it reaches a weak place in the line of beach, through which a new outlet is formed; or, where the current is strong enough to keep the outlet open, a bar is formed across the entrance by the littoral drift, reducing the navigable depth. Jetties at River Outlets. — The bar formed by littoral drift across the outlet of a river not charged with sediment and flowing into a tideless sea can be lowered by carrying out solid jetties on each side of the outlet across the foreshore, so as to scour the bar by con- centrating the issuing current over it. Thus by means of jetties, aided by dredging, the depth at the entrance to the Swine mouth of the Oder has been increased from 7 ft. to 22j ft. ; the approach channels to the river Pernau (fig. q) and other Russian rivers flowing into the Baltic have been deepened by jetties, and the outlet channels of some of the rivers flowing into the Great Lakes of North America have been improved by crib-work jetties and dredging. Where the littoral drift is powerful enough to divert the outlet of a river, as in the case of the river Yare, which at one time was driven to an outlet $ m. south of its direct course into the sea at Yarmouth, and the river Adour in France, whose outlet, owing to the FIG. 9.- -Jetty Outlet into Baltic : River Pernau. violent storms of the Bay of Biscay, was liable to be shifted 18 m. from its proper position, it has proved practicable to fix as well as to deepen the outlet by means of jetties (fig. 10). In such cases, F.TIpoo o Sooo la/BOoFI FIG. 10. — Shifting Outlet, fixed by Jetties: River Yare. however, where the rivers flow into tidal seas, it is important to place the jetties sufficiently apart to avoid any loss of tidal influx, since the tidal flow assists the fresh-water discharge in keeping the outlet open; whereas, with rivers flowing into tideless seas, a moderate restriction of the width between the jetties increases the scour. The tortuous and somewhat shifting outlet channel of the Scheur branch of the river Maas, emerging on to a sandy coast where the rise of tide is small, and obstructed at its mouth by a bar, has been replaced by a straight cut across the Hook of Holland, and by an outlet guided across the foreshore and fixed in position by fascine mattress jetties (see JETTY), the maintenance of the depth at the mouth by the tidal and fresh waters being aided by frequent dredging (figs. II and 12). Deltaic Outlets of Tideless Rivers. Large rivers heavily charged with sand and silt, when their current is gradually arrested on entering a tideless sea, deposit these materials as a constantly advancing fan-shaped shoal in front of their mouths, through which comparatively shallow diverging channels, almost devoid of fall, have to force their way in order to convey the fresh-water discharge • HlLU. »7««4»alO FIGS. II and 12. — Jetty Outlet into North Sea: River Maas. into the sea (fig. 13). These deltaic channels deposit their burden of sediment in front of their outlets, forming bars which MILCS.S to MILES. FIG. 13. — Mississippi Delta. advance with the delta and whose rate of progress seawards and distance in front of each outlet are proportionate to the discharge of the several channels. A channel simply dredged on the bar in front of one of the outlets of a deltaic river is only maintained for a moderate period on account of the large volume of deposit continually accumulating at the outlet. Thus the channel in front of the outlet of the south-west pass of the Mississippi delta, when deepened from 13 ft. to 18 ft. over its bar by dredging many years ago, was soon silted up again on the discontinuance of the dredging; whilst the depth of the outlet channel of one of the branches of the Volga delta, which was increased from 4 ft. to 8 ft., could only be maintained by regular yearly dredging. Parallel Jetties at Delta Outlets. — In order to procure and maintain for some time an adequate deepening across the bar in front of the outlets of delta channels, recourse has been had to the scour of the issuing current concentrated and extended out to the bar by parallel jetties, forming prolongations seawards of the banks of the channel. The requisite conditions for the success of this system of improve- ment are a good depth in the sea beyond the bar, allowing of a considerable deposit of alluvium before the increased depth is interfered with, and a littoral current carrying a portion of the alluvium away from the outlet, both of which retard the progression of the delta in front of the outlet and the inevitable eventual forma- tion of a new bar farther out. The rate of advance of a delta depends also on the proportion of solid matter contained in the river water and on fhe specific gravity and size of the particles of alluvium discharged into the sea ; for the heavier and coarser materials, and especially those which are rolled along the bed of the channels, come first to rest. Moreover, as the larger channels of_a delta bring down a larger volume of alluvium on account of their larger discharge, and as their bars form farther seawards from their outlets owing to the issuing current being less rapidly arrested in proportion to the volume discharged, the rate of advance of the RIVER ENGINEERING delta in front of an outlet is proportionate to the size of the channel, and the length of the jetties required for lowering the bar by scour in front of any channel is proportionate to the discharge of the channel. Consequently, the conditions are more unfavourable for the improvement of the outlets of the larger delta channels than of the smaller ones; though, on the other hand, the larger channels crossing the delta are generally more suitable for navigation on account of their size, and the natural depth over their bars is greater owing to the larger discharge. The discharge of the mam branch of the Rhone, which formerly flowed into the Mediterranean and the Gulf of Foz through six „. mouths, was in 1852-57 concentrated in the direct eastern channel by embankments along sides, which closed all the lateral channels. The entire flow of the river, being thus discharged through the eastern outlets, increased fora time the depth over its bar from 4i ft. to 9} ft. ; but as the great volume of alluvium brought down, including an unusually large proportion of sand rolled along the bed of the river, was also all discharged through the one outlet, the bar soon formed again farther out, and naturally advanced with the delta in front of the outlet more rapidly than formerly when the deposit was distributed through six divergent mouths. Accordingly, the very moderate deepening produced by the embankments was not long maintained, and the average depth over the bar has not exceeded 6$ ft. for many years past ; the St Louis Canal was con- structed to provide a deeper outlet for the navigation.1 This want of success was due to the selection of an outlet opening on a sheltered, somewhat shallow bay, instead of a southern outlet discharging into deep water in the Mediterranean and having a deep littoral current flowing across it, and also resulted from the closing of all the other outlets, whereby the whole of the deposit, as well as all the discharge, was concentrated in front of the badly situated eastern outlet. The southern Roustan branch was reopened in 1893 to prevent the silting-up of the outlet of the St Louis Canal. The Danube traverses its delta in three branches, the northern one of which, though conveying nearly two-thirds of the discharge _ . of the river, is unsuitable for improvement owing to its splitting up along portions of its course into several channels, and eventually flowing into the sea through twelve mouths of a small independent delta advancing about 250 ft. annually across a shallow foreshore. The central Sulina branch was selected for improvement in 1858 in preference to the southern St George's branch, which had a more favourably situated outlet and a better channel through the delta, on account of the much smaller expenditure required for carrying out jetties to the bar in front of the Sulina outlet, which was only half the distance from the shore of the bar of the St George's outlet, owing to the much smaller discharge of the Sulina branch.2 The jetties, begun provisionally in 1858 and subsequently consolidated and somewhat extended, were finally completed in 1877. They increased the depth over the bar from an average of about 9 ft. previously to 1858 up to 2oJ ft. in 1873, which was maintained for many years. In 1893, however, the increasing draught of vessels rendered a greater depth necessary; the wide inshore portion of the jetty channel was therefore narrowed by inner parallel jetties, and a powerful dredger was set to work in the jetty channel and outside, whereby the depth was increased to 24 ft. in 1897, and was fairly maintained up to 1907, when a second dredger became necessary to cope with the shoaling. The somewhat small ratio of sediment to discharge in the Danube, the fineness of the greater portion of this sediment, its comparatively moderate amount owing to the small proportion of the discharge flowing through the Sulina branch, and its partial dispersion by the southerly littoral current and wave action, have prevented the rapid formation of a shoal in front of the Sulina outlet. Nevertheless, the lines of sound- ings are gradually advancing seawards in the line of the outlet channel, and there are signs of the formation of a new bar farther out, whilst the deposit to the south by the current and waves has deflected the deepest channel northwards. Accordingly, a pro- longation of the jetties will eventually be necessary, notwithstanding the removal of a portion of the deposit from the outlet channel by dredging. The selection of the outlet of the south pass of the Mississippi delta for improvement by parallel jetties in 1876—79, in spite of the „. . m south-west pass possessing a larger channel and a better , . " depth over its bar, was due, as at the Danube, to motives of economy, as the bar of the south-west pass was twice as far off from the shore as that of the south pass (fig. 13). There fascine mattress jetties, weighted with limestone, and with large concrete blocks at their exposed ends (see JETTY), 2\ and i\ m. long, and curved slightly southwards at their outer ends to direct the sedi- ment-bearing current more directly at right angles to the westerly littoral current, increased the depth of 8 ft. over the bar in 1875 up to 31 ft. between the jetties and out to deep water (fig. 14). The prolonged current of the river produced by the jetties has, as at the Sulina outlet, carried the main portion of the heavier sedi- ment into fairly deep water, so that the greatest advance of the 1 L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Rivers and Canals, 2nd ed. pp. 187-90, plate 5, figs. I and 9. 2 Ibid, plate 5, figs. 2, 3, 4 and 10. foreshore in front of the south pass has occurred in the 7o-ft. line of soundings, though the shallower soundings have also advanced. CAJT FT I moor JCTTICS. MIAM LOW TIOI. o i a 9 MILIS. FIG. 14.— Deltaic Jetty Outlet, South Pass, Mississippi. The shoaling, however, in the jetty channel necessitated its reduction in width by mattresses and spurs from 1000 ft. to 600 ft., and also dredging to maintain the stipulated central depth of 30 ft., and 26 ft depth for a width of 200 ft., out to deep water; whilst the outer channel was deflected to the east and narrowed by the alluvium carried westwards by the littoral current and also deposited in front of the jetty outlet. Accordingly, dredging has been increasingly needed to straighten the channel outsioe and maintain its depth and width ; and since the United States engineers took in hand its maintenance in 1901, the available depth of the outlet channel has been increased from 26 ft. up to 28 ft. by extensive suction dredging. In order to provide for the increasing requirements of sea-going vessels, the dredging of a channel 35 Ft. deep and 1000 ft. wide, cut from the large south-west pass outlet to deep water in the gulf, was begun at the end of 1903; and jetties of fascine mattresses weighted with stone and concrete blocks have been carried out about 4 and 3 m. respectively from the shore on each side of the outlet for maintaining the dredged channel ' (fig. 15). These works differ FT 5,000. FIG. 15.— Deltaic Jetty Outlet, South-West Pass, Mississippi. from the prior improvement of the south pass in the adoption mainly of suction dredging for the formation of the channel in place of scour alone, so that it will be unnecessary to restrict the width of the jetty channel to secure the desired depth; whilst as the dis- charge through the south-west pass is rather more than three times the discharge through the south pass, and the bar is double the distance seawards of the outlet, the slightly converging jetties, in continuation of the south-west pass, are placed about 3400 ft. apart at their outer ends, and have been given about twice the length of the south pass jetties. As soon as the dredging of the channel has been completed (which depends on the appropriations granted by Congress) the south pass will be abandoned, and the south-west pass will form the navigable approach. Dredging will be required for preserving the depth of the outlet of the south-west pass; and when the large volume of sand and other alluvium dis- charged by the pass accumulates in front sufficiently to begin forming a bar farther out, an extension of the jetties will be necessary to maintain the elongated channel free from drift, and extend the scour, especially in flood-time. Improvement of Tidal Rivers for Navigation. Whereas the size of tideless rivers depends wholly on their fresh-water discharge, the condition of tidal rivers is due to the configuration of their outlet, the rise of tide at their mouth, the distance the tide can penetrate inland, and the space available for its reception. Accordingly, tidal rivers sometimes, even when possessing a comparatively small fresh-water discharge, develop under favourable conditions into large rivers in their lower tidal portion, having a much better natural navigable channel at high tide than the largest deltaic rivers, as shown by a comparison of the Thames, the Humber and the Elbe with the Danube, the Nile and the Mississippi. Tidal water is, indeed, unlimited in volume; but, unlike the drainage waters which must be discharged into the sea, it only flows up rivers where there is a channel and space available for its * Report of the Chief of Engineers for 1906, pp. 382 and 1296 and charts. 382 RIVER ENGINEERING reception. Consequently, it is possible to exclude the tide by injudicious works, such as the sluices which were erected long ago across the fen rivers to secure the low-lying lands from the inroads of the sea; the tidal influx is also liable to be reduced by accretion in an estuary resulting from training works. The great aim, on the contrary, of all tidal river improvement should be to facilitate to the utmost the flow of the flood-tide up a river, to remove all obstructions from the channel so as to render the scouring efficiency of the flood and ebb tides as great as possible, and by making the tidal flow extend as far up the river as possible to reduce to a minimum the period of slack tide when deposit takes place. Tidal Flow in a River. — The progress of the flood-tide up a river and the corresponding ebb are very clearly shown by a diagram giving a series of simultaneous tidal lines obtained from simultaneous observations of the height of the river Hugh during a high spring- tide in the dry season, taken at intervals at several stations along the river, and exhibiting on a very distorted scale the actual water- level of the river at these periods (fig. 16). The steep form assumed ^ "162 MILES "S 75 59 53 35 FIG. 1 6. — Simultaneous Tidal Lines: River Hugli. by the foremost part of the flood-tide lines from the entrance to beyond Chinsura, attaining a maximum in the neighbourhood of Konnagar and Chinsura, indicates the existence of a bore, caused by the sand-banks in the channel obstructing the advance of the flood-tide, till it has risen sufficiently in height to rush up the river as a steep, breaking wave, overcoming all obstacles and producing a sudden reversal of the flow and abrupt rise of the water-level, as observed on the Severn, the Seine, the Amazon and other rivers. A bore indicates defects in the tidal condition and the navigable channel, which can only be reduced by lowering the obstructions and by the regulation of the river. No tidal river of even moderate length is ever completely filled by tidal water; for the tide begins to fall at its mouth before the flood-tide has produced high water at the tidal limit, as most clearly shown in the case of a long tidal river by the Hugli tidal diagram. Every improvement of the channel, however, expedites and increases the filling of the river, whilst the volume of water admitted at each tide is further augmented by the additional capacity provided by the greater efflux of the ebb, as indicated by the lowering of the low-water line. Deepening Tidal Rivers by Dredging. — The improvement of tidal rivers mainly by dredging is specially applicable to small rivers which possess a sufficient navigable width, like the Clyde and the Tyne; for such rivers can be considerably deepened by an amount of dredging which would be quite inadequate for producing a similar increase in depth in a large, wide river, with shifting channels. Both the Clyde below Glasgow and the Tyne below Newcastle were originally insignificant rivers, almost dry in places at low water of spring-tides; and the earliest works on both rivers consisted mainly in regulating their flow and increasing their scour by jetties and training works. They have, however, been brought to their present excellent navigable condition almost wholly, since 1840 on the Clyde and 1861 on the Tyne, by continuous systematic dredging, rendered financially practicable by the growing importance of their sea-going traffic. The Clyde has been given a minimum depth of about 22 ft. at low water of spring-tides up to Glasgow, and can admit vessels of 27 to 28 ft. draught. In the Tyne (figs. 17 and 18), it was decided in 1902 to provide a minimum dredging depth in the river channel at low water of 25 ft. from the sea to the docks, of 20 ft. thence to Newcastle and of 18 ft. up to Scotswood, the rise of spring-tides increasing these depths by 15 ft. In 1906 it was determined to make the channel 30 ft. deep at low water of spring- tides from the sea to the docks, and in 1908 to deepen it between the docks and Newcastle swing bridge from 20 to 25 ft., and also between the swing bridge and Derwenthaugh from 18 to 25 ft. The natural scour of these rivers has been so much reduced by such an exceptional enlargement of their channels that a considerable amount of dredging will always be required to preserve the depth attained. Regulation and Dredging of Tidal Rivers. — Considerable improve- ments in the navigable condition of tidal rivers above their outlet or estuary can often be effected by regulation works aided by dredg ing, which ease sharp bends, straighten their course and render Miiu.ii FIGS. 17 and 18. — Improvement of Tidal River by dredging: River Tyne. their channel, depth and flow more uniform. Examples are the Nervion between Bilbao and its mouth (figs. 19 and 20), and the FlGS. 19 and 20. — Training Tidal River and protection of Outlet: River Nervion. Weser from Bremen to Bremerhaven at the head of its estuary (figs. 21 and 22). These works resemble in principle the regulation works on large rivers with only a fresh-water discharge, previously described; but on tidal rivSrs the main low-water channel should alone be trained with an enlarging width seawards to facilitate the tidal influx, and the tidal capacity of the river above low water should be maintained unimpaired. To secure a good and fairly uniform depth on a tidal river, it is essential that the flood and ebb tides should follow the same course, in order to combine their scouring efficiency, and form a single, continuous deep channel. In wide, winding reaches, however, the flood tide in ascending a river follows as direct a course as practic- able; and on reaching a bend, the main flood-tide current, in being deflected from its straight course, hugs the concave bank, and, keeping close alongside the same bank beyond the bend, cuts into the shoal projecting from the convex bend of the bank higher up, forming a blind shoaling channel, as clearly indicated near the Moyapur Magazine in fig. 23, and a little below Shipgunj Point in fig. 24. This effect is due to the flood-tide losing its guidance, and consequently its concentration, at the change of. curvature beyond the termination of the concave bank, where it spreads out and passes gradually over, in its direct course, to the next concave bend above along the opposite bank. The ebb tide, on the contrary, descending the river, follows the general course of the fresh-water discharge in all rivers, its main current in the Moyapur reach keeping close along the concave bank between Ulabana and Hiragunj Point, and crossing over opposite the point to the next concave bank below (fig. 23) ; whilst in the James and Mary reach the main ebb-tide current runs alongside the concave bank in front of Ninan and Nurpur, and crosses over near Hugli Point to the opposite concave bank below Gewankhali (fig. 24). The main currents, accordingly, \>i the flood and ebb tides in such reaches act quite independently between the bends, forming channels on opposite sides of the river and leaving a central intervening shoal. The surveys of the two reaches of the Hugli, represented in figs. 23 and 24, having been taken in the dry season, exhibit the flood-tide channels at their deepest phase, and the ebb-tide channels in their worst and least continuous condition. In tidal rivers the main ebb-tide current, being reinforced by RIVER ENGINEERING 383 •REMCN. IntNIRHAVCN. 57MILE5. FIGS. 21 and 22. — Training Tidal River at Estuary: River Weser. the fresh-water discharge, generally forms the navigable channel, which is scoured out during floods. Narrowing the river between the bends to bring the two channels together would unduly restrict the tidal flow; and in a river like the Hugli dependent on the tidal influx for the maintenance of its depth for two-thirds of the year, and with channels changing with the wet and dry seasons, so that deepening by dredging in the turbid river could not be permanent, training works below low water to bring the ebb-tide current into the flood-tide channel, which latter must not be obstructed at all, offer, aided by dredging, the best prospects of improve- ment. FIG. 23. — Moyapur Reach, River Hugli, Jan. 1896. FIG. 24. — James and Mary Reach, River Hugli, April 1890. The average rate of enlargement adopted for the trained channel ot the Nervion, in proportion to its length, is I in 75 between Bilbao and its mouth, and I in 71 for the Weser from Bremen to Bremer- haven; and these ratios correspond very nearly to the enlargement of the regulated channel of the Clyde from Glasgow to Dumbarton of I in 83, and of the Tyne from Newcastle to its mouth of I in 75. Accordingly, a rate of enlargement comprised between I in 70 and i in 80 for the regulated or trained channel of the lower portion of a tidal river with a fairly level bed may be expected to give satis- factory results. Works at the Outlet of Tidal Rivers. — Tidal rivers flowing straight into the sea, without expanding into an estuary, are subject to the obstruction of a bar formed by the heaping-up action ol the waves and drift along the coast, especially when the fresh-water discharge is small; and the scour of the currents is generally concentrated and extended across the beach by parallel jetties for lowering the bar, as at the outlets of the Maas (figs. 1 1 and 12) and of the Nervion (figs. 19 and 20). In the latter case, however, the trained outlet was still liable to be obstructed by drift during north-westerly storms in the Bay of Biscay ; and, except in the case of large rivers, the jetties have to be placed too close together, if the scour is to be adequate, to form an easily accessible entrance on an exposed coast. Accordingly, a harbour has been formed in the small bay into which the Nervion flows by two converging breakwaters, which provides a sheltered approach to the river and protects the outlet from drift (fig. 19), and a similar provision has been made at Sunderland for the mouth of the Wear; whilst the Tynemouth piers formed part of the original design for the improvement of the Tyne, under shelter of which the bar has been removed by dredging (fig. 17). Training Works through Sandy Estuaries. — Many tidal rivers flow through bays, estuaries or arms of the sea before reaching the open sea, as, for instance, the Mersey through Liverpool Bay, the Tees through its enclosed bay, the Liffey through Dublin Bay, the Thames, the Ribble, the Dee, the Shannon, the Seine, the Scheldt, the Weser and the Elbe through their re- spective estuaries, the Yorkshire Ouse and Trent through the Humber estuary, the Garonne and Dordogne through the Gironde estuary, and the Clyde, the Tay, the Severn and the St Lawrence through friths or arms of the sea. These estuaries vary greatly in their tidal range, the distance inland of the ports to which they give access, and the facilities they offer for navigation. Some possess a very ample depth in their outer portion, though they generally become shallow towards their upper end ; but dredging often suffices to remedy their deficiencies and to extend their deep-water channel. Thus the St Lawrence, which possesses an ample depth from the Atlantic up to Quebec, has been rendered accessible for sea- going vessels up to Montreal by a moderate amount of dredging; whilst dredging has been resorted to in parts of the Thames and Humber estuaries, and on the Elbe a little below Hamburg, to pro- vide for the increasing draught of vessels; and the Mersey bar in Liverpool Bay, about 1 1 m. seawards of the actual mouth of the river, has been lowered by suction dredging from a depth of about 9 ft. down to about 27 ft. below low water of equinoctial spring tides, to admit Atlantic liners at any state of the tide. Some estuaries, however, are so encumbered by sand banks that their rivers can only form shallow, shifting channels through them to the sea ; and these channels require to be guided or fixed by longitudinal training walls, consisting of mounds of rubble stone, chalk, slag or fascines, in order to form sufficiently deep stable channels to be available for navigation. The difficulty in such works is to fix the wandering channel adequately, and to deepen it RIVER ENGINEERING sufficiently by the scour produced between the training walls, without placing these walls so close together and raising them so high as to check the tidal influx and produce accretion behind them, thereby materially reducing the volume of tidal water entering and flowing out of the estuary at each tide. The high training works in the Dee estuary, carried out in the i8th century with the object of land reclamation, unduly narrowed the channel, and led it towards one side of the estuary; and though they effectually fixed the navigation channel, they produced very little increase in its depth, but caused a very large amount of sand to accumulate in the estuary beyond, owing to the great reduction in tidal volume by the reclamations, and diminished considerably the channel through the lower estuary in width and depth without checking its wanderings.1 The training of the channel of the Kibble through its estuary below Preston, for improving its depth and rendering it stable, was begun in 1839, and has been gradually extended at intervals; but the works have not yet been carried out to deep water, and a shifting, shallow channel still exists through the sand banks, between the end of the training walls and the open sea. The high training walls adopted along the upper part of the channel enabled the upper end of the estuary on both sides to be tide (figs. 2§ and 26). The channel, however, was made too narrow between Aizier and Berville and was subsequently enlarged, and large tracts of land were reclaimed in the upper estuary. The reduction in tidal capacity by the reclamations, together with the fixing and undue restriction in width of the channel, occasioned very large accretions at the back of the lower portions of the training walls and at the sides of the estuary beyond them, and an extension of the sand banks seawards. Moreover, the channel has always remained shallow and unstable beyond the ends of the training walls down to deep water near the mouth of the estuary.1 Conclusions about Training Works in Estuaries. — Experience has proved that training works through sandy estuaries, by stopping the wanderings of the navigable channel, produce an increase in its depth, and, consequently, in the tidal scour for main- taining it. This scour, however, being concentrated in the trained channel, is withdrawn from the sides of the estuary, which in its natural condition is stirred up periodically by the wandering channel ; and, therefore, accretion takes place in the parts of the estuary from which the tidal scour and fresh-water discharge have been permanently diverted, especially where an abundance of sand from outside, put in suspension by the action of the prevalent HARFLEUB GALE 600 600. HAVRE. HONFLEUR H.W.C.T. HO* BERVILLE. LA ROOUE. QUIILEBEUF. SCALE TO PLAN AND HORIZONTAL SCALE TO SXCTI 10 IS ( 30 VERTICAL SCALE to SECTION 800 . FT So e So loo FT i i i i t i i i FIGS. 25 and 26. — Training Works in Sandy Estuary : Rivi r Seine. aaMiLts. reclaimed for a length of 4 m.; whilst the half-tide training walls below, placed unduly close together, have led to considerable accretion at the sides of the estuary and some extension of the sand banks seawards. Moreover, by fixing the channel near the northern shore they have enabled the landowners to carry out large reclamations on the southern foreshore. These works, however, besides fixing the navigable channel, have increased its depth, especially in the upper part, and augmented the tidal scour along it by lowering the low-water line; and the trained channel is further deepened by dredging. The training works in the Weser estuary have been confined to constructing a single low training wall at the upper end, which forms a trumpet-shaped outlet for the river below Bremerhaven, and to guiding the navigable channel by occasional low dikes at the side and closing minor channels, so as to concentrate the tidal scour and fresh-water discharge in it, whilst additional depth is obtained by dredging (fig. 21). A remarkable improve- ment has been effected in the navigable condition of the upper portion of the Seine estuary by training works, begun in 1848; for in place of a shallow, intricate channel through shifting sand banks, whose dangers were at times intensified by a bore, a stable deep channel has been provided down to about half-way between Berville and St Sauveur, rendering access easy to the river above at high 1 L. F. Vernon-Harcourt, Rivers and Canals, 2nd ed. pp. 289- 293, and plate 9, figs. 13 and 14. winds blowing into the estuary, is brought in by the flood-tide, as in the cases of the estuaries of the Dee, the Ribble and the Seine. This accretion reduces the tidal capacity of the estuary, and, pro- ducing a diminution in the tidal volume passing through the outlet, promotes the extension of the sand banks seawards, as indicated by the difference in the outer portions of the longitudinal sections of different dates of the Weser and Seine estuaries (figs. 22 and 26). To prevent as far as possible the reduction in tidal capacity, the training walls should not be raised more above low-water level than absolutely necessary to fix the channel; and the rate of enlarge- ment of their width apart should not be less than I in 80 at the upper end, and should increase considerably towards the mouth of the estuary so as to form a trumpet-shaped outlet. The loss of scour in the channel resulting from this enlargement must be com- pensated for by dredging to attain the requisite depth. Training works partially carried out through an estuary have the advantage of reducing the length of shallow channel to be traversed between deep water and the entrance to the deepened river; but as these works produce no influence on the channel for any distance beyond their termination, a shallow, shifting channel is always found be- tween the end of the trained channel and deep water. Accordingly, when training works are started at the head of a sandy estuary, provision should always be made in their design for their eventual 1 Id. pp. 293-300, and plate 9, figs, n and 12. RIVER-HOG—RIVERS, 4TH EARL 385 prolongation to deep water at the mouth of the estuary, to ensure the formation of a stable, continuous, navigable channel. Experi- ments with a model, moulded to the configuration of the estuary under consideration and reproducing in miniature the tidal ebb and flow and fresh-water discharge over a bed of very fine sand, in which various lines of training walls can be successively inserted,1 are capable in some cases of furnishing valuable indications of the respective effects and comparative merits of the different schemes proposed for works which have often evoked very conflicting opinions and have sometimes produced most unexpected results. (L. F. V.-H.) RIVER-HOG, a sportsman's name for the African wild "pigs of which the southern representative is known to the Boers as the bosch-vark (" bush-pig "). They constitute a genus, Potamochoerus, nearly allied to the typical pigs of the genus Sus (see SWINE), from which they are distinguishable by the presence in the males of a long horny ridge below the eye; while they are further characterized by their thick coat of bristly and often brightly coloured hair, and by tufts of long bristles at the tips of the elongated and pointed ears. The southern P. choeropotamus, of southern and east Africa, is typically a greyish-brown animal, but one of its eastern representatives is orange-red. . In north-east Africa occurs the allied P. johnstoni, while in Kordofan and Abyssinia this is in turn replaced by P. hassama. The most remarkable member of the group is, however, the red river-hog, P. porcus, which is a heavy, short-legged species remarkable for its bright red colour, the great length of the ear-tufts and the white rings round the eyes. It is a native of the great forest-tracts, ex- tending from Senegambia, Liberia and Angola on the W., to Monbuttu in the E. Very noteworthy is the occurrence of a small yellow-haired representative of the group (P. lanatus) in Madagascar, which evidently must have reached its present habitat from the mainland. (R. L.*) RIVERINA, a large tract of pastoral country between the rivers Murray and Darling in New South Wales, Australia. It gives name to the see of an Anglican bishop who has his seat at Hay. The chief towns are Deniliquin, Hay, Moulamein, Oxley and Booligal. RIVERS, EARL, an English title held in succession by the families of Woodville or Wydeville, Darcy and Savage. In 1299 John Rivers, or de Ripariis, was summoned to parliament as a baron, and his son John was similarly summoned by Edward II. The earldom was created for Sir Richard Wood- ville in 1466 and remained in this family until 1491. (For the three earls of his line see below.) As borne by the Wood- villes the title was not derived from the name of a place, but from an ancient family name, Redvers, or Reviers, members of this family, whose arms are quartered on the Rivers shield, having been sometime earls of Devon. From 1626 to his death in 1640 the earldom was held by Thomas Darcy, Viscount Colchester, from whom it descended by special remainder to his grandson John (c. 1610-1654), the son of his daughter Elizabeth (d. 1651) by her marriage with Sir Thomas Savage (d. 1635), who was created Viscount Savage in 1626. John's son Thomas (c. 1626-1694) was the 3rd earl, and his grandson Richard the 4th earl (see below). The title became extinct when John, the 5th earl, died about 1735. A new barony of Rivers, held by the family of Pitt and its later representative, that of Pitt-Rivers, was in existence from 1776 to 1880. RIVERS, ANTHONY WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, 2ND EARL (c. 1442-1483), statesman and patron of literature, and author of the first book printed on English soil, was born probably in 1442. He was the son of Richard de Wydeville and his wife, Jacquetta de Luxemburg, duchess of Bedford. His father was raised to the peerage in his son's infancy, and was made earl of Rivers in 1466. Anthony, who was knighted before he became of age, and fought at Towton in 1461, married the daughter of Lord Scales, and became a peer jure uxoris in 1462, two years after the death of that nobleman. Being lord of the Isle of Wight at the time, he was in 1467 appointed one of the ambassadors to treat with the duke of 1 Rivers and Canals, 2nd ed. pp. 327-342, and plate 10. xxiii. 13 Burgundy, and he exalted his office by challenging Anthony, comte de la Roche, the bastard of Burgundy, to single fight in what was one of the most famous tournaments of the age (see the elaborate narrative in Bcntley's Excerpta Hislorica, 176- 182). In 1469 Anthony was promoted to be lieutenant of Calais and captain of the king's armada, while holding other honorary posts. His father and brother were beheaded after the battle of Edgecot, and he succeeded in August of that year to the earldom. He accompanied Edward in his temporary flight to the Continent, and on his return to England had a share in the victory of Barnet and Tewkesbury and defended London from the Lancastrians. In 1473 he became guardian and governor to the young prince of Wales, and for the next few years there was no man in England of greater responsibility or enjoying more considerable honours in the royal service. It is now that for the first time we become aware of Lord Rivers's literary occupations. His mother, the duchess, died in 1472, and his first wife in 1473; in 1475 and the following year he went on pilgrimage to the holy places of Italy; from this time forth there was a strong tincture of serious reflection thrown over his character; he was now, as we learn from Caxton, nominated " Defender and Director of the Siege Apostolic for the Pope in England." Caxton had in 1476 rented a shop in the Sanctuary at Westminster, and here had set up a printing- press. The first MS. which he undertook in London was one sent to him by " the noble and puissant lord, Lord Antone, Erie of Ryvyers," consisting of a translation " into right good and fayr Englyssh " of Jean de Teonville's French version of a Latin work, " a glorious fair mirror to all good Christian people." In 1477 Caxton brought out this book, as Dictes and Sayengis of the Philosophers, and it is illustrious as the first production of an English printing-press. To this succeeded the Moral Proverbs of Christine de Pisan, in verse, in 1478, and a Cordial, in prose, in 1479. The original productions of Lord Rivers, and, in particular, his Balades against the Seven Deadly Sins, are lost. In 1478 a marriage was arranged between him and Margaret, sister of King James III. of Scotland, but it was mysteriously broken off. Rivers began to perceive that it was possible to rise too high for the safety of a subject, and he is now described to us as one who " conceiveth well the mutability and the unstableness of this life." After the death of Edward IV., he became the object of Richard III.'s peculiar enmity, and was beheaded by his orders at Pontefract on the 25th of June 1483. He was succeeded by his brother Richard, the 3rd and last earl of the Wydeville family, who died in 1491. Lord Rivers is spoken of by Commines as " un tres- gentil chevalier," and by Sir Thomas More as " a right honour- able man, as valiant of hand as politic in counsel." His protection and encouragement of Caxton were of inestimable value .to English literature, and in the preface to the Dictes the printer gives an account of his own relations with the statesman which illustrates the dignity and modesty of Lord Rivers in a very agreeable way. Rivers was one of the purest writers of English prose of his time. " Memoirs of Anthony, Earl Rivers " are comprised in the His- torical Illustrations of the Reign of Edward the Fourth (ed. W. H. B[lack]). (E. G.) RIVERS, RICHARD SAVAGE, 4TH EARL (c. 1660-1712), was the second son of Thomas, 3rd earl; and after the death about 1680 of his elder brother Thomas, styled Viscount Colchester, he was designated by that title until he succeeded to the peerage. Early in life Richard Savage acquired notoriety by his dare-devilry and dissipation, and he was, too, one of the most conspicuous rakes in the society of the period. After becoming Lord Colchester on his brother's death he entered parliament as member for Wigan in 1681 and procured a commission in the Horseguards under Sarsfield in 1686. He was " the first nobleman and one of the first persons " who joined the prince of Orange on his landing in England, and he accompanied William to London. Obtaining promo- tion in the army, he served with distinction in Ireland and in the Netherlands, and was made major-general in 1693 and 386 RIVERS, EARL— RIVES lieutenant-general in 1702. In 1694 he succeeded his father as 4th Earl Rivers. He served abroad in 1702 under Marl- borough, who formed a high opinion of his military capacity and who recommended him for the command of a force for an invasion of France in 1706. The expedition was eventually diverted to Portugal, and Rivers, finding himself superseded before anything was accomplished, returned to England, where Marlborough procured for him a command in the cavalry. The favour shown him by Marlborough did not deter Rivers from paying court to the Tories when it became evident that the Whig ascendancy was waning, and his appointment as constable of the Tower in 1710 on the recommendation of Harley and without Marlborough's knowledge was the first unmistakable intimation to the Whigs of their impending fall. Rivers now met with marked favour at court, being entrusted with a delicate mission to the elector of Hanover in 1710, which was followed by his appointment in 1711 as master-general of the ordnance, a post hitherto held by Marlborough himself. Swift, who was intimate with him, speaks of him as " an arrant knave "; but the dean may have been disappointed at being unmentioned in Rivers's will, for he made a fierce comment on the earl's bequests to his mistresses and his neglect of his friends. In June 1712 Rivers was promoted to the rank of general, and became commander-in-chief in England; he died a few weeks later, on the i8th of August 1712. He married in 1679 Penelope, daughter of Roger Downes, by whom he had a daughter Elizabeth, who married the 4th earl of Barrymore. He also left several illegitimate children, two of whom were by Anne, countess of Macclesfield. Rivers's intrigue with Lady Macclesfield was the cause of that lady's divorce from her husband in 1701. Richard Savage, the poet, claimed identity with Lady Macclesfield's son by Lord Rivers, but though his story was accepted by Dr Johnson and was very generally believed, the evidence in its support is faulty in several respects. As Rivers left no legitimate son the earldom passed on his death to his cousin, John Savage, grandson of the 2nd earl, and a priest in the Roman Catholic Church, on whose death, about 1735, all the family titles became extinct. See William Coxe, Memoirs of Marlborough (3 vols., London, 1818); Letters and Despatches of Marlborough, 1702—1712, vol. v., edited by Sir G. Murray (5 vols., London, 1845); Gilbert Burnet, History of his own Time (6 vols., Oxford, 1833) ; F. W. Wyon, History of Great Britain during the Reign of Queen Anne (2 vols., London, 1876) ; G. E. C., Complete Peerage, vol. vi. (London, 1895). RIVERS, RICHARD WOODVILLE, or WYDEVILLE, EARL (d. 1469), was a member of a family of small importance long settled at Grafton in Northamptonshire. His father, Richard Woodville, was a squire to Henry V., and afterwards the trusted servant of John of Bedford, in whose interest he was constable of the Tower during the troubles with Humphrey of Gloucester in 1425. The younger Richard Woodville was knighted by Henry VI. at Leicester in 1426. He served under Bedford in France, and after his master's death married his widow Jacquetta of Luxemburg. The mesalliance caused some scandal, but Woodville enjoyed the king's favour and continued to serve with honour in subordinate positions in France. He also distinguished himself at jousts in London (Chronicles of London, 146, 148). On the gth of May 1448 Henry VI. created him Baron Rivers. His associations made him a strong Lancastrian. For some years he was lieutenant of Calais in Henry's interests. In 1459, when stationed at Sandwich to prevent a Yorkist landing, he was surprised by Sir John Dinham, and taken prisoner with his son Anthony to the earl of Warwick at Calais. He was, however, released in time to fight for Henry VI. at Towton. Early in the reign of Edward IV. Rivers recognized that the Lancastrian cause was lost and made his peace with the new king. The marriage of his eldest daughter, Elizabeth, widow of Sir John Grey of Groby, to Edward on the ist of May 1464, secured the fortunes of his family. Rivers was appointed treasurer on the 4th of March 1466, and a little later created earl. Elizabeth found great alliances for her younger brothers and sisters, and the Wood - ville influence became all-powerful at court. The power of this new family was very distasteful to the old baronial party, and especially so to Warwick. Early in 1468 Rivers's estates were plundered by Warwick's partisans, and the open war of the following year was aimed to destroy the Woodvilles. After the king's defeat at Edgecot, Rivers and his second son, John, were taken prisoners at Chepstow and executed at Kenilworth on the 1 2th of August 1469. Rivers had a large family. His third son, Lionel (d. 1484), was bishop of Salisbury. All his daughters made great marriages: Catherine, the sixth, was wife of Henry Stafford, 2nd duke of Buckingham (q.v.). BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The chief contemporary authorities are the Paston Letters, ed. Dr James Gairdner, The Chronicles of London, ed. C. L. Kingsford (1905), and the Chronicles of Commines and Waurin. See also some notices in Calendars of State Papers, Venetian, ed. Rawdon Browne. For modern accounts see Sir James Ramsay's Lancaster and York (1892), The Political History of England, vol. iv., by Professor C. Oman, and The Complete Peerage, by G. E. Qokayne]. For Earl Anthony's connexion with Caxton consult William Blades's Life of Caxton (1861-63). (C. L. K.) RIVERSIDE, a city of southern California, U.S.A., and the county-seat of Riverside county, situated on the Santa Ana river, in the San Bernardino valley. Pop. (1890) 4683; (1900) 7973 (!525 foreign-born); (1910) 15,212. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Southern Pacific and the San Pedro, Los Angeles & Salt Lake railways'. The city occupies a slope (about 800-1000 ft. above sea-level), rising toward the east is beautifully built and is a winter and health resort. In the Albert S. White Park there is a notable collection of cacti; and Huntington Park is high and rocky, is well planted with trees and has a finely shaded automobile drive. Magnolia Avenue, bordered with pepper-trees, is 10 m. long and 130 ft. wide; and Victoria Avenue is similarly parked and lined with semi-tropical trees. Riverside is the seat of an important (non-reservation) boarding-school for Indians, Sherman Institute (1903), which in 1908 had 699 students. Riverside is devoted to the cultivation of oranges, lemons and other subtropical fruits, and has a large trade in these products. It is in the centre of the finest orange district of the state; near Huntington Park is the state citrus experiment station (1906), with an experimental orchard of 20 acres. The cultivation of navel oranges was first introduced from Brazil into the United States at Riverside in 1873; the two original trees, protected by an iron railing, were still standing in 1909. The domestic water supply is obtained from artesian wells. In 1870 the site of the present city, then called Jurupa Rancho, the name of the old Spanish grant, was purchased by the Southern California Colony Association. The settlement was chartered in 1883 as a city, with limits including about 56 sq. m. Riverside county was not organized until ten years later. From 1895 there were no saloons in the city. RIVES, WILLIAM CABELL (1793-1868), American political leader and diplomat, was born in Nelson county, Virginia, on the 4th of May 1793. He attended Hampden-Sidney and William and Mary colleges, was admitted to the bar, and practised in Nelson county (till 1821) and afterwards in Albemarle county. In politics a Democrat, he served in the state constitutional con- vention in 1816, in the Virginia House of Delegates in 1817-19 and in 1822. and in the Federal House of Representatives in 1823-29. From 1829 to 1832 he was minister to France; in 1833 he entered the United States Senate, but in the following year resigned. From 1836 to 1845 he again served in the Senate, and in 1849-53 ne was again minister to France. In February 1861 he was a delegate to the Peace Conference in Washington; he opposed secession, but was loyal to his state when it seceded, and was one of its representatives in the Confederate Congress during the Civil War. He died at the country estate of Castle Hill, Albemarle county, Virginia, on the 25th of April 1868. Rives was the author of several books, the most important being his Life and Times of James Madison (3 vols., Boston, 1850-68), the completion of which was prevented by his death. He was the father of Alfred Landon Rives (1830-1903), an engineer of some prominence, whose daughter, Amelie Rives (1863- ), became well known as a novelist, her best known book being The RIVET— RIVOLI VERONESE 38? Quick or the Dead? (1888); she married John A. Chanler in 1888, and after their divorce married in 1896 Prince Pierre Troubetzkoy of Russia. RIVET (O. Fr. rivet, from river, to fix, fasten together, of unknown origin; Skeat compares Icel. rifa, to stitch together), a metal pin or bolt used to fasten metal plates together. A rivet, made of wrought iron, copper or other malleable substance, is usually made with a head at one end, the other end being hammered out after passing through the plates so as to keep them closely fastened together. A " bolt " differs from a rivet in that one or both ends have screw-threads to hold a nut (see SHIPBUILDING). RIVIERA, the narrow belt of coast which lies between the mountains and the sea all round the Gulf of Genoa in the north of Italy, extending from Nice on the W. to Spezia on the E. It is usually spoken of as Riviera di Ponente (" the coast of the setting sun "), the portion between Nice and the city of Genoa; and as Riviera di Levante (" the coast of the rising sun "), the portion from Genoa to Spezia. All this district, being open to the S. and sheltered from the N. and E. winds, enjoys a remarkably mild climate (winter mean, about 49° Fahr.); so much so that the vegetation in many places par- takes of a subtropical character (e.g. the pomegranate, agave, prickly pear, date, palm and banana). Large numbers of flowers, especially roses, violets, hyacinths, &c., are grown near Nice, Mentone, Bordighera and other towns, and sent to the London and Paris markets. Bordighera is particularly noted for its noble groves of date-palms, one of the few places in Europe where these trees grow. The uncommon mildness of the climate, conjoined with the natural beauty of the coast scenery, — the steep sea-crags, the ruined towers and the range of the Maritime Alps, — attracts thousands of invalids and convalescents to spend the winter in the chain of towns and villages which stretch from the one end of the Riviera to the other, while these resorts are frequented for sea-bathing in summer by the Italians. Proceeding from W. to E. the following are the places to which visitors principally resort: Nice, Monaco (an independent principality), Monte Carlo, Mentone (the last town on the French Riviera), Ventimiglia, Bordighera, Ospedaletti, San Remo, Porto Maurizio, Oneglia, Diano Marina, Alassio, Arenzano, Pegli (in the Riviera di Ponente), and Nervi, Santa Margherita, Rapallo, Chiavari, Sestri Levante, Levanto, Spezia, and San Terenzo (Lerici) in the Riviera di Levante. The Riviera labours, however, under the grave drawback of being liable to earthquakes. In the igth century there were four such visitations, in 1818, 1831, 1854 and 1887, which especially affected the western Riviera. A railway runs -close along the shore all through the Riviera, the distance from Nice to Genoa being 116 m., and the distance from Genoa to Spezia 56 m. In the latter stretch the line burrows through the many projecting headlands by means of more than eighty tunnels. The pearl of the eastern Riviera is the stretch (6 to 7 m.) between Rapallo and Chiavari. Lord Byron and Shelley both lived and wrote on the shores of the Gulf of Spezia, and Dickens wrote The Chimes at Genoa. RIVIERE, BRITON (1840- ), English artist, was born in London on the I4th of August 1840. His father, William Riviere, was for some years drawing-master at Cheltenham College, and afterwards an art teacher at Oxford. He was educated at Cheltenham College and at Oxford, where he took his degree in 1867. For his art training he was indebted almost entirely to his father, and early in life made for him- self a place of importance among the artists of his time. His first pictures appeared at the British Institution, and in 1857 he exhibited three works at the Royal Academy, but it was not until 1863 that he became a regular contributor to the Academy exhibitions. In that year he was represented by "The Eve of the Spanish Armada," and in 1864 by a "Romeo and Juliet." Subjects of this kind did not, however, attract him long, for in 1865 he began, with a picture of a " Sleeping Deerhound," that series of paintings of animal-subjects which has sincte occupied him almost exclusively. Among the most memorable of his productions are: "The Poacher's Nurse" (1866), "Circe" (1871), "Daniel" (1872), "The Last of the Garrison" (1873), "Lazarus" (1877), " Persepolis " (1878), " In Manus Tuas, Domine " (1879), " The Magician's Doorway " (iSSz), " Vae Victis " (1885), " Rizpah " (1886), " An Old-Worlu Wanderer " (1887), " Of a Fool and his Folly there is no End " (1889), " A Mighty Hunter before the Lord " (1891), " The King's Libation " (1893), " Beyond Man's Foot- steps " (1894), now in the National Gallery of British Art; "Phoebus Apollo" (1895); "Aggravation" (1806), " St George " (1000), and " To the Hills " (1001). He has also painted portraits; and at the outset of his career made some mark as an illustrator, beginning with Punch. He was elected an Associate of the Royal Academy in 1878, and R.A. in 1881, and received the degree of D.C.L. at Oxford in 1891. See Sir Walter Armstrong, " Briton Riviere, R.A. ; His Life and Work," Art Annual (1891). RIVINGTON, CHARLES (1688-1742), British publisher, was born at Chesterfield, Derbyshire, in 1688. Coming to London as apprentice to a bookseller, he took over in 1711 the publish- ing business of Richard Chiswell (1630-1711), and, at the sign of the Bible and the Crown in Paternoster Row, he carried on a business almost entirely connected with theological and educational literature. He also published one of Whitefi^ld's earliest works, and brought out an edition of the Imitation of Christ. In 1736 Rivington founded the company of book- sellers who called themselves the " New Conger," in rivalry with the older association, the " Conger," dating from about 1700. In 1741 he published the first volume of Richardson's Pamela. Charles Rivington died on the 22nd of February 1742, and was succeeded by his two sons, John (1720-1792) and James (1724-1802). James emigrated to America, and pursued his trade in New York (see NEWSPAPERS, U.S.A .) ; John carried on the business on the lines marked out by his father, and was the great Church of England publisher of the day. In 1760 he was appointed publisher to the Society for Pro- moting Christian Knowledge, and the firm retained the agency for over seventy years. Having admitted his sons Francis (1745-1822) and Charles (1754-1831) into partnership he undertook for the " New Conger " Association the issue of a standard edition of the works of Shakespeare, Milton, Locke and other British classics; also Cruden's Concordance. John Rivington died on the i6th of January 1792. In 1810 John (1779-1841), the eldest son of Francis, was admitted a partner. In 1827 George (1801-1858) and Francis (1805-1885), sons of Charles Rivington, joined the firm. Rivington contracted further ties with the High Church party by the publication (1833, &c.) of Tracts for the Times. John Rivington died on the zist of November 1841, his son, John Rivington (1812- 1886) having been admitted a partner in 1836. George Riving- ton died in 1858; and in 1859 Francis Rivington retired, leaving the conduct of affairs in the hands of John Rivington and his own sons, Francis Hansard (b. 1834) and Septimus (b. 1846). In 1890 the business was sold to Messrs Longmans (q.v.). A business of the same character was, however, carried on from 1889 to 1893 by Mr Septimus Rivington and Mr John Guthrie Percival, as Percival & Co. This was changed in 1893 to Rivington, Percival & Co.; and in 1897 the firm revived its earlier title of Rivington & Co., maintaining its reputation for educational works and its connexion with the Moderate and High Church party. See The House of Rivington, by Septimus Rivington (1894); alsc the Publishers' Circular (isth January 1885, 2nd June 1890). RIVOLI VERONESE, a village of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Verona, on a hill on the right bank of the Adige, 13 m. N.W. of Verona, 617 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 1340. It is celebrated as the scene of the battle in which, on the isth of January 1797, Napoleon inflicted a decisive defeat upon the Austrians commanded by Josef Alvintzi, Baron von Barberek (1735-1810) (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS). A famous street in Paris (Rue de Rivoli) commemorates 388 RIXDORF— ROADS AND STREETS the victory, and under the empire Marshal Massena received the title of duke of Rivoli. The strong positions around Rivoli, which command the approaches from Tirol and the upper Adige into the Italian plain, have always been celebrated in military history as a formidable obstacle, and Charles V. and Prince Eugene of Savoy preferred to turn them by difficult mountain paths instead of attacking them directly. Minor engagements, such as rearguard actions and holding attacks, have consequently often taken place about them, notably in the campaign of 1796-97. An engagement of this character was fought here in 1848 between the Austrian and the Pied- montese troops. RIXDORF, a town of Germany, lying immediately south of Berlin, of which it practically forms a suburb, though retaining its own civic administration. Pop. (1880) 18,729; 0895) S9)495> (I9°5) 153>65o. It is connected with the metropolis by a railway (Ring-bahn) and by an electric tramway. It contains no public buildings of any interest, and is almost entirely occupied by a large industrial and artisan population, engaged in the manufacture of linoleum, furniture, cloth, pianos, beer, soap, &c. Rixdorf is chiefly interesting as a foundation of Moravian Brethren from Bohemia, who settled here in 1737 under the protection of King Frederick William I. German Rixdorf, which is now united with Bohemian Rixdorf, was a much more ancient place, and appears as Richardsdorf in 1630 and as Riegenstorp in 1435. Before 1435 it belonged to the order of the Knights of St John. RIZZIO, or RICCIO, DAVID (c. 1533-1566), secretary of Mary ( instead of his hood, he shall FIG. 2. — Sir John wear a cloak closed upon his right shoulder, Cassy, chief baron all the other ornaments of a Serjeant still re- of the Exchequer maining; saving that a justice shall wear no (c. 1400). party-coloured vesture, as a serjeant may, and his cape is furred with miniver, whereas the Serjeant's cape is furred with white lamb (budge)." This description of Fortescue's is borne out by some illuminations from a 15th-century MS. representing sittings of the four superior of the I3th and I4th century, showing the coif worn by both clerks and laymen. 1 Prol. line 210 (ed. Skeat, Clarendon Press) : " Jit houed there an hondreth in houues of silke, seriauntz it seemed that serveden atte barre " ; and iii. 293: " Shal no seriaunt for here seruyse were a silk howue, Ne no pelure in his cloke, for pleding atte barre." * Prol. line 382 (ed. Morris, Clarendon Press) : " He rood but homely in a medlee cote Girt with a ceint of silk, with barres smale ; of his array te(le I no longer tale." 3 The effigy " supposed to represent Sir Richard de Willoughby, chief justice of the king's bench " temp. Edward III., illustrated by Fairholt, p. 201, wears a long gown with girdle and skull-cap, no distinctively judicial dress. The figure of Robert Grymbald (temp. Henry II.), engraved from his seal by Dugdale, wears the ordinary dress of the time. 4 See also that of Sir Hugh de Holes (1415; see Haines, Brasses, i. xc), and a stone effigy of Sir William Gascoigne in Harwood Church, Yorks (d. 1419, see Planch6, Cyclopaedia, i. 427). Of serjeants-at-law, an early example is the brass of Nichol Rolond at Cople, Beds. (c. 1410, see Druitt, Costume in Brasses, p. 221); also that of Thomas Rolf at Gosfield, Essex (c. 1440, see Haines, p. 85), who wears a gown, tabard, tippet, hood and coif, with two bands showing below the hood, like the Ellesmere MS. figure. The inscription calls Rolf " legi professus," which Haines takes to mean " professor of law," Boutell and Clark (Archaeological Journal, vol. i. pp. 203-4) consider that he is a serjeant-at-law. Druitt (p. 224) remarks on the likeness of his tabard to that of a Master of Arts, but compares a figure on a 15th-century cope, who also appears to be a serjeant- at-law and wears a tabard. That a tabard sometimes formed part of the dress of a Serjeant, can be seen in the extract from the Liber famelicus of Sir James Whitelocke. quoted by Druitt, p. 225, footnote. courts in the time of Henry VI. (reproduced in A rchaeologia, vol. xxxix. p. 358, &c., with an article by G. R. Corner; see plate). In them we see the scarlet robes of the judges furred with min:ver, and the party-coloured rayed gowns, tippets and hoods of the Serjeants, besides the costume of the minor officials of the court. Both Serjeants and judges wear the coif, certain of the judges also wearing furred caps or turban-like head-dresses. The colour of the Serjeants' party-coloured robes seems to have varied;5 in these illuminations they are blue and green, but by the 1 7th century, to quote Dugdale, Origines Juridiciales, cap. 38 : " The robes they now use do still somewhat resemble those of the justices of either bench, and are of three distinct colours, viz. murrey, black, furred with white, and scarlet ; but the robe which they usually wear at their creation only is of two colours, viz. murrey and mouse colour; whereunto they have a hood suitable, as also a coif of white silk or linen." (See also Pulling, p. 218, and Druitt, p. 225.) Sir E. Brabrook (Proceedings of the Soc. of Antiquaries, 2nd series, vol. iii. p. 414) quotes descriptions of calls of Serjeants showing that as late as 1700 the Serjeants wore party-coloured gowns at their creation and during the year following, and stating on what occasions they wore their black, scarlet or purple gowns (the last with scarlet or purple hoods). At the last general call (1736), and at the creation of a serjeant in 1762, party-coloured robes were still worn, but at a creation of 1809 they are no longer found. Until their final abolition the Serjeants wore purple robes at their creation, and on ordinary occasions a black cloth or silk gown, with a scarlet robe for state occasions. Illustrations of judicial cos- tumes in the i6th century are to be found in vol. i. of Vetusta Monumenta (Soc. of Antiquaries, 1747), in which are reproduced, firstly, a ' painted table in the King's Exchequer," temp. Henry VII., on which the officials of the Exchequer are shown wearing long gowns, furred tippets and mantles, with coifs (see fig. 3) ; and secondly, a sitting of the Court of Wards and Liveries, temp. Elizabeth, in which are shown Serjeants wearing party-coloured gowns, tippets, hoods and coifs (see also Pulling, facing pp. 86 and 214). About this time the square cap, otherwise known as the cornered, black or sentence cap (the last from the fact of its being put on by the judge when pronouncing sentence of death), begins to be seen in monuments (cf. that of Sir Richard Harpur, temp. Mary; Fairhold, p. 223). Sometimes this cap is worn over the coif only, sometimes over the coif and skull-cap (cf. the portrait of Sir Edward Coke, in Pulling, facing p. 180). The form also varies; sometimes, as in the portrait of Coke, it has no ear-flaps, some times, as in its present form, it has. The form with ear-flaps is held by some to be a combination of the square cap and skull-cap. The square cap was a mark of dignity, worn or carried on solemn occasions, hence its use when pronouncing sentence of death, to mark the solemnity of the moment. Among the State Papers of 1625 is a " Discourse on what robes and apparel the judges are to wear, and how the serjeants-at-law are to wear their robes, and when," and on the 4th of July 1635 there was a " solemn decree and rule made by all the judges of the courts at Westminster," which is quoted in Dugdale (loc. cit.) and Pulling (p. 215, footnote). This costume is illustrated in Hollar's engraving of the coronation procession of Charles II. Towards the end of the I7th century the judges took to wearing wigs, and have continued to wear them ever since. The wearing of wigs naturally concealed the coif and velvet skull-cap, so a device had to be invented by which they could still be displayed. The expedient was hit upon of putting a round patch of white stuff, with a black spot in the middle of it, on the crown of the wig of certain of the judges, to represent the coif and skull-cap. The rank of serjeant no longer existing, this round patch has now disappeared, the only trace of it left being the circular depression on the crown of the wig. The costume of judges of the High Court at the present day differs very little from that given in the order of 1635; but the cap is carried in the hand as a part of the full dress, and only worn when a judge is passing sentence of death.6 The 'They were probably originally liveries; see G. R. Corner in Archaeologia, also Pulling, op. cit. pp. 211—12. 6 See an essay by Sir Herbert Stephen in Unwritten Laws and Ideals, ed. E. H. Pitcairn (Smith, Elder, 1899), from which the following paragraph is largely condensed. From the Standard of Weights and Measures (temp. Henry VIII.), in VtHisIa Monu- menla (Soc. of Antiquaries), vol. i. FIG. 3. — Figures wearing coif. ROBES. PLATE III. One of four illuminations belonging to a law treatise, temp. Hrnry f'l, found at Whaddon Hall, Bucks, depicting five presiding judges of the Court of King's Bench, wearing coifs and scarlet robes; below the King's Coroner, Attorney and Masters of the Court; two ushers at table swearing the jury; a tipstaff in charge of a fettered' prisoner, two sergeants at law in coif on either side; in foreground six prisoners. From Archteologia XXXIX. ROBES 411 dress worn when trying criminal cases, attending church officially, and on " red letter days" in the courts, consists of a scarlet gown, with a broad black belt, a tippet trimmed with white fur, known by courtesy as " ermine " (this is worn only on state occasions), and a scarlet casting-hood, always worn with the scarlet gown, the end of which is passed under the belt. For summer the robes are of thinner stuff, faced with slate-coloured silk instead of ermine. The full-bottomed wig is worn on state occasions; at other times a wig is worn similar to that of barristers, except that it has one vertical curl just above the tail of the wig instead of the three rows of horizontal curls going all the way round. The judges of the King's Bench Division have also a black gown, trimmed with ermine, which may be worn with the scarlet casting-hood when they sit two or more together. The summer equivalent of the black robes is in thin blue stuff, faced with silk. A costume like that of King's Counsel, namely, a black silk gown, with black cloth court suit, is the dress of judges when sitting alone to try civil actions, and of vice- chancellors and judges of the Chancery Division, but Sir Herbert Stephen remarks that of late years certain of the judges have preferred on grounds of comfort the black or blue gown with scarlet casting-hood. The court dress of the judges of the High Court and of Indian and colonial judges consists of a black damask tufted gown, without train, worn over a black velvet court suit, with full-bottomed wig, lace bands and three-cornered silk hat.1 The Lord Chancellor, when in the House of Lords, and sitting on Appeals, wears a black silk trained gown, over a black cloth court suit, with full-bottomed wig; he has also his peer's robe (see above), and his state robe of black damask with gold lace, worn over a velvet court suit, with full-bottomed wig, lace bands, &c.; the purse is carried on state occasions when in the royal presence. The state robe of the Master of the Rolls, the Lords Justices of the Court of Appeal, and the President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Divisions is the same, except that they have not the purse, and similar to it is the full-dress gown of the Speaker of the House of Commons, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, &c. The Lords Justices of the Court of Appeal sit in court in a costume similar to that of King's Counsel. The Lords of Appeal have no official robes, but sit in ordinary civilian dress. On state occasions they wear their peers' robes. The robes of state of the Lord Chief Justice of England are the same as those of the judges of the High Court, except that his are trained, and he wears the gold chain of office, the " collar of SS." The Scottish judges have two sets of robes, one for Justiciary (i.e. the criminal court), which is also their full dress, and one for civil causes (Court of Session). The dress for the President and Ordinary Lords of Session was fixed in 1610 by an order of James I., and was of purple cloth, faced with crimson satin, with hood to match, the President's gown having crimson velvet instead of satin. The four " extraordinary Sessionaries " were to wear black velvet, satin, or silk gowns, lined with black. The Lord Justice General wore a scarlet gown lined with ermine and an ermine hood, the Lord Justice Deputy and Lord Justice Clerk black gowns with crimson satin facings and hoods (see Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, vol. viii. p. 612). At the foundation of the High Court of Justiciary (1672) it was enacted " that for the splendour of that court, all the judges sit in red robes, faced with white, that of the Justice Generalls being lined with ermine for distinction from the rest " (see Acts of Parliament of Scotland, vol. viii. p. 88). The present full dress of the Lord Justice General is a scarlet silk robe with tippet and hood, the hood falling down the back; the collar is of ermine, with which the tippet, sleeves and gown are edged 1 Minute details of court and Iev6e dress, judicial and legal, will be found in Dress worn at Court (pp. 60-61), issued with the authority of the Lord Chamberlain, and ed. H. A. P. Trendell, of the Lord Chamberlain's department (London, 1908), — also details of mourning costume. and the hood lined. The Lord Justice Clerk wears a scarlet cloth robe and hood, and a white silk tippet lined with scarlet, the silk being perforated with small holes to imitate ermine, as also on the sleeves and edges of the gown. In front of the tippet on each side are two crosses in scarlet silk, and on each side of the gown six crosses. The ordinary Lords Commis- sioners of Justiciary have robes the same as those of the Lord Justice Clerk, except that the satin is not perforated. Instead of the bands worn by English judges, the Scottish judges wear a long fall in front. The Bar. — There appears to have been no official costume for the bar until the end of the tyth century. Druitt (Costume in Brasses, pp. 232-33) gives a list of several brasses of in lege perili, or apprenticii ad legem, most of whom wear ordinary civilian costume, occasionally with the addition of a high cap. In the i6th and I7th centuries they wear the false-sleeved gown worn by civilians. Before the iyth century the costume worn by students at the Inns of Court and by " Utter Barristers " consisted of a stuff gown, and sometimes, in term-time, a round cap, which was worn in hall and in church (see Herbert, History of the Inns of Court (1804), p. 230). In Westminster Hall (see Pulling, p. 223) the same costume was worn, Benchers and Readers having a more elaborate gown with facings of black velvet and tufts of silk. Frequent laws were passed in the i6th century and later, forbidding the wearing of swords, cloaks, boots and spurs, &c., in hall, and insisting on the wearing of gowns by students of the Inns of Court when walking in the city. In the I7th century, barristers, like the judges, adopted wigs, the full-bottomed wigs being confined to judges, " King's Counsellors," &c., and ordinary counsellors wearing small wigs. In Hollar's engraving of the coronation of Charles II. the King's Counsel, the King's Attorney and Solicitor, and the Master of the Rolls wear a laced gown with hanging sleeves. The silk gown, full-bottomed wig and black court dress now worn by King's Counsel is generally held to date from the funeral of Queen Mary II., being the mourning dress worn by the wish of King William for a considerable period after the queen's death, and adopted as a convenient costume ever since. There is a well- known jest of Chief Baron Pollock to the effect that " the Bar went into mourning at the death of Queen Anne, and never came out again," which bears out this theory as to the origin of the costume. At the present time barristers wear black stuff gowns, with small wigs having three rows of curls round the head. King's Counsel wear black silk gowns over a cloth court suit (cp. the expression " to take silk," i.e. to become a K.C.); on full-dress occasions they wear a full-bottomed wig-, and at court a black damask tufted gown over a velvet court suit. This is also the dress for state occasions of the Attorney- General, Solicitor-General, &c. Municipal and Civic Robes. — The word " livery," the use of which is now practically confined to the costume of the " livery companies," the dress of men-servants, &c., originally meant an allowance of food or clothing granted to certain persons (Lat. liber ata, Fr. livrfe). It is still used of the allowances of food made to the fellows of certain colleges. As early as the i3th century, according to Matt. Paris (Chron. Maj.; Rolls Series, III. 337), we find the citizens of London assuming a uniform dress to do honour to some great occasion, as, e.g., when in i 236 a body of them rode out to meet Henry III. and Queen Eleanor, " sericis vestimentis ornati, cicladibus auro textis circumdati, excogitatis mutatoriis amicti," or when 600 citizens rode out to meet Queen Margaret, wife of Edward I., " in one livery of red and white, with the cognizances of their misteries embroidered upon their sleeves " (see Stow's Survey, ed. Morley, p. 444). By the i4th century there is evidence of the adoption of liveries by the trades and fraternities. At the celebrations of the birth of Edward III. (see Riley's Mem- orials, p. 105) the mayor and aldermen were " richly arrayed in suits of robes," while the drapers, mercers and vintners were also " in costume." This need not, however, refer to liveries. G. Unwin (The Gilds of London, 1908) quotes a chron- icler who records that by the year 1319 " many of the people 412 ROBES of the trades of London were arrayed in livery," and an ordin- ance of 1347 of the fraternity of the Mercers commanding that " all those of the said mistery shall be clothed of one suit once a year at the feast of Easter," and Riley (op. cit. p. 516) quotes an order of 1389 allowing the sheriffs, on grounds of expense, to proceed to Westminster by boat instead of on horseback, " without there being any arraying of men of the trades in like suit for that purpose; except that such men of the trades as should wish to accompany them should walk in such suit of vestments of the livery of their respective trade as they might then have. " As to the liveries of the religious frater- nities, Chaucer (Prol. 361) describes: — " An Haberdasher and a Carpenter A Webbe, a Dyere, and a Tapicer," As, " clothed alle in a liveree Of a solempne and greet fraternitee." In 1389 there was a petition against the giving of liveries by the fraternities, on the ground that these gatherings were centres of political agitation, but in the statutes of Edward III. and Richard II. against liveries members of guilds were expressly excepted from these prohibitions. However, it was doubtless deemed prudent to make sure of the privilege, and so, when the livery companies were incorporated, they took care to have their liveries authorized by their charters. These liveries consisted of a gown and hood, though the hood only was sometimes given; thus the Grocers' Company had in 1430 55 members in the full livery, 17 in hoods and 42 not in livery. It was also customary for such of the companies as wished it to present liveries to outsiders, for instance, to the mayor, should he belong to another company. Thus in 1399 the Tailors gave liveries to the king, the prince and the mayor, and hoods to the sheriffs.. But in 1415 and 1423 the mayor and aldermen were forbidden to receive any livery except that of their own company. A similar custom was that by which a member of any company might send to the mayor a certain sum, receiving in return a suit of the livery of the mayor's company. The colours of the various liveries varied very much from time to time. Thus in 1414 the Grocers wore liveries of scarlet and green, which were changed in 1418 to scarlet and black, in 1428 to scarlet and blue and in 1450 to "violet in grain," with party-coloured hoods of violet and crimson. At first both gowns and hoods were party-coloured, but later a party-coloured hood was worn with a gown of one colour. The gowns were also lined and edged with *"*' fur. An early illustration of the liveries is to be found on the first charter of the Leathersellers' Company, granted them in 1444 by Henry VI., where the members of the company FIG. 4.— Liverymen of the Leather- are depicted kneeling sellers' Company, from the charter before the king in short of the Company granted by Henry party-coloured gowns of red and blue, edged at the neck, wrists and round the bottom with fur and with white girdles (see fig. 4, Jfrom a coloured reproduction in W. H. Black's History and Antiquities of the Leathersellers' Co.). In the reign of Henry VIII., Holbein's picture of the king giving a charter to the Barber-Surgeons' Company shows the members of the latter wearing gowns of rich stuff, with red and black party-coloured hoods, three of the figures also in coifs. The form of gown which has survived, practically unchanged, till the present day, may be seen on the second charter of the Leathersellers' Company, granted them by James I. in 1604 (see fig. 5, and for coloured plate see W. H. Black, op. cit.). Here we see them in flat caps, long black furred gowns, with false sleeves, and having on the right shoulder party-coloured hoods Sed FIG. 5. — Liverymen of sellers' Company, from of James I. (1604). Leather- a charter of scarlet and black, the end of which is cast over the left shoulder and hangs down nearly to the edge of the gown. Besides the liveries of the city companies, and those of the mayor and sheriffs, there was often a special livery adopted by all the citizens on some great occasion, such as a visit of the sovereign to the City. W. St John Hope (Cor- poration Plate and In- signia, ii. 141) quotes a number of such cases, showing that the city livery was sometimes green, sometimes blue, sometimes violet, some- times red and white, the city colours par ex- cellence. As to the costume of the mayor, aldermen, sheriffs, &c., we have seen above the mayor " richly costumed," and the alder- men " in like suits of robes," at the birth of Edward III., and Riley (op. cit.) gives an order of 1378, that the aldermen are to ride to Westminster in the mayor's proces- sion, " arrayed in a cloak and hood at least, that are party- coloured with red, scarlet and white, the red on the right side ; while he quotes (from Letter -book H. fol. cxlvi) the amusing sentence passed by his fellow-aldermen in 1382 on one John Seley, for disregarding the order to have his green cloak for the Whitsuntide procession lined with green taffeta. Thus before the I5th century the aldermen apparently had not yet their scarlet robes, but on state occasions wore the ordinary city livery. For the early 15th century we have the Liber Albus (written c. 1419; Rolls Series, ed. Riley), where we are told (p. 35) that "The Mayor, Sheriff and Aldermen were wont to array themselves in like suits of robes twice in the year, viz. when the mayor rode to Westminster to take the oath, and on the day following the feast of SS. Simon and Jude; and this raiment was trimmed with fur as befitting their honourable rank; and they would also dress themselves in suits of robes against the feast of Pentecost, these robes having a lining of silk." The scarlet, violet and black robes, still worn by the Lord Mayor, aldermen, &c., were early in use. There is an order of 142 1 (8 Henry V.) that the aldermen should use " togis et armilausis de scarleto," and in numerous accounts of royal receptions and other solemn occasions in the City we are told that the mayor and alder- men were in scarlet (W. St John Hope, in Corporation Plate and Insignia, i., Introd. Ixxxv seq., and ii. 138-147, quotes a number of these, and treats the whole subject of mayors', &c., robes very fully) . The Liber Albus (i. i, ch. vi.) also shows us the mayor and alder- men assembled at the Guildhall on the day of the election of the new mayor induti togis de violet. As to the form of the dress in the 1 4th and 1 5th century, we can see from brasses of lord mayors and aldermen (see Haines, Manual, pp. cc-cci ; and Cotman, Norfolk Brasses. There is a fine series of brasses of mayors, &c., at Norwich) that it consisted of a long gown, a mantle fastened on the right shoulder and a hood. As to the provincial mayors and aldermen there is evidence that at quite an early date many of them followed the fashion of London ; e.g. the Royal Charter of Nottingham, of 1448, contains the words: " that the Aldermen of the same town forever . . . may use gowns, hoods and cloaks of one suit and one livery together with furs and linings suitable to these cloaks, in the same manner and form as the Mayor and Aldermen of our city of London do use, the Statute of Liveries . . . notwithstanding " (see Nottingham Records, ii. 205), while the charter granted by Henry VI. to Kingston-on-Hull in 1440 contains practically the same words (see St J. Hope, i. Ixxxvi). The costume of provincial mayors, &c., is shown by St John Hope (loc. cit.) to have generally consisted of a scarlet furred gown and cloak, with tippet or scarf of black velvet. The colour was not, however, invariably scarlet, but varied to violet, blue and black, sometimes even for the mayor. An account of the robes of modern provincial mayors will be found in St J. Hope, p. Ixxxix seq. and under the accounts of the various boroughs, passim. There is some doubt as to when the Lord Mayor first began to wear his robe of estate of crimson velvet. Stow (Survey, ed. Strype, 1720, ii. 165) says that at the reception of Henry VI. at Eltham the mayor was in crimson velvet, the aldermen in scarlet with " sanguine " hoods, but at the coronation of Edward V. (see St J. Hope) he wore scarlet. At the coronation of Anne Boleyn (see ^riothesley's Chronicle, loc. cit. supr., and Hall's Chronicle) the mayor wore his crimson velvet robe of state, the aldermen and sheriffs scarlet; and at the entry of Anne of Cleves into London the mayor was again in his crimson velvet robe with his collar of gold, the aldermen and councilmen in robes of black velvet with chains of gold (but see ROBES PLATE IV. Lord Chief Justice of England in full robes, scarlet and ermine, with collar of S. S. Judge of the Supreme Court of the United States of America. The Lord High Chancellor of Knirliuid, in robes of State. Lord Mayor of London, in full robes. Judge of the High Court, England, in black robes. Aldeen worn, while the large hind feet are webbed. The typical //. chrysogaster is a large brown rat with an orange belly, which feeds on small fishes and insects. Limnomys, from New Guinea, is a type less specialized for swimming, the hind-feet being much less twisted than in Hydromys, and not so fully webbed. Still less specialized are Chrotomys and Xeromys, which include Philip- pine land-rats, while Crunomys, from the same area, retains the third molars, and thus connects the group with the Murinae. Finally, the Philippine Rhynchomys is represented by a rat with two pairs of molars and a long shrew-like nose, the zygomatic arch of the skull being also placed unusually far backward. Strand-Moles. — With the so-called strand-moles of South Africa, forming the section Bathyergoidea, and the family Bathyergidae, which were formerly placed with the Spalacidae, we come to the first of two sections in which the lower jaw has a totally different form to that obtaining in all the preceding groups. In the rodents now to be considered, the angular process of the lower jaw arises from the outer side of the sheath of the incisor. The malleus and incus i.f the internal ear are united, and there is no transverse canal in the skull. At least one pair of premolars is present in each jaw; and these teeth and the molars typically have one outer and one inner enamel fold. There is no foramen at the lower end of the humerus, and no horny layer in the stomach. In the Bathyergoidea the scaphoid and lunar of the carpus arc separate, the tibia and fibula united and the clavicles normal. The masseter muscle does not pass through the narrow infra-orbital canal, and the temporal muscle is large. All the Bathyergidae are African, and adapted to a burrowing life, having minute ears and eyes, a short tail and the thumb armed with a large claw. The largest species represents the genus Bathyergus, while several smaller kinds are included in Ceorychus. The former construe t> its tunnels in the sandy flats near the shore at the Cape, but the latter generally frequent higher ground. In both genera there is only a single pair of premolars in each jaw, but in the smaller Myoscalops there are usually three pairs of these teeth. The most remarkable members of the family are the sand-rats of Somaliland and Shoa, forming the genera Heterocephalus and Fornarina, in which the premolars may be reduced to two pairs. They ha\c large heads, projecting incisors, no ears, almost functionless eyes and moderately long tails; the skin, with the exception of a few hairs on the body and frinres on the feet, being naked. They spend their whole time buried in the hot desert sand, in which they construct burrows, throwing up at intervals small hillocks. Porcupines. — In the second section, or Hystricoidea, including several families, the skull (fig. 14) is characterized by the heavy FIG. 14.— Skull of the Capybara (Hydrochaerus capybara), reduced. zygomatic arch, the middle portion of which is formed by the more or less straight and horizontal jugal, and the large infra-orbital canal, traversed by a portion of the masseter muscle. The tibia and fibula are separate, but the scaphoid and lunar are united, and the clavicles are generally incomplete. There is never more 444 RODENTIA than one pair of premolars, and the original ridges of all the cheek- teeth have become obscured and complicated by the development of secondary enamel-folds. The majority of these rodents, many o! which are of large size, are terrestriaj, but a few are burrowing others arboreal and two or three aquatic. The Old World porcupines, constituting the family Hystricidae, are terrestrial, stoutly built rodents, with limbs of subequal length in front and behind, and the skin covered with strong spines. The upper lip is cleft, the jugal lacks an inferior angle, the fore part of the skull is short and broad; the cheek-teeth are partially rooted, with external and internal enamel-folds, the soles of the feet are smooth, there are six pairs of teats, the clavicles are imperfect and the tail is not prehensile. In the typical genus Hystrix, which FIG. 15. — The Brazilian Tree-Porcupine (Synetheres (or Coendu) prehensilis). is represented in all the three great continents of the Old World, and extends as far east as Flores and Celebes, the skull is swollen and convex, the spines are cylindrical, and the tail is short and covered with spines and slender-stalked open quills. In Atherura fasciculate, of the Malay Peninsula the spines are flattened, and the tails long and scaly, with a tuft of compressed bristles. A closely- allied species, A. africana, inhabits Western Africa. The third genus is Trichys (see PORCUPINE). American Porcupines. — All the New World porcupines, repre- senting the family Erethizontidae (or Cpendidae) are arboreal in their habits, and have the upper lip undivided, the cheek-teeth rooted, the clavicles complete, the soles of the feet tuberculated and three pairs of teats. Erethizon dorsatus, the urson, is distributed all over the forest regions of North America; Synetheres (or Coendu') pre- hensilis, the prehensile-tailed porcupine of South America (fig. 15), represents a genus in which the whole upper surface of the body is protected by long white-tipped spines; Chaetomys subspinosus is clothed with strong wavy bristles. In the last two genera the feet have four toes, in place of the five of Erethizon (see PORCUPINE). Cavy Group. — In the family Caviidae, typified by the cavies (or guinea-pigs), may be included a large number of South and Central American rodents, among which the agoutis and pacas are often ranked as a family (Dasyproctidae) by themselves. The Caviidae, in the present more comprehensive sense, include the giants of the rodent order. Many of them, like ungulates, are specialized for swift running, and have unusually long limbs, with ridges developed on the articular surfaces of the lower bones; the clavicles are more or less reduced; the thorax is more compressed than usual, with a narrower breast-bone; and there is a marked tendency to the reduction or loss of the lateral toes, more especially in the hind limb. Since these rodents walk more or less entirely on their toes, in such a manner that the edges of the claws or nails come in contact with the ground, these tend to assume somewhat of a hoof-like character; while the foot-pads are more or less horny. The tail is generally very short, and its basal vertebrae are often fused with the sacrum. In the skull the lachrymal bone is large, the par- occipital process is directed vertically downwards and the tympanic bulla is hollow. In the soft parts the caecum is very large, the penis is armed with a pair of barbed horny claspers and the scrotum is spiny. Special interest attaches to the most aberrant member of the family, the Peruvian Dinomys, known for more than thirty years only by a single specimen taken in a house in Lima, and only lately rediscovered. It is a large rodent known to the Tupi Indians as the paca-rana, or false paca, in allusion to the resemblance of its coloration to that of the true paca, from which it differs by its well- developed tail, the absence of cheek-pouches, the full development of all five toes and the wider thorax. The Tupi name may be adopted as the popular title of the species. Dr E. Goeldi states that the paca-rana is a rodent of phlegmatic and gentle disposition, which may account, perhaps, for its rarity, if, indeed, it be really scarce in its native home, which is probably the eastern slopes and tablelands of the Bolivian and Peruvian foot-hills bordering on Brazil, inclusive of the headwaters of the Purus, Acre and Jurua rivers. In the true pacas, Coelogenys (or Agouti), the first front toe is small, and both the first and fifth digits of the hind-foot are much inferior in size to the olher three. The most remarkable feature of the genus is, however, the extraordinary development of the zygomatic arches of the skull, which are enormously expanded vertically, forming great convex bony capsules on the sides of the face, enclosing on each side a large cavity lined with mucous membrane internally, and communicating by a small opening with the mouth. C. paca is a white-spotted rodent, about 2 ft. long, and lives generally in the forests or along the banks of rivers (see PACA). The Agoutis, Dasyprocta, include several species of slender-limbed rodents, with three hind-toes, inhabiting Central and South America, one (D. cristata) extending into the West Indian islands. The members of both Coelogenys and Dasyprocta are terrestrial in their habits, and have the fore- and hind-limbs subequal, hoof-like claws, short or obsolete tail and rudimentary clavicles. The masseteric ridge of the lower jaw is obsolete, the palate broad, the incisors long and the molars semi-rooted, with external and internal enamel-folds (see AGOUTI). The remaining and more typical members of the family, one of which is aquatic, are characterized by their short incisors, the strong masseteric ridges on the sides of the lower jaw, the long and curved par-occipitals and the palate contracted in front. Fore-feet with four digits, hind-feet with three; clavicles imperfect; molars divided by enamel-folds inta transverse lobes; milk-teeth shed before birth. In the true cavies, or couies, Cavia, the fore- and hind-limbs are short and of subequal length, the ears are short and there is no tail. They include several species widely distributed throughout South America, extending even to the straits of Magellan, from one of which (C. cutleri of Peru) the guinea-pig is derived. The maras (Dolichotis) have the limbs and ears long and the tail very short. D. pata- gonica is a large species, nearly 3 ft. long, inhabiting the gravelly plains of Patagonia, while D. salinicola is a much smaller rodent from the salt-lagunas of Argentina. The palate is so much contracted in front that the premolars of opposite sides touch by their antero-internal edges. Hydrochaerus, in which all the feet are fully webbed, includes a single species, the capybara, or carpincho, the largest of living rodents. The skull (fig. 14) is distinguished not only by its great size, but by the enormous development of the par-occipital processes and the complex structure and large size of the last molars (see CAVY and CAPYBARA). Chinchilla Group. — The family, Chinchillidae, typified by the well- known chinchilla, includes a small number of South American rodents with large ears and proportionately great auditory bullae in (he skull, elongated hind-limbs, bushy tails, very soft fur and perfect clavicles. The jugal is without an inferior angle, and extends forwards to the lachrymal; the palate is contracted in front and deeply emarginate behind; the incisors are short, and the molars divided by continuous folds into transverse plates; and the two halves of the lower jaw are welded together in front. It includes three existing genera, represented by some five species. Of these the true chinchilla, Chinchilla lanigera, C. brevicaudata, Lagidium peruanum and L. pallipes, are restricted to the alpine zones of the Andes from the northern boundary of Peru to the southern parts of Chili; while Lagostomus trichodactylus (or Viscaccia viscaccia), the viscacha, is confined to the pampas from the Uruguay river to the Rio Negro. In Chinchilla the fore-feet have five and the hind Four digits, the tail is long and bushy, and the auditory bullae are enormous, appearing on the top of the skull ; Lagidium has four digits :n both fore- and hind-feet, and Lagostomus three only in the hind- :eet, while the auditory bullae are much smaller (see CHINCHILLA and VISCACHA); Hutia Group. — The three remaining families of the Hystricoidea, of which one is African while the other two are chiefly South American, are very closely allied and often brigaded in a single family group. In the Capromyidae, which includes only the South American and West Indian hutias, the South American coypu and the African cane-rats, the tympanic bulla of the skull is hollow, the Dar-occipital process straight, the lachrymal small, and the cheek- :eeth rooted, with deep enamel-folds; the first front toe teing occasionally absent. Of the few living representatives of the Croup, the genus Myocastor (or Myopotamus) is represented only )y the South American coypu, M. coypu, which is aquatic in its labits, and measures about 2 ft. in length, being the largest member of the group. It has a long tail, brown fur and red ncisors, and lives in burrows near water, feeding on aquatic plants. RODENTIA 445 The hutia (Capromys pilorides) is nearly as large, arboreal in habits, and a native of Cuba, where it is the largest indigenous mammal. Other species occur in Cuba, Jamaica and the Bahamas, while a Venezuelan species, Procapromys geayi, represents a separate genus. In one kind the tail is prehensile. All these rodents are remarkable for the manner jn which the liver is divided into minute lobules. Plagiodontia aedium, another member of the group, is peculiar to Hayti. The African cane-rats, Thryonomys (or Aulacodus), are large terrestrial rodents, ranging from the centre of the continent to the Cape, easily recognized by their deeply fluted incisors (see COYPU). The Octodontidae, which are exclusively South American, differ from the preceding family by the tympanic bulla being filled with cellular bony tissne, and by the par-occipital process curving beneath it, while the cheek-teeth are almost or com- pletely rootless and composed of parallel plates. The first front toe may be absent. The more typical members of the family are rat-like_ burrowing rodents, living in communities. The typical genus is represented by the dcgu (Oclodon degus) and several nearly related species; other genera being Ctenomys, Octodontomys (Nepctodon), Aconaemys, Spalacopus and Abrocoma; the latter taking its name from its unusually soft fur. Among these, the tuco-tucos (Ctenomys) are characterized by their burrowing habits, almost rudimentary ears, small eyes, short tails and the kidney- shaped grinding-surfaces of their cheek-teeth. They take their name of tuco-tuco from their cry, which resembles the blows of a hammer on an anvil, and may be heard all day as the little rodents move in their burrows, generally formed m sandy soil. In some districts the ground is undermined by these burrows, in which stores of food are accumulated. The species of Octodon have larger ears, longer, tufted tails and the sides of the cheek- teeth indented by plates of enamel ; they are chiefly found in hedgerows and bushes, where they burrow. In Abrocoma the tail has no tuft, the ears are still larger and the lower cheek-teeth more complex than the upper ones. Aconaemys is an allied Chilean genus in which the enamel-folds meet across the molars. Several of these rodents live in the Andes, where the ground is covered for months with snow. The second group of the family is formed by the genera Lonckeres, Dactylomys, Echi[no}mys, Proechimys and a few others, the members of which are rat-like rodents, with long scaly or furry tails, and frequently flattened spines mingled with the fur of the back. Most species are brown above and whitish beneath, but in some the lighter tints extend on to the sides, shoulders and head, communicating a coloration somewhat like that of a guinea-pig (see OCTODON). The North African gundis (Ctenodactylus gundi and Ct. vali) are the types of an African family, which also includes the genera Massoutiera, Pectinator and Petromys. In the gundi the two inner toes of the hind-foot are furnished with a horny comb and bristles for the purpose of cleaning the fur, and the tail is very short ; but in Pectinator the tail is longer. Petromys has a still longer and more bushy tail, and no comb to the hind-feet. The gundi is a diurnal species, inhabiting rocky districts, and having habits very similar to those of a jerboa. Of these Ctenodactylus and Pectinator are characterized by the union of the incus and malleus of the internal ear, the free fibula and the almost rootless cheek-teeth. The premolar is very small, thus showing an approximation to the Myoidea, although in other respects Petromys appears to ap- proximate to the Hystricidae. Picas and Hares. — The remaining rodents, which include two families — the picas (Ochotonidae) and the hares and rabbits (Leporidae) — constitute a second sub-order, the Duplicidentata, differing from all the foregoing groups in possessing two pairs of incisors in the upper jaw (of which the second is small, and placed directly behind the large first pair), the enamel of which extends round to their postcricr surfaces. At birth there are three pairs of incisors, but the outer one is soon lost. The incisive foramina are large and usually confluent; the bony palate is very narrow from before backwards; there is no alisphenoid canal; the fibula is welded to the tibia, and articulates with the calcaneum; and the testes are permanently external. All are terrestrial, and in many cases burrowing, in their habits, and some of them are of extreme fleetness. The Ochotonidae are represented at the present day only by the single genus Ochotona (Lagomys), which includes all the picas, or mouse-hares. They are small rodents with com- plete clavicles, fore- and hind-limbs of nearly equal length, no external tails and short ears. Skull depressed, frontals contracted and without post-orbital processes; p. } or f; molars rootless, with transverse enamel-folds. In some cases the molar-formula is |. The genus includes about a score of species of guinea-pig-like animals, inhabiting chiefly the mountainous parts of Northern Asia (from 11,000 to 14,000 ft.), one species only being known from South-east Europe and several from the Rocky Mountains and Alaska. From the picas the hares and rabbits (Leporidae) are distinguished by the imperfect clavicles, the more or less elongated hind-limbs, short recurved tail (absent in one case) and generally long ears. The skull is compressed, with large wing-shaped post-orbital processes (fig. 16); p. |. With the exception of Australasia, the family has a cosmopolitan distribution; and its numerous species resemble one another more or less closely in general external characters. In all the fore-limbs have five and the hind four digits; and the soles of the feet are densely clothed with hairs similar to those covering the legs; the inner surface of the cheeks being hairy. Although the family has such a wide dis- tribution, the greater number of the species are restricted to Europe, north- ern and cen- tral Asia and North America ; South America having very few. Till within the last few years the majority of naturalists fol- FIG. 16.— Skull of the Common Hare lowed the prac- europaeus). tice of including all the members of the family in the genus Lepus. It is true that Mr E. Blyth long ago proposed the name Caprolagus for the remarkable spiny rabbit of the western Himalayas, while the generic name Oryctolagus was suggested later for the rabbit, and Sylvilagus for the American cotton-tails " ; but none of these was accorded general acceptation. Of late years, however, zoologists have come to the conclusion that generic sub- divisions of the Leporidae are advisable. In 1899 L)r Fcrsyth Major proposed a classification of the family in which a number of species were grouped with the spiny rabbit in the genus Capro- lagus, whilst Oryctolagus was taken to include not only the common raobit, but likewise the Cape hare. A more recent classification is that of Mr M. W. Lyon, in which by far the largest number of species of the family are retained in the original genus Lepus, which has also the widest geographical distribution of all the genera. It is typified by the blue hare (Lepus timidus), next to which comes the common hare (L. europaeus) and certain other allied forms. The jackass-hares of Mexico, &c., such as L. californicus, fcrm a second sub-group; while these are in turn followed by the American hare (L. americanus) and its immediate relatives. The cotton- tails, or wood-rabbits, of North and South America are regarded as forming a genus, Sylvilagus, by themselves, which includes the Brazilian and Paraguay hares, and appears to be chiefly dis- tinguished by a certain feature in the parietal region of the skull. Under the name of Oryctolagus cuniculus, the rabbit is considered to represent a genus by itself, specially characterized by the short- ness of the ears and hind-feet. The swamp-rabbit (L. palustris) and water-hare (L. aqualicus) of the southern United States form the group Limnolragus, characterized by the harsher fur, the shorter ears, tail and hind-feet, and the complete fusion of the post-orbital process (which is so distinct in the typical hares) with the adjacent parts of the skull, so that neither notches nor perforations are developed in this region. The short-tailed rabbit of the western United States (Brachylagus idahoensis) is the sole member of a group allied in general characters to the typical Lepus, but dis- tinguished by the unusually short tail. Another group is Prono- lagus, typified by the Cape thick-tailed hare, the so-called Lepus crassicaudatus , which is externally similar to Lepus proper, but has the skull and teeth of the general type of the next group. The tail- less rabbit of Mount Popocatepetl, Mexico, originally described as a distinct generic type, under the name of Romerolagus nelsoni, is broadly distinguished by the entire absence of the tail, and the short ears and hind-feet, its general form being like that of the Liu-Kiu rabbit, while, as in the latter, the post-orbital process of the skull is small, and represented only by the hinder half. Next come three remarkable rabbits from the Indo-Malay countries, all closely allied, although regarded as representing three generic groups, Nesolagus, Caprolagus and Pentalagus. In all three the skull is of the type of Romerolagus. The first is represented by the Sumatran rabbit, the so-called N. netscheri, which apparently differs from the spiny rabbit mainly by the pattern of the cheek- teeth. The spiny rabbit, separated from Lepus by Blyth in 1845 under the name of Caprolagus hispidus, is an inhabitant of Assam and the adjacent districts, and distinguished by its harsh, bristly fur and short ears and tail. In the Liu-Kiu rabbit (Pentalagus furnessi) the coat is equally harsh, but the ears and hind-feet are shorter, and there are only five (in place of the usual six) pairs of upper cheek-teeth. In the loss of the last upper molar, the Liu-Kiu rabbit approximates to the picas, as does the tailless rabbit in the abortion of its caudal appendage. Mr Lyon's scheme seems to be the best attempt to explain the affinities of the members of the group. Whether all his genera be adopted, or all the species be included in Lepus, must largely be a matter of individual opinion. 44-6 RODERICK— RODEZ If the latter course be followed, Mr Lyons's genera must be reduced to the rank of sub-genera, and his sub-generic divisions of Lepus and Sylvilagus ignored. (See HARE and RABBIT.) EXTINCT RODENTS Among extinct rodents, only a few of the more important types may be noticed. As to the origin of the order, we are still to a great extent in the dark; and even the relations of the Duplicidentata to the Simplicidentata are not yet fully understood. With regard to the latter point, it is, however, considered probable that both are branches of a common stock, which diverged from each other before all the typical rodent characters were acquired. As to the ancestral stock of the order, it has been suggested that this is re- presented by certain Lower Eocene European and North American mammals, at one time regarded as primitive Primates. In Europe these include Plesiadapis and Protoadapis, and in North America Mixodecles, Microsyops and Cynodontomys; the last three consti- tuting the family Mixodectidae. Possibly the European forms, in which the dental formula has been given as i. f, c. J, p\, m.\, and there is a gap between the incisors and the cheek-teeth, are more nearly related to modern rodents than the American types, and may indeed belong to the same order. On the other hand, the American forms, which have one pair of large chisel-like incisors in the lower jaw, also possess a lower canine, and show no marked gap in front of the cheek-teeth, nor any indication of the characteristic rodent backwards movement of the lower jaw. On these grounds, while admitting that they are allied to the rodents, it has been pointed out that they can scarcely be included in the Rodentia, and the order Proglires has in consequence been proposed for their reception. Whatever may be the true affinity of these problematical mammals, undoubted rodents are known from the Lower Eocene of both Europe and North America. In Europe these form the genus Ischyromys and the family Ischyromyidae, and have premolars f, and all the cheek-teeth low-crowned, with simple cusps or ridges. Possibly they are akin to the Sciuridae. In America, Paramys, with transversely ridged molars, is allied ; and the European Sciuromys should perhaps find a place in the same neighbourhood. A more advanced phase is represented in the European Lower Oligocene by the Pseudosciuridae, with the genera Pseudosciurus, Sciuroid.es, Trechomys, Theridomys, &c., in which part of the masseter passes through the broad infra-orbital canal, and the premolars are } ; the molars being low-crowned, many-rooted and either cusped or ridged. These rodents are thought to be allied to the Anomaluridae ; and it is partly on their evidence that the family Pedetidae is placed next the latter. Here it may be mentioned that Leithia, from the Pleistocene of Malta, originally regarded as a giant dormouse, seems near akin to Anomalurus. In the highly specialized mastoid region of the skull, the North American Oligocene Protoptychus approaches to Dipopodomys, while the contemporary Gymnoptychus and En- toplychus likewise appear referable to the Geomyidae. The Upper Oligocene Cricetodon in Europe and Ewnys in America are the earliest known forerunners of the cricetine Muridae; while at the same time primitive beavers appear in the form of Steneofiber, to be succeeded in the European Pleistocene by the gigantic Trogontherium. The still larger North American Pleistocene Castoroides, known by one species of the size of a bear, and the allied West Indian Amblyrhiza, appear to be specialized beavers, although they have been referred to a family by themselves. Near akin is the North American Miocene family Mylagaulidae, typified by Mylagaulus, but including Mesogaulus and Protogaulus. Although showing some dental characters approximating to the porcupines, these rodents are regarded as allied to the Castoridae, although forming an isolated type. The prominent feature, writes Mr E. S. Riggs, is the unusual development of the premolar to the exclusion of the posterior teeth. Associated with this is the strength and sharpness uf the lower jaw, the prominence and anterior position of the masseteric ridge, and the depth of the ramus from the alveolar line to the angle. These indicate unusual capacity for crushing or grinding; while the last premolar is a crushing implement, which has reached the highest degree of specialization known in Rodentia. It is suggested that these teeth may have been employed for cracking nuts or hard seeds, although also used for grinding. The remarkable North American Ceratogaulus , with a large bony nasal horn, belongs to the same family. To discuss the remaining Miocene and later fossil Simplicidentata would be doing little more than adding to the generic names referable to the various existing families. It may be mentioned, however, that the distribution of these later Tertiary types accords very closely with that of their existing re- latives; the families of South American hystricoids being repre- sented by a number of extinct genera in the formations of Argentina and Brazil. Special mention may be made of Megamys, from the caves of Brazil, which, while apparently allied to the living viscacha, attained dimensions approximating to those of a hippopotamus. As regards the Duplicidentata, it appears that the families Ocho- tonidae and Leporidae had become differentiated as early as the Lower Miocene. Titanomys is the earliest form, from the Middle Miocene, succeeded by Lagopsis, and then by the modern Ochotona. In this line there is a tendency to lose the last upper molar, but in Prolagus, which ranges in the Pliocene from Sardinia and Corsica to Spain, and forms a side-branch, the corresponding lower tooth has likewise disappeared. In contradistinction to Titanomys, in which the cheek-teeth are rooted, is the North American Upper Oligocene Palaeolagus, where they are rootless. In general dental characters, especially the retention of three pairs of molars, this genus approximates to the Leporidae, although in the absence of post-orbital processes and the pattern of the molars it departs less widely from the modern Ochotonjdae than does Prolagus. AUTHORITIES. — The above article is partly based on that by G. E. Dobson in the gth edition of this work. See also H. Winge, Jord Fundene og Nulevende Gnadere (Rodentia), E. Museo Lundi (1888); C. J. Forsyth-Major, " On some Miocene Squirrels, with Remarks on the Dentition and Classification of the Sciuridae," Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1893); " On Fossil and Recent Lagomorpha," Trans. Linnean Soc. London, vol. vii. (1899); T. S. Palmer, "A List of the Generic and Family Names of Rodents," Proc. Zool. Soc. Washing- ton, vol. xi. (1897) ; O. Thomas, " On the Genera of Rodents," Proc. Zool. Soc. London (1896); T. Tuhlberg, Uber das System der Nagethiere (Upsala, 1899); H. F. Osbcrn, "American Eocene Primates, and the Supposed Rodent Family Mixodectidae," Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. xvi. (1902); W. Lyon, " Classification of the Hares and their Allies," Smithsonian Miscell. Collections, vol. xlv. (1903). Also numerous papers by O. Thomas, in Proc. Zool. Soc. London and Annals and Magazine of Nat. Hist., and by several American naturalists in transatlantic zoological serials. (R. L.*) RODERICK, or RUADRI (d. 1198), king of Connaught and high king of Ireland, was the son of Turlough (Tordelbach) O'Connor, king of Connaught, who had obtained the over- kingship in 1151, but had lost it again in 1154 through the rise of Muirchertach O'Lochlainn in Ulster. Roderick succeeded to Connaught in 1156, and after ten years' fighting won back the title of high king. His ill-advised persecution of Dermot (Diarmait MacMurchada), king of Leinster, furnished the pretext for the Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland. Roderick endeavoured to expel the invaders, but was driven behind the Shannon. He delayed his submission to Henry II. until 1175, when a treaty was concluded at Windsor. Roderick, under this agreement, held Connaught as the vassal of England, and exercised lordship over all the native kings and chiefs of Ireland; in return he undertook to pay an annual tribute. The treaty did not put an end to the wars of the Norman adven- turers against Connaught and Roderick's dependants. He held out till 1191; but then, weary of strife, retired to the cloister. He died in 1198, the last of the high kings of Ireland. See Giraldus Cambrensis, Opera, vol. v. (Rolls Series) ; G. Orpen's Song of Dermot and the Earl (1892) ; W. Stubbs's edition of Benediclus Abbas (Rolls Series); Miss K. Norgate's England under the Angevin Kings, vol. ii. (1887). RODEZ, a town of southern France, capital of the department of Aveyron, 51 m. N.N.E. of Albi by rail. Pop. (1906) town, 11,076; commune, 15,502. Rodez is situated on the southern border of the Causse of Rodez, on an isolated plateau bordered on the E. and S. by the river Aveyron. The cathedral was built between 1277 and 1535. A great Flamboyant rose- window and a gallery in the same style are the chief features of the principal facade, which is flanked by two square towers and has no portal. Each transept has a fine Gothic doorway. On the north side of the building rises a tower (1510-1526) of imposing height (253 ft.). The three upper stages are richly decorated, and the whole is surmounted by a colossal statue of the Virgin. In the cathedral are a fine rood-loft, some good wood-carving and the tombs of several bishops. Other interest- ing buildings are the episcopal palace (i?th and 1 9th centuries), flanked by a massive tower, relic of an older palace; the church of St Amans, of Romanesque architecture, restored in the i8th century; and, among other old houses, the hotel d'Armagnac built in the Renaissance period on the site of the old palace of the counts. The ruins of a Roman amphitheatre still exist in Rodez, which is supplied with water by a Roman aqueduct. About 6 m. to the north of Rodez is the chasm of Tindoul de la Vayssiere, leading to a subterranean river issuing in the springs of the picturesque village of Salles-la-Source. The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance and commerce, a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France, a lycee training college for both sexes and an ecclesiastical seminary. The industries include wool-spinning and the weaving of woollen goods. RODGERS— RODNEY Rodez, called Segodunum under the Gauls, and Ruthena under the Romans, was the capital of the Rutheni, a tribe allied to the Arverni and was afterwards the principal town in the district of Rouergue In the 4th century it adopted the Christian faith, and St Amans its first bishop, was elected in 401. During the middle ages contests were rife between the bishops, who held the temporal power in the cite, and the counts in the " bourg." The Albfgenses were defeated near Rodez in 1210. The countship of Rodez, detachec from that of Rouergue at the end of the nth century, belongec first to the viscounts of Carlat, and from the beginning of the I4th century to the counts of Armagnac. From 1360 to 1368 the English held the town. After the confiscation of the estates of the Armagnacs '" '475 the countship passed to the dukes of Alengon and then to the D'Albrets. Henry IV. finally annexed it to the crown of France RODGERS, JOHN (1771-1838), American sailor, was born in Harford county, Maryland, on the iith of July 1771. He entered the United States navy when it was organized in 1798. He was second in command to Commodore James Barren (1760-1851) in the expedition against the Barbary pirates, and succeeded him in the command in 1805. In this year he brought both Tunis and Tripoli to terms, and then returned to America. In 181 1 he was in command as commodore of the U.S. frigate " President " (44) off Annapolis when he heard that an American seaman had been " pressed " by a British frigate off Sandy Hook. Commodore Rodgers was ordered to sea " to protect American commerce," but he may have had verbal instructions to retaliate for the impressment of real or supposed British subjects out of American vessels, which was causing much ill-feeling and was a main cause of the War of 1812. On the i6th of May 1811 he sighted and followed the British sloop " Little Belt " (22), and after some hailing and counter- hailing, of which very different versions are given on either side, a gun was fired, each side accusing the other of the aggression, and an action ensued in which the " Little Belt " was cut to pieces. The incident, which was represented as an accident by the Americans, and believed to be a deliberate aggression by the British navy, had a share in bringing on war. When hostilities broke out Rodgers commanded a squadron on the coast of America, and was wounded by the bursting of one of his guns while pursuing the British frigate " Belvedere." He was subsequently President of the Board of Navy Commissioners in 1815-1824 and in 1827-1837, and acting secretary of the navy in 1823 for two weeks. He died in Philadelphia on the ist of August 1838. His brother, George Washington Rodgers (1787-1832), a brother-in-law of Commodore Perry, served in the War of 1812 and in the war with Algiers (1815). Rear-Admiral John Rodgers (1812-1882), a son of Commodore John Rodgers, served in the Union navy and in 1877-1882 was superintendent of the Naval Observatory at Washington. G. W. Rodgers had two sons who were naval officers, Christopher Raymond Perry Rodgers (1819-1892) and George Washington Rodgers (1822-1863). RODIN, AUGUSTE (1840- ), French sculptor, was born in 1840, in Paris, and at an early age displayed a taste for his art. He began by attending Barye's classes, but did not yield too completely to his influence. From 1864 to 1870, under pressure of necessity, he was employed in the studio of Carrier- Belleuse, where he learnt to deal with the mechanical difficulties of a sculptor. Even so early as 1864 his individuality was manifested in his " Man with a Broken Nose." After the war, finding nothing to do in Paris, Rodin went to Brussels, where from 1871 to 1877 he worked, as the colleague of the Belgian artist Van Rasbourg, on the sculpture for the outside and the caryatides for the interior of the Bourse, besides exhibiting in 1875 a " Portrait of Gamier." In 1877 he contributed to the Salon " The Bronze Age," which was seen again, cast in bronze, at the Salon of 1880, when it took a third-class medal, was purchased by the State, and is now in the museum of the Luxembourg. Between 1882 and 1885 he sent to the Salons busts of " Jean-Paul Laurens " and " Carrier-Belleuse " (1882), " Victor Hugo " and " Dalou " (1884), and " Antonin Proust " (1885). From about this time he chiefly devoted himself to a great decorative composition six metres high, which was not finished for twenty years. This is the " Portal of Hell," the 447 most elaborate perhaps of all Rodin's works, executed to order for the Musee des arts decoratifs. It is inspired mainly by Dante's Inferno, the poet himself being seated at the top, while at his feet, in under-cut relief, we see the writhing crowd of the damned, torn by the frenzy of passion and the anguish of despair. The lower part consists of two bas-reliefs, in their midst two masks of tormented faces. Round these run figures of women and centaurs. Above the door three men cling to each other in an attitude of despair. After beginning this titanic undertaking, and while continuing to work on it, Rodin executed for the town of Damvillers a statue of " Bastien- Lepage "; for Nancy a " Monument to Claude le Lorrain," representing the Chariot of the Sun drawn by horses; and for Calais " The Burgesses of Calais " surrendering the keys of the town and imploring mercy. In this, Rodin, throwing over all school tradition, represents the citizens not as grouped on a square or circular plinth, but walking in file. This work was exhibited at the Petit Gallery in 1889. At the time of the secession of the National Society of Fine Arts, or New Salon, in 1890, Rodin withdrew from the old Society of French Artists, and exhibited in the New Salon the bust of his friend " Puvis de Chavannes " (1892), " Contemplation " and a " Caryatid," both in marble, and the " Monument to Victor Hugo " (1897), intended for the gardens of the Luxembourg. In this the poet is represented nude, as a powerful old man extending his right arm with a sovereign gesture, the Muses standing behind him. In 1898 Rodin exhibited two very dissimilar works, " The Kiss," exhibited again in 1900, a marble group represent- ing Paolo Malatesta and Francesca da Rimini, and the sketch in plaster for a " Statue of Balzac." This statue, a commission from the Society of Men of Letters, had long been expected, and was received with vehement dissensions. Some critics regarded this work, in which Balzac was represented in his voluminous dressing-gown, as the first-fruits of a new phase of sculpture; others, on the contrary, declared that it was incomprehensible, if not ridiculous. This was the view taken by the society who had ordered it, and who " refused to recognize Rodin's rough sketch as a statue of Balzac, " and withdrew the commission, giving it to the sculptor Falguiere. Falguiere exhibited his model in 1899. In the same Salon, Rodin, to prove that the conduct of the society had made no change in his friend- ship with Falguiere, exhibited a bust in bronze of his rival, as well as one of " Henri Rochefort." In 1000, the city of Paris, to do honour to Rodin, erected at its own expense a building close to one of the entrances to the Great Exhibition, in which almost all of the works of the artist were to be seen, more especially the great " Portal of Hell," still quite incomplete, the " Balzac," and a host of other works, many of them unfinished or mere rough sketches. Here, too, were to be seen some of Rodin's designs, studies and water-colour drawings. He has also executed a great many etchings and sgraffiti on porcelain for the manufactory at Sevres. His best-known etching is the portrait of Victor Hugo. Many of Rodin's works are in private collections, and at the Luxembourg he is represented by a " Danai'd " (in marble), a " Saint John " (in bronze, 1880), " She who made the Helmet " (bronze statuette), the busts of " J. P. Laurens " and of " A Lady " and other works. In the Musee Galliera is a very fine bust of Victor Hugo. Rodin's " Hand of God " was exhibited in the New Gallery, London, in 1905. In 1904 Mr Ernest Beckett (Lord Grimthorpe) pre- sented the British nation with the sculptor's " Le Penseur." [n the same year Rodin became president of the International Society of Sculptors, Painters and Engravers, in succession to James McNeill Whistler. See SCULPTURE (Modern French) ; also Geffroy, La Vie arlislique Taris, 1892, 1893, 1899, 1900); L. Maillard, Rodin (Paris, 1899); ^a, Plume, Rodin el son ceuvre (Paris, 1900); Alexandra, Le Bal-.ac de Rodin (Paris, 1898); H. Boutet, Dix dessins choisis de Auguste Rodin (1904); R. Dircks, Auguste Rodin (1904); H. Duhem, August Rodin (1903); C. Black, Auguste Rodin: the Man, his Ideas and his Works (1905). RODNEY, GEORGE BRYDGES RODNEY. BARON (1718- 1792), English admiral, second son of Henry Rodney of 448 RODOMONTADE— RODOSTO Walton-on-Thames, was born in February 1718. His father had served in Spain under the earl of Peterborough, and on quitting the army served as captain in a marine corps which was dis- banded in 1713. George was sent to Harrow, being appointed, on leaving, by warrant dated the 2ist of June 1732, a volunteer on board the " Sunderland." While serving on the Mediter- ranean station he was made lieutenant in the " Dolphin," his promotion dating the isth of February 1739. In 1742 he attained the rank of post-captain, having been appointed to the " Plymouth " on the gth of November. After serving in home waters, he obtained command of the " Eagle " (60), and in this ship took part in Hawke's victory off Ushant (i4th October 1747) over the French fleet. On that day Rodney gained his first laurels for gallantry, under a chief to whom he was in a measure indebted for subsequent success. On the gth of May 1749 he was appointed governor and com- mander-in-chief of Newfoundland, with the rank of commodore, it being usual at that time to appoint a naval officer, chiefly on account of the fishery interests. He was elected M.P. for Saltash in 1751, and married his first wife, Jane Compton (1730-1757), sister of the 7th earl of Northampton, in 1753. During the Seven Years' War Rodney rendered important services. In 1757 he had a share in the expedition against Rochefort, commanding the " Dublin " (74). Next year, in the same ship, he served under Boscawen at the taking of Louisburg (Cape Breton). On the igth of May 1759 he became a rear-admiral, and was shortly after given command "of a small squadron intended to destroy a large number of flat-bottomed boats and stores which were being collected at Havre for an invasion of the English coasts. He bombarded the town for two days and nights, and inflicted great loss of war-material on the enemy. In July 1760, with another small squadron, he succeeded in taking many more of the enemy's flat-bottomed boats and in blockading the coast as far as Dieppe. Elected M.P. for Penryn in 1761, he was in October of that year appointed commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islands station, and within the first three months of 1762 had reduced the important island of Martinique, while both St Lucia and Grenada had surrendered to his squadron. During the siege of Fort Royal (now Fort de France) his sea- men and marines rendered splendid service on shore. At the peace of 1763 Admiral Rodney returned home, having been during his absence made vice-admiral of the Blue and having received the thanks of both houses of parliament. In 1764 Rodney was created a baronet, and the same year he married Henrietta, daughter of John Clies of Lisbon. From 1765 to 1770 he was governor of Greenwich Hospital, and on the dissolution of parliament in 1768 he successfully contested Northampton at a ruinous cost. When appointed commander- in-chief of the Jamaica station in 1771 he lost his Greenwich post, but a few months later received the office of rear-admiral of Great Britain. Till 1774 he held the Jamaica command, and during a period of quiet was active in improving the naval yards on his station. Sir George struck his flag with a feeling of disappointment at not obtaining the governorship of Jamaica, and was shortly after forced to settle in Paris. Election ex- penses and losses at play in fashionable circles had shattered his fortune, and he could not secure payment of the salary as rear-admiral of Great Britain. In February 1778, having just been promoted admiral of the White, he used every pos- sible exertion to obtain a command, to free himself from his money difficulties. By May he had, through the splendid generosity of his Parisian friend Marshal Biron, effected the latter task, and accordingly he returned to London with his children. The debt was repaid out of the arrears due to him on his return. The story that he was offered a French com- mand is fiction. Sir George was appointed once more commander-in-chief of the Leeward Islands late in 1779. His orders were to relieve Gibraltar on his way to the West Indies. He captured a Spanish convoy off Cape Finisterre on the 8th of January 1780, and eight days later defeated the Spanish admiral Don Juan de Langara off Cape St Vincent, taking or destroying seven ships. On the 1 7th of April an action, which, owing to the careless- ness of some of Rodney's captains, was indecisive, was fought off Martinique with the French admiral Guichen. Rodney, acting under orders, captured the valuable Dutch island of St Eustatius on the 3rd of February 1781. It had been a great entrepot of neutral trade, and was full of booty, which Rodney confiscated. As large quantities belonged to English merchants, he was entangled in a series of costly lawsuits. After a few months in England, recruiting his health and defending himself in Parliament, Sir George .returned to his command in February 1782, and a running engagement with the French fleet on the gth of April led up to his crowning victory off Dominica, when on the i2th of April with thirty- five sail of the line he defeated the comte de Grasse, who had thirty-three sail. The French inferiority in numbers was more thag counterbalanced by the greater size and superior sailing qualities of their ships, yet five were taken and one sunk, after eleven hours' fighting. This important battle saved Jamaica and ruined French naval prestige, while it enabled Rodney to write: " Within two little years I have taken two Spanish, one French and one Dutch admirals." A long and wearisome controversy exists as to the originator of the man- osuvre of " breaking the line " in this battle, but the merits of the victory have never seriously been affected by any differ- ence of opinion on the question. A shift of wind broke the French line of battle, and advantage was taken of this by the English ships in two places. Rodney arrived home in August to receive unbounded honour from his country. He had already been created Baron Rodney of Rodney Stoke, Somerset, by patent of the iglh of June 1782, and the House of Commons had voted him a pension of £2000 a year. From this time he led a quiet country life till his death, which occurred on the 24th of May 1792, in London. He was succeeded as 2nd baron by his son, George (1753-1802), from whom the present baron is descended. Rodney was unquestionably a most able officer, but he was also vain, selfish and unscrupulous, both in seeking prize money, and in using his position to push the fortunes of his family. He made his son a post-captain at fifteen. He was accused by his second-in-command, Hood, of sacrificing the interest of the service to his own profit, and of showing want of energy in, pursuit- of the French on the i2th of April 1782. It must be remembered that he was then prematurely old and racked by disease. See General Mundy, Life and Correspondence of Admiral Lord Rodney (2 vols., 1830); David Hannay, Life of Rodney; Rodney letters in gth Report of Hist. MSS. Com., pt. iii.; " Memoirs," in Naval Chronicle, i. 353-93; and Charnock, Biographia Navalis, v. 204-28. Lord Rodney published in his lifetime (probably 1789) Letters to His Majesty's Ministers, &c., relative to St Eustatius, &c., of which there is a copy in the British Museum. Most of these letters are printed in Mundy's Life, vol. ii., though with many variant readings. RODOMONTADE, or RHODOMONTADE, a term for boastful, extravagant language or any inflated bragging speech. The word refers to the brave but boastful Saracen leader Rodomonte in Ariosto's Orlando Furioso. The name (in the form Roda- mante) appears earlier in Boiardo's Orlando Innamoralo. It is supposed to represent a compound of rodare, to roll, and monte, mountain. RODOSTO (Turkish, Tekir Dagh), a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople, on the coast of the Sea of Marmora, 78 m. W. of Constantinople. Pop. (1905) about 35,000, of whom half are Greeks. The picturesque Bay of Rodosto is enclosed by the great promontory of Combos, a spur about 2000 ft. in height from the hilly plateau to the north. The church of Panagia Rheumatocratissa contains the graves, with long Latin inscriptions, of the Hungarians who were banished from their country in 1686 by the imperialist captors of Buda. Rodosto was long a great depot for the produce of the Adrianople district, but its trade suffered when Dedeagatch became the terminus of the railway up the Maritza, and the town is now RODRIGUEZ— ROE, E. P. dependent on its maritime trade, especially its exports to Constantinople. It is the administrative centre of a district (sanjak) producing and exporting barley, oats, spelt and canary seed, and largely planted with mulberry trees, on which silk- worms are fed. White cocoons are exported to western Europe (394 cwt. in 1901), silkworms' eggs to Russia and Persia. Rodosto is the ancient Rhaedestus or Bisanthe, said to have been founded by Samians. In Xenophon's Anabasis it is mentioned as in the kingdom of the Thracian prince Seuthes. Its restoration by Justinian in the 6th century A.D. is chronicled by Procopius. In 813 and again in 1206 it was sacked by the Bulgarians, but it continues to appear as a place of considerable note in later Byzantine history. ' RODRIGUEZ (officially RODRIGUES), an island in the Indian Ocean in 19° 41' S., 63° 23' E.; the most important dependency of the British colony of Mauritius, from which it is distant 344 nautical miles. It is a station on the " all-British " cable route between South Africa and Australia, telegraphic communication with Mauritius being established in 1902. With a length of 13 m. E. and W., and a breadth of 3 to 6 m. N. and S., it has an area estimated at 42! sq. m. On all sides it is surrounded by a fringing reef of coral, studded with islets. This reef, only 100 yds. wide at the eastern end of the island, extends westward 3 m., and both N. and S. forms a flat area partly dry at low water. Two passages through the reef are available for large vessels — these leading respectively to -Port Mathurin on the N. coast and to Port South-East. The island was at one period believed to consist of granite over- laid with limestone and other modern formations, and its supposed formation caused it to be regarded as a remnant of the hypothetical continent of Lemuria. The investigations made by an expedition sent by the British government in 1874 showed, however, that the island is a mass of volcanic rock, mainly a doleritic lava, rich in olivine. The land consists largely of a series of hills. The main ridge, which runs parallel to the longest diameter, rises abruptly on the east, more gradually on the west, where there is a wide plain of coralline limestone, studded with caves, some stalactitic. Of several peaks on the main ridge the highest is Mt. Limon, 1300 ft. above the sea. The ridge is deeply cut by ravines, the upper parts of which show successive belts of lava separated by thin beds of cinders, agglomerate and coloured clays. In places the cliffs rise 300 ft. and exhibit twelve distinct lava flows. The climate is like that of Mauritius, but Rodriguez is more subject than Mauritius to hurricanes during the north-west monsoon (November to April). Flora and Fauna. — When discovered, and down into the I7th century, Rodriguez was clothed with fine timber trees; but goats, cattle and bush-fires have combined to destroy the great bulk of the old vegetation, and the indigenous plants have in many cases been ousted by intrusive foreigners. Parts are, however, still well wooded, and elsewhere there is excellent pasturage. The sweet potato, manioc, maize, millet, the sugar-cane, cotton, coffee and rice grow well. Tobacco is also cultivated. Wheat is seldom seen, mainly because of the parakeets and the Java sparrows. Beans (Phaseolus lunatus), lentils, gram (Cicer arietinum), dholl (Cajanus indicus) and ground-nuts are all grown to a certain extent in spite of ravages by rats. Mangoes, bananas, guavas, pine- apples, custard-apples, and especially oranges, citrons and limes flourish. Of the timber trees the most common are Elaeodendron orientate, much used in carpentry and for pirouges, and Latania Verschaffelti (Leguat's plantane). At least two species of screw-pine (Pandanus heterocarpus, Balf. fil., and P. tenuifolius) occur freely throughout the island. The total number of known species, accord- ing to Professor I. B. Balfour, is 470, belonging to 85 families and 293 genera. The families represented by the greatest number of species are Gramineae, Leguminosae, Convolvulaceae, Malvaceae, Rubiaceae, Cyperaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Liliaceae, Compositae. Mathurina penduliflora (Turneraceae) is interesting, as its nearest congener is in Central America. Of 33 species of mosses 17 are peculiar. Variability of species and heterophylly are characteristic of the flora to quite an unusual degree. At present the only indigenous mammal is a species of fruit- eating bat (Pteropus rodericensis), and the introduced species are familiar creatures as deer, pig, rabbit, rat, mouse, &c. ; but down to a recent period the island was the home of a very large land- tortoise (Testudo Vosmaeri or rodericensis), and its limestone caves have yielded a large number of skeletons of the dodo-like solitaire (Pezophaps solitanus), which still built its mound-like nest in the island in the close of the I7th century, but is now extinct (see DODO). Deer, once plentiful, had become very scarce by the beginning of the 2Oth century, having been indiscriminately hunted by the inhabitants. Of indigenous birds 13 species have been registered. The guinea-fowl (introduced) has become exceedingly abundant, partly owing to a protective game-law; and a francolin (F. poniicerianus), popularly a xxni. 15 partridge," is also common. 449 marine fish-fauna docs not differ from that of Mauritius, and the freshwater species, with the exception of Muf.il rodericensis and Myxus caecuticus, are common to all the Mascarenes. Thirty-five species of crustaceans are known. The insects (probably very imperfectly registered) comprise 60 species of Coleoptera, 15 Hymen- optera, 21 Lepidoptera, 15 Orthoptera, and 20 Hemiptera. Forty- nine species of coral have been collected, showing a close affinity to those of Mauritius, Madagascar and the Seychelles. History.— Rodriguez or Diego Ruy's Island was discovered by the Portuguese in 1645. In 1690 Duquesne prevailed on the Dutch Government to send a body of French Huguenots to the Island of Bourbon, at that time, he believed, abandoned by the French authorities. As the refugees, however, found the French in possession, they proceeded to Rodriguez, and there eight of their number were landed on the joth of April 1691 with a promise that they should be visited by their compatriots within two years. The two years were spent without misadventure, but, instead of waiting for the arrival of their friends, the seven colonists (for one had meanwhile died) left the isjand on the 8th of May 1693 and made their way to Mauritius, where they were treated with great cruelty by the governor. The account of the enterprise by Francis Leguat — Voyages et avcntures (London, 1708), or, as it is called in the English translation, A New Voyage to the East Indies (London, 1708) — is a garrulous and amusing narrative, and was for a long time almost the only source of information about Rodriguez. His description of the solitaire is unique. From the Dutch the island passed to the French, who colon- ized it from Mauritius. Large estates were cultivated, and the islanders enjoyed considerable prosperity. In 1800-10 Rodri- guez was seized by the British, in whose possession it has since remained. The abolition of slavery proved disastrous to the prosperity of the island, and in 1843 the population had sunk to about 250. Since that time there has been a gradual recovery in the economic condition and a steady increase in population. In 1881 the inhabitants numbered 1436; in 1904 the total had risen to 3681. In 1907 the total population was 4231. The inhabitants are mainly of African origin, being descendants of slaves introduced by the French and negro immigrants direct from Africa. There are a few families of European descent (besides the comparatively large staff maintained by the Eastern Telegraph Company) and a small colony of Indians and Chinese. The bulk of the people are French-speaking and Roman Catholics. There are two small settlements, Port Mathurin, the capital, and Gabriel, in the centre of the island. The chief industries are fisheries and cattle-rearing. Salt fish is the principal export, next in importance coming goats, pigs and horned cattle and tobacco. The value of the exports for the four years 1903-06 was £50,894; of the imports for the same period, £54,710. The island is administered by a magistrate appointed by the governor of Mauritius, and the laws are regulations issued by the governor in executive council. The revenue, some £1000 a year, is about half the expenditure in- curred, the balance being furnished from the Mauritian treasury. The government maintains a hospital and schools, and pays the salary of a Roman Catholic priest. Leguat 's Voyage, edited by Capt. P. Oliver, forms vols. 82 and 83 of the Hakluyt Soc. publications (1891). See also C. Grant, Hist, of Mauritius and the Neighbouring Islands (1801); Higgin, in Jour. R. G. Soc. (1849) ; the Reports of the Transit of Venus Expedition, 1874-75, published as an extra volume of the Philosophical Trans- actions (clxviii., London, 1879) (Botany, by I. B. Balfour; Petrology, by N. S. Maskelyne, &c.); Behm, in Petermann's Mittheilungen (1880); and the annual reports on Mauritius. ROE, EDWARD PAYSON (1838-1888), American novelist, was born in Moodna, Orange county, N.Y., on the 7th of March 1838. He studied at Williams College and at Auburn Theo- logical Seminary; in 1862 became chaplain of the Second New York Cavalry, U.S.V., and in 1864 chaplain of Hampton Hospital, at Hampton, Virginia. In 1866-74 he was pastor of the Presbyterian Church at Highland Falls, N.Y. In 1874 he removed to Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, where he devoted himself to the writing of fiction and to horticulture. He died on the 19th of July 1888. During the Civil War he wrote weekly 45° letters to the New York Evangelist, and subsequently lectured on the war and wrote for periodicals. Among his novels were Barriers Burned Away (1872), which first appeared as a serial in the Evangelist and made him widely known; What Can she Do? (1873), Opening of a Chestnut Burr (1874), From Jest to Earnest (1875), Near to Nature's Heart (1876), A Knight of the Nineteenth Century (1877), A Face Illumined (1878), A Day of Fate (1880), Without a Home(iSSi), Nature's Serial Story (1884), A Young Girl's Wooing (1884), An Original Belle (1885), He Fell in Love with his Wife (1886), The Earth Trembled (1887) and Miss Lou (left unfinished, 1888). He wrote also Play and Profit in My Garden (1873), Success with Small Fruits (1881) and The Home Acre (1887). His novels were very popular in their day, especially with middle-class readers in England and America, and were translated into several European languages. Their strong moral and religious purpose, and their being written by a clergyman, did much to break down a Puritan prejudice in America against works of fiction. See E. P. Roe-: Reminiscences of his Life (New York, 1899), by his sister, Mary A. Roe. ROE (or Row), SIR THOMAS (c. 1581-1644), English diplo- matist, son of Robert Rowe, and of Elinor, daughter of Robert Jermy of Worstead in Norfolk, was born at Low Leyton near Wanstead in Essex, and at the age of twelve (1593) matriculated at Magdalen College, Oxford. Shortly afterwards he joined one of the inns of court, and was made esquire of the body to Queen Elizabeth. He was knighted by James I. in 1605, and became intimate with Henry, prince of Wales, and also with his sister Elizabeth, afterwards queen of Bohemia, with whom he maintained a correspondence and whose cause he cham- pioned. In 1610 he was sent by Prince Henry on a mission to the West Indies, during which he visited Guiana and the river Amazon, but failed then, and in two subsequent expedi- tions, to discover the gold which was the object of his travels. In 1614 he was elected M.P. for Tamworth, and in 1621 for Cirencester. His permanent reputation was mainly secured by the success which attended his embassy in 1615-18 to the court at Agra of the Great Mogul, Jahangir, the principal object of the mission being to obtain protection for an English factory at Surat. Appointed ambassador to the Porte in 1621, which he even then describes as being " irrevocably sick," he distinguished himself by further successes. He obtained an extension of the privileges of the English merchants, concluded a treaty with Algiers in 1624, by which he secured the liberation of several hundred English captives, and gained the support, by an English subsidy, of the Transylvanian Prince Bethlen Gabor for the European Protestant alliance and the cause of the Palatinate. Through his friendship with the patriarch of the Greek Church, Cyril Lucaris, the famous Codex Alexandrinus was presented to James I., and Roe himself collected several valuable MSS. which he subsequently pre- sented to the Bodleian library. In 1629 he was again suc- cessful in another mission undertaken to arrange a peace between Sweden and Poland. Subsequently Roe negotiated treaties with Danzig and Denmark, returning home in 1630, when a gold medal was struck in his honour. In January 1637 he was appointed chancellor of the Order of the Garter, with a pension of £1200 a year. Subsequently he took part in the peace conferences at Hamburg, Regensburg and Vienna, and used his influence to obtain the restoration of the Palatinate, the emperor declaring that he had " scarce ever met with an ambassador till now." In June 1640 he was made a privy councillor, and in October was returned to parliament as member for the university of Oxford, where his unrivalled knowledge of foreign affairs, commerce and finance, together with his learning and eloquence, gained for him in another sphere considerable reputation. He died on the 6th of Novem- ber 1644. He had married Eleanor, daughter of Sir Thomas Carr of Stamford, Northamptonshire. Roe was a distinguished and most successful diplomatist, an accomplished scholar and a patron of learning, while his personal character was unblemished. ROE, SIR T.— ROEBUCK, J. His Journal of the mission to the Mogul, several times printed, has been re-edited, with an introduction by W. Foster, for the Hakluyt Society (1899). This is a valuable contribution to the history of India in the early iyth century. Of his correspondence, Negotiations in his Embassy to the Ottoman Porte, 1621-28, vol. i. was published in 1740, but the work was not continued. Other correspondence, consisting of letters relating to his mission to Gustavus Adolphus, was edited by S. R. Gardiner for the Camden Society Miscellany (1875), vol. vii., and his correspondence with Lord Carew in 1615 and 1617 by Sir F. Maclean for the same society in 1860. Several of his MSS. are in the British Museum collections. Roe published a True and Faithful Relation . . . concerning the Death of Sultan Osman . . . , 1622; a translation from Sarpi, Discourse upon the Resolution taken in the Valteline (1628) ; and in 1613 Dr T. Wright published Quatuor Colloquia, consisting of theological disputations between himself and Roe; a poem by Roe is printed in Notes and Queries, iv. Ser. v. 9. The Swedish Intelligencer (1632-33), including an account of the career of Gustavus Adolphus and of the Diet of Ratisbon (Regensburg), is attributed to Roe in the catalogue of the British Museum. Several of his speeches, chiefly on currency and financial questions, were also published. Two other works in MS. are mentioned by Wood: Compendious Relation of the Proceedings . . . of the Imperial Diet at Ratisbon and Journal of Several Proceedings of the Order of the Garter. ROEBLING, JOHN AUGUSTUS (1806-1869), American civil engineer, was born at Miihlhausen, Prussia, on the 6th of June 1806. Soon after his graduation from the polytechnic school at Berlin he removed to the United States, and in 1831 entered on the practice of his profession in western Pennsylvania. He established at Pittsburg a manufactory of wire-rope, and in May 1845 completed his first important structure, a suspended aqueduct across the Allegheny river. This was followed by the Monongahela suspension bridge at Pittsburg and several suspended aqueducts on the Delaware & Hudson Canal. Removing his wire manufactory to Trenton, New Jersey, he began, in 1851, the erection at Niagara Falls of a long span wire suspension bridge with double roadway, for railway and carriage use (see BRIDGE), which was completed in 1855. Owing to the novelty of its design, the most eminent engineers regarded this bridge as foredoomed to failure; but, with its complete success, demonstrated by long use, the number of suspension bridges rapidly multiplied, the use of wire-ropes instead of chain-cables becoming all but universal. The completion, in 1867, of the still more remarkable suspension bridge over the Ohio river at Cincinnati, with a clear span of 1057 ft., added to Roebling's reputation, and his design for the great bridge spanning the East river between New York and Brooklyn was accepted. While personally engaged in laying out the towers for the bridge, Roebling received an accidental injury, which resulted in his death, at Brooklyn, from tetanus, on the 22nd of July 1869. The bridge was completed under the direction of his son, Washington Augustus Roebling (b. 1837), who introduced several modifications in the original plans. ROEBOURNE, a settlement of De Witt county, Western Australia, 8 m. from the N.W. coast, on the Harding river, 920 m. direct N. of Perth. It is the centre of one of the richest and most varied mineral districts in the colony; gold, silver, tin, lead, copper, diamonds and other precious stones are found. There are extensive pearl fisheries off its port at Cossack Bay. ROEBUCK, JOHN (1718-1794), English inventor, was born in 1718 at Sheffield, where his father had a prosperous manu- facturing business. After attending the grammar school at Sheffield and Dr Philip Doddridge's academy at Northampton, he studied medicine at Edinburgh, where he was imbued with a taste for chemistry by the lectures of William Cullen and Joseph Black, and he finally graduated M.D. at Leiden in 1742. He started practice at Birmingham, but devoted much of his time to chemistry, especially in its practical applications. Among the mostx important of his early achievements in this field was the introduction, in 1746, of leaden condensing chambers for use in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. To- gether with Samuel Garbett he erected a factory at Prestonpans, near Edinburgh, for the production of the acid in 1749, and for some years enjoyed a monopoly; but ultimately his methods became known, and, having omitted to take out patents for ROEBUCK, J. A.— ROEDERER them at the proper time, he was unable to restrain others from making use of them. Engaging next in the manufacture of iron, he in 1760 established the ironworks which still exist at Carron, in Stirlingshire. There he introduced various improve- ments in the methods of production, including the conversion (patented in 1762) of cast iron into malleable iron " by the action of a hollow pit-coal fire " urged by a powerful artificial blast. His next enterprise was less successful. He leased a colliery at Bo'ness to supply coal to the Carron works, but in sinking for new seams encountered such quantities of water that the Newcomen engine which he used was unable to keep the pit clear. In this difficulty he heard of James Watt's engine and catered into communication with its inventor. This engine, then at an early stage of its development, also proved in- adequate, but Roebuck became a strong believer in its future and in return for a two-thirds share in the invention assisted Watt in perfecting its details. His troubles at the colliery, however, aggravated by the failure of an attempt to manu- facture alkali, brought him into pecuniary straits, and he parted with his share in Watt's engine to Matthew Boulton in return for the cancellation of a debt of £1200 which he owed the latter. Subsequently, though he had to give up his interest in the Bo'ness works, he continued to manage them and to reside at the neighbouring Kinneil House, where he occupied himself with farming on a considerable scale. He died on the 1 7th of July 1794. ROEBUCK, JOHN ARTHUR (1801-1879), British politician, was born at Madras on the 28th of December 1801. After the death of his father, a civil servant, his mother's second marriage transferred him to Canada, where he was chiefly brought up. He came to England in 1824, was called to the bar (Q.C. 1843), became intimate with the leading radical and utilitarian re- formers, was elected M.P. for Bath in 1832, and took up that general attitude of hostility to the government of the day, be it what it might, which he retained throughout his life. At all times conspicuous for his eloquence, honesty and recal- citrancy, he twice came with especial prominence before the public — in 1838, when, although at the time without a seat in parliament, he appeared at the bar of the Commons to protest, in the name of the Canadian Assembly, against the suspension of the Canadian constitution; and in 1855, when, having over- thrown Lord Aberdeen's ministry by carrying a resolution for the appointment of a committee of inquiry into the mismanage- ment in the Crimean War, he presided over its proceedings. In his latter years his political opinions became greatly modified, but with one interruption he retained his seat for Sheffield, which he had won in 1849, until his death in London on the 3oth of November 1879. ROE-BUCK, the smallest of the British deer (a full-grown buck standing not more than 27 in. high at the shoulder), the typical representative of a genus (Capreolus) in which the antlers lack a brow-tine and belong to what is characterized as the forked type, while the tail is rudimentary (see DEER). The antlers are short, upright and deeply furrowed, the beam forking at about two-thirds of its length, and the upper prong again dividing, thus making.three points. The coat in summer is foxy red above and white below; in winter this changes to a greyish fawn, with a white rump-patch. The roe-buck or roe-deer (Capreolus caprea, or C. capreolus) inhabits southern and temperate Europe as far east as the Caucasus, where, as in Syria, it is probably represented by another race or species. It frequents woods, preferring such as have a large growth of underwood and are in the neighbourhood of cultivated ground. The latter it visits in the evening in search of food; and where roe are numerous the damage done to growing crops is consider- able. Pairing takes place in August, but the fawns are not born till the following May. According to one theory, the germ lies dormant until December, when it begins to develop; but it is now believed that this bng gestation is due to slow rather than arrested development. Roe were formerly abundant in all the wooded parts of Great Britain, but were gradually exter- minated, till a century and a half ago they were unknown south of Perthshire. Since then the increase of plantations has led to the partial restoration of the species in the south of Scotland and the north of England; and it was reintroduced into Dorset early in the ipth century. These deer take readily to the water, and they have been known to swim across lochs more than half a mile in breadth. The Siberian roe (C. pygar- gus), which is common in the Altai, is larger and paler than the type species, with shorter and more hairy ears, a larger white rump-patch, and small irregular snags on the inner border of the antlers. The Manchurian roe (Capreolus manchuricus) is about the size of the European species, with antlers of the type of those of the Siberian roe, but more slender, and the coat shorter. Although described in 1889 as a local variety of the Siberian species, the Manchurian roe really appears, both as regards stature, hairiness and the black and white markings on the muzzle, much more nearly related to the European animal. This is the more remarkable seeing that the habitats of the two are separated by such an enormous tract of country. (R. L.*) ROEDERER, PIERRE LOUIS, COMTE (1754-1835), French politician and economist, was born at Metz on the isth of February 1754, the son of a magistrate. At the age of twenty- five he became councillor at the parlement of Metz, and was commissioned in 1787 to draw up a list of remonstrances. His work advocating the suppression of internal customs houses (Suppression des douanes inttrieures) , published the same year, is an elaborate treatise on the la.ws of commerce and on the theory of customs imposts. In 1788 he published Deputation aux £,tats g&neraux, a pamphlet remarkable for its bold exposition of liberal principles, and partly on the strength of this he was elected deputy to the states-general by the Third Estate of the bailliage of Metz. In the Con- stituent Assembly he was a member of the committee of taxes (comite des contributions), prepared a scheme for a new system of taxation, drew up a law on patents, occupied himself with the laws relating to stamps and assignats, and was successful in opposing the introduction of an income tax. After the close of the Constituent Assembly he was elected, on the nth of November 1791, procureur general syndic of the depart- ment of Paris. The directory of the department, of which the due de la Rochefoucauld was president, was at this time in pronounced opposition to the advanced views that dominated the Legislative Assembly and the Jacobin Club, and Roederer was not altogether in touch with his colleagues. Thus he took no share in signing their protest against the law against the non-juring clergy, as a violation of religious liberty. But the directory did not long survive. With the growing anarchy of the capital many of its members resigned and fled, and their places could not be filled up. Roederer himself has left in his Chronique des cinquante jours (1832) an account of the pitiable part played by" the directory of the department in the critical period between the 2oth of June and the loth of August 1792. Seeing the perilous drift of things, he had tried to get into touch with the king; and it was on his advice that Louis, on the fatal loth, took refuge in the Assembly. His conduct arousing suspicion, he went into hiding, and did not emerge again until after the fall of Robespierre. In 1796 he was made a member of the Institute, was appointed to a professorship of political economy, and founded the Journal d'tconomie publique, de morale et de legislation. Having escaped deportation at the time of the coup d'etat of 18 Fructidor, he took part in the revolution of 18 Brumaire, and was appointed by Napoleon member of the council of state and senator. Under the Empire, Roederer, whose public influence was very considerable, was Joseph Bonaparte's minister of finance at Naples (1806), administrator of the grand duchy of Berg (1810), and imperial commissary in the south of France. During the Hundred Days he was created a peer of France. The Restoration government stripped him of his offices and dignities, but he recovered the title of peer of France in 1832. He died on the i~th of December 1835. His son, Baron Antoine Marie Roederer 452 ROEMER, F. A.— ROGATION DAYS (1782-1865), was also a politician of some note in his day. Among P. L. Roederer's writings may be mentioned Louis XII. (1820); Francois I. (1825); Comedies historiques (1827-30); L' Esprit de la revolution de 1789 (1831); La Premiere et la deuxieme annee du consulat de Bonaparte (1802); Chronique des cinquante jours, an account of the events of the loth of August 1792; and Memoire pour servir a Vhistoire de la societe polie en France (1835). See his (Euyres, edited by his son (Paris, 1853 seq.); Sainte- Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. viii. ; M. Mignet, Notices historiques (Paris, 1853). ROEMER, FRIEDRICH ADOLPH (1800-1869), German geologist, was born at Hildesheim, in Prussia, on the I4th of April 1809. His father was a lawyer and councillor of the high court of justice. In 1845 he became professor of mineralogy and geology at Clausthal, and in 186,2 director of the School of Mines. He first described the Cretaceous and Jurassic strata of Germany in elaborate works entitled Die Versteinerungen des N orddeutschen Oolithen-gebirges (1836-39), Die Versteinerungen des N orddeutschen Kreidegebirges (1840- 1841) and Die Versteinerungen des Harzgebirges (1843). He died at Clausthal on the 25th of November 1869. His brother, CARL FERDINAND VON ROEMER (1818-1891), who had been educated for the legal profession at Gottingen, also became interested in geology, and abandoning law in 1840, studied science at the university of Berlin, where he graduated Ph.D. in 1842. Two years later he published his first work, Das Rheinische Ubergangsgebirge (1844), in which he dealt with the older rocks and fossils. In 1845 he paid a visit to America, and devoted a year and a half to a careful study of the geology of Texas and other Southern states. He published at Bonn in 1849 a general work entitled Texas, while the results of his investigations of the Cretaceous rocks and fossils were published three years later in a treatise, Die Kreidebildungen von Texas und ihre organischen Einschliisse (1852), which included also a general account of the geology, and gained for him the title " Father of the geology of Texas." Subsequently he published at Breslau Die Silurische Fauna des westlichen Tennessee (1860). During the preparation of these works he was from 1847 to 1855 " privat-docent " at Bonn, and was then appointed professor of geology, palaeontology and mineralogy in the university of Breslau, a post which he held with signal success as a teacher until his death. As a palaeontologist he made important contributions to our knowledge especially of the invertebrata of the Devonian and older rocks. He assisted H. G. Bronn with the third edition of the Lelhaea geognoslica (1851-56), and subse- quently he laboured on an enlarged and revised edition, of which he published one section, Lethaea palaeozoica (1876- 1883). In 1862 he was called on to superintend the prepara- tion of a geological map of Upper Silesia, and the results of his researches were embodied in his Geologie von Oberschlesien (3 vols., 1870). As a mineralogist he was likewise well known, more particularly by his practical teachings and by the collec- tion he formed in the Museum at Breslau. He died at Breslau on the 1 4th of December 1891. ROEMER, OLE (Latinized OLAUS) (1644-1710), Danish astrono- mer, was born at Aarhuus in Jutland on the 25th of September 1644. He became in 1662 the pupil and amanuensis of Erasmus Bartholinus at Copenhagen, and assisted J. Picard in 1671 to determine the geographical position of Tycho Brahe's observa- tory (Uraniborg on the island of Hveen). In 1672 he accom- panied Picard to Paris, where he remained nine years, occupied with observations at the new royal observatory and hydraulic works at Versailles and Marly. On the 22nd of November 1675 he read a paper before the Academy on the successive propagation of light as revealed by a certain inequality in the motion of the first of Jupiter's satellites. A scientific mission to England in 1679 made him acquainted with Newton, Halley and Flamsteed. In i68i,on the summons of Christian V., king of Denmark, he returned to Copenhagen as royal mathe- matician and professor of astronomy in the university ; and from 1688 he discharged, besides, many important admini- strative functions, including those of mayor (1705), chief of police and privy councillor. He died at Copenhagen on the 23rd of September 1710. Roemer will always be remembered as the discoverer of the finite velocity of light. He showed besides wonderful in- genuity in the improvement of astronomical apparatus. The first transit instrument worthy the name was in 1690 erected in his house. In the same year he set up in the university observatory an instrument with altitude and azimuth circles (for observing equal altitudes on both sides of the meridian) and an equatorial telescope. In 1704 he built, at his own cost, the so-called " Tusculan " observatory at Vridlosemagle, a few miles west of Copenhagen, and equipped it with a meridian circle (the transit instrument and vertical circle combined) and a transit moving in the prime vertical. Roemer thus effectively realized nearly all our modern instruments of precision, and accumulated with them a large mass of observations, all of which unfortunately perished in the great conflagration of the 2ist of October 1728, except the three nights' work discussed by J. G. Galle (0. Roemeri triduum observationum astronomi- carum a. 1706 institutarum, Berlin, 1845). See E. Philipsen, Nordisk Universitets Tidskrift,v. n (1860); P. Horrebow, Basis Astronomiae (Copenhagen, 1735); J. B. J. Delambre, Hist, de I'astr. moderne, ii. 632; J. F. Montucla, Hist, des mathematiques, ii. 487, 579; R. Grant, Hist, of Phys. Astronomy, p. 461; R. Wolf, Gesch. der Astronomic, pp. 452, 489, 576; J. F. Weidler, Historia Astronomiae, p. 538; W. Doberck, Nature, xvii. 105; C. Huygens, CEuvres completes, t. viii. pp. 30-58; L. Ambronn, Handbuch der astr. Instrumentenkunde, ii. 552, 966 ;T. J. J. See, Pop. Astronomy, No. 105, May 1903. ROERMOND, a town in the province of Lirnburg, Holland, on the right bank of the Maas at the confluence of the Roer, and a junction station 28 m. by rail N.N.E. of Maastricht. Pop. (1900) 12,348. The old fortifications have been dis- mantled and partly converted into fine promenades. At this point the Maas is crossed by a bridge erected in 1866-67, and the Roer by one dating from 1771, replacing an older structure, and connecting Roermond with the suburb of St Jacob. Roermond is the seat of a Roman Catholic episcopal see. The finest building in the town is the Romanesque minster church of the first quarter of the i3th century. In the middle of the nave is the tomb of Gerhard III., count of Gelderland, and his wife Margaret of Brabant. It was formerly the church of a Cistercian nunnery, and in modern times has been elaborately restored. The cathedral of St Christopher is also of note; on the top of the tower (246 ft.) is a copper statue of the saint, and the interior is adorned with paintings by Rubens, Jacob de Wit (1695-1754) and others. The Reformed church was once the chapel of the monastery of the Minorites. There is also a Redemptorist chapel. The old bishop's palace is now the courthouse, and the old Jesuits' monastery with its fine gardens a higher-burgher school. Woollen, cotton, silk and mixed stuffs, paper, flour and beer are manufactured at Roermond. Close to Roermond on the west is the village of Horn, once the seat of a lordship of the same name, which is first mentioned in a document of 1166. The lordship of Horn was a fief of the counts of Loon, and after 1361- of the bishop of Liege; but in 1450 it was raised to a countship by the Emperor Frederick II. On the extinction of the house of Horn in 1540, the countship passed to the famous Philip of Montmorency, who, with the count of Egmont, was executed in Brussels in 1568 by order of the duke of Alva. In the beginning of the next century the countship was forcibly retained by the see of Li6ge, and was incorporated in the French department of the Lower Maas at the end of the i8th century. The ancient castle is in an ex- cellent state of preservation and is sometimes used for the assembly of the states. ROGATION DAYS (Lat. rogatio, from rogare, to beseech; the equivalent of Gr. \iTavfia, litany), hi the Calendar of the Christian Church, the Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday before Ascension Day, so called because long associated with the chanting of litanies in procession (rogationes). The week in which they occur is sometimes called Rogation Week. In 511 ROGER I.— ROGER II. 453 the first Council of Orleans ordered that the three days pre- ceding Ascension Day should be celebrated as rogation days with fasting and rogationes. All work was to be suspended that all might join in the processions. Leo III. (pope 795-816) introduced rogation days, but without the fasting, at Rome. St Augustine had earlier introduced the custom into the English Church, learning it on his way through Gaul. The Council of Clovesho in 747 confirmed Augustine's injunction, and ordered that the rogation days be kept up " according to the way of our fathers." The place-name " Gospel Oak," which occurs in London and elsewhere, is a relic of these rogation processions, the gospel of the day being read at the foot of the finest oak the parish boasted. After the Reformation the processions gradually ceased to be ecclesiastical in England, and are now practically secularized into the perambulation of the parish boundaries on or about Ascension Day. See also PROCESSION and LITANY. ROGER I. (1031-1101), ruler of Sicily, was the youngest son of Tancred of Hauteville. He arrived in Southern Italy soon after 1057. Malaterra, who compares Robert Guiscard (see GTJISCARD, ROBERT) and his brother to " Joseph and Benjamin of old," says of Roger: " He was a youth of the greatest beauty, of lofty stature, of graceful shape, most eloquent in speech and cool in counsel. He was far-seeing in arranging all his actions, pleasant and merry all with men; strong and brave, and furious in battle." He shared with Robert Guiscard the conquest of Calabria, and in a treaty of 1062 the brothers in dividing the conquest apparently made a kind of " condominium " by which either was to have half of every castle and town in Calabria.1 Robert now resolved to employ Roger's genius in reducing Sicily, which contained, besides the Moslems, numerous Greek Christians subject to Arab princes who had become all but independent of the sultan of Tunis. In May 1061 the brothers crossed from Reggio and captured Messina. After Palermo had been taken in January 1072 Robert Guiscard, as suzerain, invested Roger as count of Sicily, but retained Palermo, half of Messina and the north-east portion (the Val Demone). Not till 1085, however, was Roger able to undertake a syste- matic crusade. In March 1086 Syracuse surrendered, and when in February iogi Noto yielded the conquest was complete. Much of Robert's success had been due to Roger's support. Similarly the latter supported Duke Roger, his nephew, against Bohemund, Capua and his rebels, and the real leadership of the Hautevilles passed to the Sicilian count. In return for his aid against Bohemund and his rebels the duke sur- rendered to his uncle in 1085 his share in the castles of Calabria, and in 1091 the half of Palermo. Roger's rule in Sicily was more real than Robert Guiscard's in Italy. At the enfeoff- ments of 1072 and 1092 no great undivided fiefs were created, and the mixed Norman, French and Italian vassals owed their benefices to the count. No feudal revolt of importance therefore troubled Roger. Politically supreme, the count became master of the insular Church. While he gave full toleration to the Greek Churches, he created new Latin bishop- rics at Syracuse and Girgenti and elsewhere, nominating the bishops personally, while he turned the archbishopric of Palermo into a Catholic see. The Papacy, favouring a prince who had recovered Sicily from Greeks and Moslems, granted to him and his heirs in 1098 the Apostolic Legateship in the island. Roger practised general toleration to Arabs and Greeks, allowing to each race the expansion of its own civilization. In the cities the Moslems, who had generally secured such terms of surrender, retained their mosques, their kadis, and freedom of trade; in the country, however, they became serfs. He drew from the Moslems the mass of his infantry, and St Anselm visiting him at the siege of Capua, 1098, found " the brown tents of the Arabs innumerable." Nevertheless the Latin element began to prevail with the Lombards and other Italians who flocked into the island in the wake of the conquest, and the conquest of Sicily was decisive in the steady decline from this time of Mahommedan power in the western Mediterranean. 1 See Chalandon, La Domination normande, vol. i. p. 200. Roger, the " Great Count of Sicily," died on the 22nd of June not in his seventieth year and was buried in S. Trinita of Mileto. His third wife, Adelaide, niece of Boniface, lord of Savona, gave him two sons, Simon and Roger, of whom the latter succeeded him. See E. Caspar, Rarer II. und die Grundung der normannisch- sicilischen Monarchic (Innsbruck, 1904). (E. Cu.) ROGER II. (1093-1154), king of Sicily, son of the preceding, began personally to rule in 1112, and from the first aimed at uniting the whole of the Norman conquests in Italy. In June 1127, William, duke of Apulia, grandson of Robert Guis- card, died childless, having apparently made some vague promise of the succession to Roger. In any case Roger claimed at once, not only all the Hauteville possessions, but also the overlordship of Capua, for which Richard II. in 1098 had sworn homage to Duke Roger. The union of Sicily and Apulia, however, was resisted by Honorius II. and by the subjects of the duchy itself, averse from any strong ducal power, and the pope at Capua (Dec. 1127) preached a crusade against the claimant, setting against him Robert II. of Capua and Ranulf of Alife, or Avellino, brother-in-law of Roger, who proved himself the real leader of the revolt. The coalition, however, failed, and in August 1128 Honorius invested Roger at Bene- vento as duke of Apulia. The baronial resistance, which was backed by Naples, Bari, Salerno and other cities, whose aim was civic freedom, also gave way, and at Melfi (Sept. 1129) Roger was generally recognized as duke by Naples, Capua and the rest. He began at once to enforce order in the Hauteville possessions, where the ducal power had long been falling to pieces. For the binding together of all his states the royal name seemed essential, and the death of Honorius in February 1130, followed by a double election, seemed the decisive moment. While Innocent II. fled to France, Roger, with deep design, sup- ported Anacletus II. The price was a crown, and on the 27th of September 1130 a bull of Anacletus made Roger king of Sicily. He was crowned in Palermo on the 25th of December 1130. This plunged Roger into a ten years' war. Bernard of Clairvaux, Innocent's champion, built up against Anacletus and his " half heathen king " a coalition joined by Louis VI. of France, Henry I. of England and the emperor Lothar. Mean- while the forces of revolt in South Italy drew to a head again. The rebels under Ranulf shamefully defeated the king at Nocera on the 24th of July 1132. Nevertheless, by July 1134 his terrific energy and the savagery of his Saracen troops forced Ranulf, Sergius, duke of Naples, and the rebels to submit, while Robert was expelled from Capua. Meanwhile Lothar's contemplated attack upon Roger had gained the backing of Pisa, Genoa and the Greek emperor, all of whom feared the growth of a powerful Norman kingdom. In February 1137 Lothar began to move south and was joined by Ranulf and the rebels; in June he besieged and took Bari. At San Severino, after a victorious campaign, he and the pope jointly invested Ranulf as duke of Apulia (Aug. 1137), and the emperor then retired to Germany. Roger, freed from the utmost danger, recovered ground, sacked Capua and forced Sergius to acknow- ledge him as overlord of Naples. At Rignano the indomitable Ranulf again utterly defeated the king, but in April 1139 Ranulf died, leaving none to oppose Roger, who subdued piti- lessly the last of the rebels. The death of Anacletus (25 Jan. 1138) determined Roger to seek the confirmation of his title from Innocent. The latter, invading the kingdom with a large army, was skilfully ambushed at Galuccio on the Garigliano (22 July 1139). This secured the king's object; on the 25th July the pope invested him as " Rex Siciliae ducatus Apuliae et principatus Capuae." The boundaries of the " regno" were finally fixed, by a truce with the pope in October 1144, at a line south of the Tronto and east of Terracina and Ceprano. Roger, now become one of the greatest kings • in Europe, made Sicily the leading maritime power in the Mediterranean. A powerful fleet was built up under several " admirals," or 454 ROGER— ROGER OF HOVEDEN " emirs," of whom the greatest was George of Antioch, formerly in the service of the Moslem prince of El Mehdia. Mainly by him a series of conquests were made on the African coast (1135-53) which reached from Tripoli to Cape Bona. The second crusade (1147-48) gave Roger an opportunity to revive Robert Guiscard's designs on the Greek Empire. George was sent to Corinth at the end of 1147 and despatched an army inland which plundered Thebes. In June 1149 the admiral appeared before Constantinople and defied the Basileus by firing arrows against the palace windows. The attack on the empire had, however, no abiding results. The king died at Palermo on the 26th of February 1154, and was succeeded by his fourth son William. Personally Roger was of tall and powerful body, with long fair hair and full beard. " He had," says Romnald of Salerno, " a lion face, and spoke with a harsh voice." With little or none of Robert Guiscard's personal valour, and living at inter- vals the life of an eastern Sultan, he yet showed to the full his uncle's audacity, diplomatic skill and determination. It is Roger II. 's distinction to have united all the Norman con- quests into one kingdom and to have subjected them to a government scientific, personal and centralized. The principles of this are found in the Assizes of the kingdom of Sicily, pro- mulgated at Ariano in 1140, which enforced an almost absolute royal power. At Palermo Roger drew round him distinguished men of various races, such as the famous Arab geographer Idrisi and the historian Nilus Doxopatrius. The king's active and curious mind welcomed the learned; he maintained a complete toleration for the several creeds, races and languages of his realm ; he was served by men of nationality so dissimilar as the Englishman Thomas Brun, a kaid of the Curia, and, in the fleet, by the renegade Moslem Christodoulos, and the Antiochene George, whom he made in 1132 "amiratus amira- torum," in effect prime vizier. The Capella Palatina, at Palermo, the most wonderful of Roger's churches, with Norman doors, Saracenic arches, Byzantine dome, and roof adorned with Arabic scripts, is perhaps the most striking product of the brilliant and mixed civilization over which the grandson of the Norman Trancred ruled. Contemporary authors are: Falco of Benevento, Alexander of Telese, Romuald of Salerno and Hugo Falcandus, all in the Scrittori e cronisli napoletani, ed. Del Re, vol. i. See also E. Caspar, Roger II. und die Grundung der normannisch-sicilischen Monarchic (Innsbruck, 1904). (E. Cu.) ROGER (d. 1139), bishop of Salisbury, was originally priest of a small chapel near Caen. The future King Henry I., who happened to hear mass there one day, was impressed by the speed with which Roger read the service, and enrolled him in his own service. Roger, though uneducated, showed great talent for business, and Henry, on coming to the throne, almost immediately made him chancellor (1101). Soon after Roger received the bishopric of Salisbury. In the Investitures con- troversy he skilfully managed to keep the favour of both the king and Anselm. Roger devoted himself to administrative business, and remodelled it completely. He created the exchequer system, which was managed by him and his family for more than a century, and he used his position to heap up power and riches. He became the first man in England after the king, and was in office, if not in title, justiciar. He ruled England while Henry was in Normandy, and succeeded in obtaining the see of Canterbury for his nominee, William of Corbeil. Duke Robert seems to have been put into his custody after Tinchebrai. Though Roger had sworn allegiance to Matilda, he disliked the Angevin connexion, and went over to Stephen, carrying with him the royal treasure and adminis- trative system (1135). Stephen placed great reliance on him, on his nephews, the bishops of Ely and Lincoln, and on his son Roger, who was treasurer. The king declared that if Roger demanded half of the kingdom he should have it, but chafed against the overwhelming influence of the official clique whom Roger represented. Roger himself had built at Devizes the most splendid castle in Christendom. He and his nephews seem to have secured a number of castles outside their own dioceses, and the old bishop behaved as if he were an equal of the king. At a council held in June 1139, Stephen found a pretext for demanding a surrender of their castles, and on their refusal they were arrested. After a short struggle all Roger's great castles were sequestrated. But Henry of Winchester demanded the restoration of the bishop. The king was considered to have committed an almost unpardon- able crime in offering violence to members of the church, in defiance of the scriptural command, " Touch not mine anointed." Stephen took up a defiant attitude, and the question remained unsettled. This quarrel with the church, which immediately preceded the landing of the empress, had a serious effect on Stephen's fortunes. The moment that the fortune of war declared against him, the clergy acknowledged Matilda. Bishop Roger, however, did not live to see himself avenged. He died at Salisbury in December 1139. He was a great bureaucrat, and a builder whose taste was in advance of his age. But his contemporaries were probably justified in regarding him as the type of the bishop immersed in worldly affairs, ambitious, avaricious, unfettered by any high standard of personal morality. Roger's nephew Alexander (d. 1148), who became bishop of Lincoln in 1123, was a typical secular ecclesiastic of the middle ages, wealthy, proud, ambitious and ostentatious. He founded monasteries, built castles at Newark, Sleaford and Banbury, and restored his cathedral at Lincoln after the fire of 1145. He followed the policy of Roger, whose imprisonment he shared, and died after a visit to Pope Eugenius III. at Auxerre, early in 1 148. See Sir J. Ramsay's Foundations of England, vol. ii., and J. H. Round's Geoffrey de Mandeville. ROGER (d. 1181), archbishop of York, known as Roger of Pont 1'Eveque, was a member of the household of Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, where he quarrelled violently with another future archbishop, Thomas Becket. In 1148 he was appointed archdeacon of Canterbury, and soon afterwards chaplain to King Stephen, who sent him on an errand to Rome in 1152; then in October 1154 he was consecrated archbishop of York in Westminster Abbey. When Henry II. entered upon his great struggle with Becket over the immunity of clerks from secular jurisdiction, he managed to secure the support of Roger, and having been appointed papal legate in England, the archbishop visited Pope Alexander III. and the French king, Louis VII., in his master's interests. In June 1 1 70 he crowned the king's son Henry, in spite of prohibitions from the pope and from Becket, and for this act he was suspended. One authority declares that Roger, who was then with Henry II. in Normandy, instigated the murder of the rival archbishop, but he swore he was innocent of this crime. He quarrelled with Richard, the new archbishop of Canterbury, about the respective rights of the two archiepiscopal sees, until 1176, when the king arranged a truce between them; and he was constantly endeavouring to assert his supremacy over the Scottish church. The archbishop died at York on the 2ist of November 1181. He was always loyal to Henry II., to whom he was very useful during the great rising of 1174; but he has been accused of avarice, and he was certainly not lacking in ambition. Another English prelate of this name was ROGER, bishop of Worcester, a younger son of Robert, earl of Gloucester, and thus a grandson of the English king Henry I. In 1163 his cousin Henry II. appointed him bishop of Worcester, but almost alone of the English bishops he supported Thomas Becket and not the king during the quarrel between them in 1166. In 1167 he left England to share Becket's exile, but he soon returned to court, although he appears to have remained oh friendly terms with the archbishop. He died at Tours in 1179. ROGER OF HOVEDEN, or HOWDEN (fl. 1174-1201), English chronicler, was, to judge from his name and the internal evi- dence of his work, a native of Howden in the East Riding of Yorkshire. But nothing is known of him before the year 1174. He was then in attendance upon Henry II., by whom ROGER OF WENDOVER— ROGERS, J. E. T. he was sent from France on a secret mission to the lords of Galloway. In 1175 he again appears as a negotiator between the king and a number of English religious houses. The interest which Hoveden shows in ecclesiastical affairs and miracles may justify the supposition that he was a clerk in orders. This, however, did not prevent him from acting, in 1189, as a justice of the forests in the shires of Yorkshire, Cumberland and Northumberland. After the death of Henry II., it would seem that Hoveden retired from the public service, though not so completely as to prevent him from drawing on the royal archives for the history of contemporary events. About the year 1192 he began to compile his Chronica, a general history of England from 732 to his own time. Up to the year 1192 his narrative adds little to our knowledge. For the period 732-1148 he chiefly drew upon an extant, but unpublished chronicle, the Historia Saxonum sive Anglorum post obitum Bedae (British Museum MS. Reg. 13 A. 6), which was composed about 1150. From 1148 to 1170 he used the Melrose Chronicle (edited for the Bannatyne Club in 1835 by Joseph Stevenson) and a collection of letters bearing upon the Becket controversy. From 1170 to 1192 his authority is the chronicle ascribed to Benedictus Abbas (?.f.), the author of which must have been in the royal household at about the same time as Hoveden. Although this period was one in which Hoveden had many opportunities of making independent observations, he adds little to the text which he uses; except that he inserts some additional docu- ments. Either his predecessor had exhausted the royal archives, or the supplementary searches of Hoveden were languidly pursued. From 1192, however, Hoveden is an independent and copious authority. Like " Benedictus," he is sedulously impersonal, and makes no pretence to literary style, quotes documents in full and adheres to the annalistic method. His chronology is tolerably exact, but there are mistakes enough to prove that he recorded events at a certain distance of time. Both on foreign affairs and on questions of domestic policy he is unusually well informed. His practical experience as an administrator and his official connexions stood him in good stead. He is particularly useful on points of constitutional history. His work breaks off abruptly in 1201, though he certainly intended to carry it further. Probably his death should be placed in that year. See W. Stubbs's edition of the Chronica (Rolls Series) and the introductions to vols. i. and iv. This edition supersedes that of Sir H. Savile in his Scriptores post Bedam (1596). (H. W. C. D.) ROGER OF WENDOVER (d. 1236), English chronicler, was probably a native of Wendover in Buckinghamshire. At some uncertain date he became a monk of St Albans; afterwards he was appointed prior of the cell of Belvoir, but he forfeited this dignity in the early years of Henry III., having been found guilty of wasting the endowments. His latter years were passed at St Albans, where he died on the 6th of May 1236. He is the first of the important chroniclers who worked in the scriptorium of this house. His great work, the Flares Historiarum, begins at the creation and extends to 1235. It is of original value from 1202. Some critics have supposed, but on inconclusive evidence, that Wendover copied, up to 1189, an earlier compilation, the work of John de Cella, the twenty-first abbot of St Albans (1195-1214). Wendover's work is known to us through one 13th-century manuscript in the Bodleian library (Douce MS. 207), a mutilated 14th- century copy in the British Museum (Cotton MS. Otho B. v.), and the edition prepared by Matthew Paris which forms the first part of that writer's Chronica Majora (ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls Series, 7 vols.). The best edition of Wendover is that of H. O. Coxe (4 vols., London, 1841-42); there is another (from 1154) in the Rolls Series by H. G. Hewlett (3 vols., 1886-89). Wendover is a copious but inaccurate writer, less prejudiced but also less graphic than Matthew Paris. Where he is the sole authority for an event, he is to be used with caution. See Luard's prefaces to vols. i., ii., iii. and vii. of the Chronica Majora; and the Monumenta Germaniae Hislorica. Scriplores, Band xxviii. pp. 3-20. (H. W. C. D.) 455 ROGERS, HENRY (1806-1877), English Nonconformist divine, was bom at St Albans on the i8th of October 1806, and was educated privately and by his father, a surgeon of considerable culture. Rogers was meant to follow his father's profession, but the reading of John Howe turned him to theology, and after qualifying at Highbury College he accepted a call to the Congregational Church at Poole in 1829. In 1832 he was appointed lecturer in logic at Highbury, in 1836 professor of English at University College, London, and in 1839 professor of English, mathematics and mental philosophy at Spring Hill College, Birmingham. In 1836 appeared his Life and Character of John Howe, and in 1837 The Christian Correspondent, a collection of some 400 religious letters " by eminent persons of both sexes." His contributions to the Edinburgh Review began in 1839 and were collected in volume form in 1850, 1855 and 1874. His most famous book, The Eclipse of Faith, or a Visit to a Religious Sceptic, was published anonymously in 1852 and went through six editions in three years. It drew a Reply from F. W. Newman, which Rogers answered in a Defence (1854). Two volumes of imaginary letters, Selections from the Correspondence of R. E. H. Grey son (an anagram for his own name), appeared in 1857 and show his style at its best. In 1858 he became principal and professor of theology at the Lancashire Inde- pendent College, where he edited the works of John Howe (6 vols., 1862-63) and wrote for the British Quarterly. He retired in 1871, and died at Machynlleth. on the 2ist of August 1877. Rogers was widely read, and as a Christian apologist carried on the traditions of the i8th century as illustrated by Butler. See Memoir by Dr R. W. Dale, prefixed to the 8th edition of The Supernatural Origin of the Bible Inferred from Itself (the Congrega- tional Lecture for 1873, delivered by Rogers). ROGERS, HENRY DARWIN (1808-1866), American geologist, was born at Philadelphia on the ist of August 1808. At the age of twenty-one he was chosen professor of chemistry and natural philosophy at Dickinson College, Pennsylvania. After holding this post for three years, he went to Europe and took up the study of geology. Subsequently he was engaged for twenty-two years in the State surveys of Pennsylvania and New Jersey, his Reports on which were published during the years 1836-41. In 1842 he and his brother WILLIAM BARTON ROGERS (1805-1882), who had been similarly occupied in Virginia (his Reports were published in 1838-41, and he wrote also on the connexion between thermal springs and anticlinal axes and faults), brought before the Association of American Geologists and Naturalists their conclusions on the physical structure of the Appalachian chain, and on the eleva- tion of great mountain chains. The researches of H. D. Rogers were elaborated in his final Report on Pennsylvania (1858), in which he included a general account of the geology of the United States and of the coal-fields of North America and Great Britain. In this important work he dealt also with the structure of the great coal-fields, the method of formation of the strata, and the changes in the character of the coal from the bituminous type to anthracite. In 1857 he was appointed professor of natural history and geology at Glasgow. One of his later essays (1861) was on the parallel roads of Lochaber (Glen Roy), the origin of which he attributed to a vast inundation. He died at Glasgow on the 29th of May 1866. ROGERS, JAMES EDWIN THOROLD (1823-1800), English economist, was born at West Meon, Hampshire, in 1823. He was educated at King's College, London, and Magdalen Hall, Oxford. After taking a first-class degree in 1846, he was ordained, and was for a few years a curate in Oxford. Subse- quently, however, he resigned his orders. For some time the classics were the chief field of his activity. He devoted himself a good deal to classical and philosophical tuition in Oxford with success, and his publications included an edition of Aristotle's Ethics (in 1865). Simultaneously with these occupations he had been diligently studying economics, with 456 ROGERS, J. the result that in 1859 he was appointed professor of statistics and economic science at King's College, London, a post which he filled till his death. From 1862 to 1867 he also held the position of Drummond professor of political economy at Oxford. During that period he published (in 1866) the first two volumes of his History of Agriculture and Prices in England, dealing with the period 1250-1400, a minute and masterly record of the subject, and the work upon which his reputation mainly rests. Two more volumes (1401-1582) were published in 1882, a fifth and sixth (1583-1702) in 1887, and he left behind him at his death copious materials for a seventh and eighth. In 1868 he published a Manual of Political Economy, and in 1869 an edition of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. In 1875 he collected and edited the Protests of the Lords. An intimate acquaintance with Cobden and John Bright led Rogers to take an active part in politics: he represented Southwark in parliament from 1880 to 1885, and Bermondsey from 1885-86, as an advanced Liberal. In 1888, on the death of Professor Bonamy Price, who had succeeded him at Oxford as professor of political economy, he was re-elected to the post, and held it till his death. Previously (in 1883) he had been appointed lecturer in political economy at Worcester College, Oxford. His latter years were mainly spent at Oxford, where he died on the I2th of October 1890. He was celebrated as a caustic wit and humqrist. Of his miscellaneous economic and historical writings, which were numerous, the most note- worthy is his Six Centuries of Work and Wages, published in 1884. As an economist, Thorold Rogers did much to promote the historical study of his subject. He was, however, apt to be guided too frequently by political prejudice, and the value of his work suffered from his aggressively contentious spirit. ROGERS, JOHN (1627-*;. 1665), English preacher, second son of Nehemiah Rogers, a royalist and Anglican clergyman, was born at Messing in Essex, and became a servitor and student of medicine at King's College, Cambridge. When still a youth the violence of his religious despair led him to attempt suicide and ended in his joining the extreme sect of the Puritans. Deprived of his home in 1642, he walked to Cambridge, and found the college establishment broken up; he nearly starved, but obtained in 1643 a scholastic post in Lord Brudenel's house in Huntingdonshire, and subsequently at St Neot's free school. He became known as a preacher, received Presbyterian ordination in 1647, married a daughter of Sir Robert Payne of Midloe in Huntingdonshire, and obtained the living of Purleigh in Essex. Subsequently he came to London, joined the Independents, became lecturer at St Thomas Apostle's, and attracted attention by the violence of his political sermons. He was appointed preacher to Christ Church Cathedral in Dublin by the parliament in 1651, and while there served in the field, returning in 1652 to St Thomas Apostle's on account of religious dissensions. In 1653 his parishioners at Purleigh, where he had hitherto managed to retain the living, successfully pro- ceeded against him for non-residence. In the quarrel between the army and the parliament Rogers had naturally sided with the former, and he was one of the first to join the Fifth Mon- archy movement. He approved of the expulsion of the Long Parliament, and addressed two letters to Cromwell on the subject of the new government to be inaugurated, but the establishment of the Protectorate at once threw the Fifth Monarchy men into antagonism. Rogers addressed a warning letter to Cromwell, and boldly attacked him from the pulpit on the 9th of January 1654. Thereupon his house was searched and his papers seized, and Rogers then issued another denuncia- tion against Cromwell, Mene, Tekel, Perez: a Letter lamenting over Oliver Lord Cromwell. On the 28th of March, on which day he had proclaimed a fast for the sins of the rulers, he preached a violent sermon against the protector, which occa- sioned his arrest in July. He confronted Cromwell with great courage when brought before him on the sth of February 1655, and was imprisoned successively at Windsor and in the Isle of Wight, being released in January 1657. He returned to London, and, being suspected of a conspiracy, was again imprisoned by Cromwell in the Tower from the 3rd of February 1658 till the i6th of April. On the protector's death and the downfall of Richard Cromwell, the ideals of the Fifth Monarchy men seemed nearer realization, but Rogers was engaged in political controversy with Prynne and became a source of embarrass- ment to his own faction, which endeavoured to get rid of him by appointing him " to preach the gospel " in Ireland. On the outbreak of Sir George Booth's royalist insurrection, how- ever, he became chaplain in Charles Fairfax's regiment, and served throughout the campaign. He obtained a lectureship at Shrewsbury in October and was in Dublin in January 1660, being imprisoned there by order of the army faction and released subse- quently by the parliament. At the Restoration he withdrew to Holland, studied medicine at Leiden and Utrecht, and obtained from the latter university the degree ofM.D.ini662. He returned to England the same year and resided at Bermondsey, was admitted to the degree of M.D. at Oxford in 1664, and is supposed, in the absence of further record, to have died soon afterwards. Besides the pamphlet already cited, Rogers wrote in 1653 Ohel or Bethshemesh, a Tabernacle for the Sun, in which he attacked the Presbyterians, and Sagrir, or Doomesday drawing nigh, from his new standpoint as a Fifth Monarchy man, and was the author of Challah, the Heavenly Nymph (1653) ; Dod, or Chathan; the Beloved or the Bride- groom going forth for his Bride . . . (1653) ; Prison-born Morning Beams (1654) ; Jegar Sahadutha . . . (1657) ; Mr Prynne' s Good Old Cause slated and stunted 10 Year ago . . . (1609); £uairo\iTtla., a Christian Concertation (1659) ; Mr Harrington's Parallel Unparalleled (1659); A Vindication of Sir H. Vane (1659); Disputatio Medica Inauguralis (1662). AUTHORITIES.— Life and Opinions of a Fifth Monarchy Man, by Ed. Rogers (1867), compiled from Rogers's own works; Wood, Athenae Oxonienses and Fasti; Calendars of State Papers (Domestic). See also " English Ancestry of Washington," Harper's Magazine, xxi. 887 (1891); "John Rogers of Purleigh," The Nation, vol. 53, p. 314 (1891). ROGERS, JOHN (c. 1500-1555), English Protestant martyr, was born in the parish of Aston, near Birmingham, and was educated at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1526. Six years later he was rector of Holy Trinity, Queenhithe, London, and in 1534 went to Antwerp as chaplain to the English merchants. Here he met William Tyndale, under whose influence he abandoned the Roman Catholic faith, and married an Antwerp lady. After Tyndale's death Rogers pushed on with his predecessor's English version of the Old Testament, which he used as far as 2 Chronicles, employing Coverdale's translation (1535) for the remainder and for the Apocrypha. Tyndale's New Testament had been published in 1526. The complete Bible was put out under the pseudonym of Thomas Matthew in 1537; it was printed in Antwerp, and Richard Grafton published the sheets and got leave to sell the edition (1500 copies) in England. Rogers had little to do with the translation, but he contributed some valuable prefaces and marginal notes. His work was largely used by those who prepared the Great Bible (1539-40), out of which in turn came the Bishop's Bible (1568) and the Authorized Version of 1611. After taking charge of a Protestant congregation in Wittenberg for some years, Rogers returned to England in 1548, where he published a translation of Melanchthon's Considerations of the Augsburg Interim. In 1550 he was presented to the crown livings of St Margaret Moyses and St Sepulchre in London, and in 1551 was made a prebendary of St Paul's, where the dean and chapter soon appointed him divinity lecturer. He courage- ously denounced the greed shown by certain courtiers with reference to the property of the suppressed monasteries, and defended himself before the privy council. He also declined to wear the prescribed vestments, donning instead a simple round cap. On the accession of Mary he preached at Paul's Cross commending the " true doctrine taught in King Edward's days," and warning his hearers against " pestilent Popery, idolatry and superstition." Ten days after (i6th August 1553), he was summoned before the council and bidden to keep within his own house. His emoluments were taken away and his prebend was filled in October. In January 1554 Bonner, the new bishop of London, sent him to Newgate, where he lay with ROGERS, J.— ROGERS, S. John Hooper, Laurence Saunders, John Bradford and others for a year, their petitions, whether for less rigorous treatment or for opportunity of stating their case, being alike disregarded. In December 1554 parliament re-enacted the penal statutes against Lollards, and on January 22nd, 1555, two days after they took effect, Rogers with ten others came before the council at Gardiner's house in Southwark, and held his own in the examination that took place. On the 28th and 29th he came before the commission appointed by Cardinal Pole, and was sentenced to death by Gardiner for heretically denying the Christian character of the Church of Rome and the real presence in the sacrament. He awaited and met death (on the 4th of February 1555 at Smithfield) cheerfully, though denied even an interview with his wife. Noailles, the French ambassador, speaks of the support given to Rogers by the greatest part of the people: "even his children assisted at it, comforting him in such a manner that it seemed as if he had been led to a wedding." He was the first Protestant martyr of Mary's reign, and his friend Bradford wrote that " he broke the ice valiantly." The following divines of the same name may be distinguished: — JOHN ROGERS (i572?-i6o3), Puritan vicar of Dedham, Essex, " one of the most awakening preachers of the age." — JOHN ROGERS (1610-1680), ejected vicar of Croglin, Cumberland, and the founder of Congregational churches in Teesdale and Weardale, where he evangelized the lead miners. — JOHN ROGERS (1679-1729), one of George II. "s chaplains, famous for his share in the Bangorian con- troversy (1719), his Vindication of the Civil Establishment of Religion (1728), and his Persuasives to Conformity, addressed to Dissenters (1736) and to Quakers (1747). — JOHN ROGERS (i74O?-i8i4), leader of the Irish seceding divines, minister of Cahans, Co. Monaghan. — JOHN ROGERS (1778-1856), rector of Mawnan, Cornwall, and the owner of the Penrose and Helston estates; a good botanist and mineralogist, and a distinguished Hebrew and Syriac scholar. ROGERS, JOHN (1820-1904), American sculptor, was born at Salem, Massachusetts, on the 3oth of October 1829. In 1848 he became an apprentice in a machine shop at Manchester, New Hampshire, and remained there for about ten years. During the latter part of this time he had done some modelling in clay in his leisure hours, and, having decided to become a sculptor, he spent eight months in Rome and Paris in 1858-59. Becoming discouraged, he returned to America and obtained employment as a draughtsman in the office of the city surveyor of Chicago; but soon afterwards, owing to the favourable reception of his group of small figures, " The Checker Players," he resumed sculptural work, confining himself to these small figures, known as " Rogers Groups," which had an enormous popular success and were extensively reproduced. The Civil War in America gave him patriotic themes that increased his vogue and prosperity, and in 1863 he became a National Academician. His subjects were familiar scenes and incidents of home life known to the masses, and the reproductions of his groups were sold in the most remote districts as well as in the larger cities. He executed several life-sized statues, including " General John F. Reynolds " and a seated figure of Lincoln, both in Philadelphia; but it is by his statuettes that he is best remembered, and these were • characterized by sentiment and human interest rather than any genuine artistic feeling. He died at New Haven, Connecticut, on the 27th of July 1904. ROGERS, ROBERT. (1727-1784?), American frontier soldier, was born of Irish parentage in 1727, probably at Methuen, Massachusetts, whence his father, James Rogers (often con- fused with James Rogers, an early settler of Londonderry, N.H.), removed in 1739 to Starktown (now Dunbarton), New Hamp- shire. During the Seven Years' War he raised and commanded a force of militia, known as Rogers' Rangers, which won a wide reputation for its courage and endurance in the campaigns about Lake George. He took part in Wolfe's expedition against Quebec, and on the 4th of October 1759 he destroyed an Abnaki Indian village on the St Francis river near its mouth and killed about 200 of its inhabitants. After the Montreal campaign of 1760, in which he served, he was sent by General Amherst to take possession of the north-western posts, occupied Detroit on the 29th of November, and later returned to the east. In 1763, during the Pontiac uprising, he accom- 457 panied the relief expedition under James Dalyell to Detroit and took part in the battle of Bloody Bridge on the 3ist of July (see PONTIAC). Soon after this he went to England, and in 1765 published in London a Concise Account of North America, containing a Description of the Several British Colonies . . . also an Account of the Several Nations and Tribes of Indians (new edition, Albany, 1883). In 1766-68 he was commandant of Michilimackinac. He spent the next few years in England, and after 1772 was in the service of the dey of Algiers. At the beginning of the War of Independence he returned to America, and in spite of his protestations of patriotism was considered by Washington and others a Loyalist spy. He was arrested by agents of Congress, but was paroled. His re- arrest he considered a release from his parole. He then openly joined the British, and under a commission from General Howe organized a regiment of Loyalists which was known as the Queen's Rangers, and which after his return to England in 1776 was commanded by Capt. John G. Simcoe. In 1779 he was commissioned to raise a regiment to be called the King's Rangers, and he returned for a short time to America; but the command of the Rangers, which soon became a part of the garrison of St John's, Quebec, was taken by his brother James (d. 1792), who had formerly served under Robert. Rogers died in London probably in 1784. In addition to the Concise Account of North America, he published his Journals (London, 1765), and is supposed to have written, at least in part, Ponteach, or the Savages of America, a Tragedy (London, 1766). See also his " Journal " in the Diary of 'the Siege of Detroit in the War with Pontiac (Albany, 1860; new edition, 1883), edited by F. B. Hough; and Francis Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe (2 vols., Boston, 1884). ROGERS, SAMUEL (1763-1855), English poet, was born at Newington Green, London, on the 3Oth of July 1763. His father, Thomas Rogers, was the son of a Stourbridge glass manufacturer, who was also a merchant in Cheapside. Thomas Rogers had a place in the London business, and married Mary, the only daughter of his father's partner, Daniel Radford, becoming himself a partner shortly afterwards. On his mother's side Samuel Rogers was connected with the two well-known Nonconformist divines Philip and .Matthew Henry, and it was in Nonconformist circles at Stoke Newington that he was brought up. He was educated at private schools at Hackney and Stoke Newington. He wished to enter the Presbyterian ministry, but at his father's desire he joined the banking business in Cornhill. ' In long holidays, necessitated by delicate health, Rogers became a diligent student of English literature, par- ticularly in Johnson, Gray and Goldsmith. Gray's poems, he said, he had by heart. He had already made some contri- butions to the Gentleman's Magazine, when in 1786 he published a volume containing some imitations of Goldsmith and an " Ode to Superstition " in the manner of Gray. In 1788 his elder brother Thomas died, and Samuel's business responsi- bilities were increased. In the next year he paid a visit to Scotland, where he met Adam Smith, Henry Mackenzie, the Piozzis and others. In 1791 he was in Paris, and enjoyed a hurried inspection of the art collection of Philippe Egalite at the Palais Royal, many of the treasures of which were later on to pass into his possession. With Gray as his model, Rogers took great pains in polishing his verses, and six years elapsed after the publication of his first volume before he printed his elaborate poem on The Pleasures of Memory (1792). This poem may be regarded as the last embodiment of the poetic diction of the i8th century. Here is carried to the extremest pitch the theory of elevating and refining familiar themes by abstract treatment and lofty imagery. In this art of " raising a sub- ject," as the 18th-century phrase was, the Pleasures of Memory is much more perfect than Thomas Campbell's Pleasures of Hope, published a few years later in imitation. The acme of positive praise for the fashionable serious poetry of the time was given by Byron when he said, " There is not a vulgar line in the poem." In 1793 his father's death gave Rogers the principal share in the banking house in Cornhill, and a considerable income. 458 ROGERS, W.— ROGIER He left Newington Green in the same year and established himself in chambers in the Temple. In his circle of friends at this time were " Conversation " Sharp and the artists Flaxman, Opie, Martin Shee and Fuseli. He also made the acquaintance of Charles James Fox, with whom he visited the galleries in Paris in 1802, and whose friendship introduced him to Holland House. In 1803 he moved to 22 St James's Place, where for fifty years he entertained all the celebrities of London. Flax- man and Stothard had a share in the decorations of the house, which Rogers had almost rebuilt, and now proceeded to fill with pictures and other works of art. His collections at his death realized £50,000. An invitation to one of Rogers's breakfasts was a formal entry into literary society, and his dinners were even more select. His social success was due less to his literary position than to his powers as a conver- sationalist, his educated taste in all matters of art, and no doubt to his sarcastic and bitter wit, for which he excused himself by saying that he had such a small voice that no one listened if he said pleasant things. Above all, he seems to have had a genius for benevolence. " He certainly had the kindest heart and unkindest tongue of any one I ever knew," said Fanny Kemble. He helped the poet Robert Bloomfield, he reconciled Moore with Jeffrey and with Byron, and he relieved Sheridan's difficulties in the last days of his life. Moore, who refused help from all his friends, and would only be under obligations to his publishers, found it possible to accept assistance from Rogers. He procured a pension for H. F. Gary, the translator of Dante, and obtained for Wordsworth his sinecure as distributor of stamps. It is difficult to realize the length of time that Rogers played the part of literary dictator in England. He made his repu- tation by The Pleasures of Memory when Cowper's fame was still in the making. He became the friend of Wordsworth, Scott and Byron, and lived long enough to give an opinion as to the fitness of Alfred Tennyson for the post of poet laureate. Alexander Dyce, from the time of his first introduction to Rogers, was in the habit of writing down the anecdotes with which his conversation abounded. From the mass of material thus accumulated he made a selection which he arranged under various headings and published in 1856 as Recollections of the Table- Talk of Samuel Rogers, to which is added Porsoniana. Rogers himself kept a notebook, in which he entered impressions of the conversation of many of his distinguished friends — Charles James Fox, Edmund Burke, Henry Grattan, Richard Person, John Home Tooke, Talleyrand, Lord Erskine, Sir Walter Scott, Lord Grenville and the duke of Wellington. They were published by his nephew William Sharpe in 1859 as Recollec- tions by Samuel Rogers; and Reminiscences and Table-Talk of Samuel Rogers, Banker, Poet, and Patron of the Arts, 1763- 1855 (1903), by G. H. Powell, is an amalgamation of these two authorities. Rogers held various honorary positions: he was one of the trustees of the National Gallery; and he served on a commission to inquire into the management of the British Museum, and on another for the rebuilding of the Houses of Parliament. Meanwhile his literary production was slow. A poem of some autobiographical interest, An Epistle to a Friend (Richard Sharp), published in 1798, describes Rogers's ideal of a happy life. This was followed twelve years later by The Voyage of Columbus (1810), and by Jacqueline (1814), a narrative poem, written in the four-accent measure of the newer writers, and published in the same volume with Byron's Lara. His reflective poem on Human Life (1819), on which he had been engaged for twelve years, is written in his earlier manner. In 1814 Rogers made a tour on the Continent with his sister Sarah. He travelled through Switzerland to Italy, keeping a full diary of events and impressions, and had rnade his way to Naples when the news of Napoleon's escape from Elba obliged him to hurry home. Seven years later he returned to Italy, paying a visit to Byron and Shelley at Pisa. Out of the earlier of these tours arose his last and longest work, Italy. The first part was published anonymously in 1822; the second, with his name attached, in 1828. The production was at first a failure, but Rogers was determined to make it a success. He enlarged and revised the poem, and commissioned illustrations from J. M. Turner, Thomas Stothard and Samuel Prout. These were engraved on steel in the sumptuous edition of 1830. The book' then proved a great success, and Rogers followed it up with an equally sumptuous edition of his Poems (1838). In 1850, on Wordsworth's death, Rogers was asked to succeed him as poet laureate, but declined the honour on account of his great age. For the last five years of his life he was confined to his chair in consequence of a fall in the street. He died in London on the i8th of December 1855. A full account of Rogers is given in two works by P. W. Clayden, The Early Life of Sarr.uel Rogers (1887) and Rogers and his Contem- poraries (2 vols., 1889). One of the best accounts of Rogers, con- taining many examples of his caustic wit, is by Abraham Hayward in the Edinburgh Review for July 1856. See also the Aldine edition (1857) of his Poetical Works, and the Journals of Byron and of Moore. ROGERS, WILLIAM (1819-1896), English clergyman and educational reformer, was born in London on the 24th of November 1819, the son of a barrister. Educated at Eton and at Balliol College, Oxford, he entered Durham University in 1842, to study theology, and was ordained in 1843. In 1845 he was appointed to St Thomas Charterhouse, where he remained for eighteen years, throwing himself passionately into the work of education of his poor, degraded and often criminal parishioners. He began by establishing a school for ragamuffins in a blacksmith's abandoned shed, and with the generous help of friends he gradually extended its scope until the whole parish was a network of schools. In 1858 he was appointed a member of the Royal Commission to inquire into popular education, and he was returned a representative of the London School Board after the passing of Forster's Act in 1870. In 1863 the bishop of London gave him the living of St Botolph Bishopsgate. Rogers was also made a prebendary of St Paul's, and in 1857 he had been appointed Chaplain in Ordinary to the Queen. Having largely solved at St Thomas's the problem of elementary educa- tion, at Bishopsgate Rogers tackled the no- less difficult one of middle-class schools. He believed in secular education, leaving doctrinal training to parents and clergy. To the cry against " godless education," Rogers impulsively replied, " Hang theology; let us begin "; and his nickname of " Hang-theology Rogers " stuck to him for the rest of his life. The Cowper Street Schools, costing £20,000, were the practical result of his energy. His next great work was the reconstruction of Edward Alleyn's charity at Dulwich. The new college was opened in 1870; new buildings were erected for the lower school, and the lion's share of the work fell upon Rogers. The culmination of his labours was the opening, on his seventy-fifth birthday, of the Bishops- gate Institute, including a hall, with accommodation for 500 people and a reference and lending library. On the same day a portrait and gift of plate was made him at the Mansion House, before a distinguished gathering. Lord Rosebery, then Prime Minister, observed in his speech that though bishoprics and deaneries had not been the rector's lot, there was not a poor Jew in Houndsditch or Petticoat Lane whose face would not brighten when he saw him coming. When he died, on the igth of January 1896, this might have served as an appropriate epitaph. ROGIER, CHARLES LATOUR (1800-1885), Belgian states- man, descended from a Belgian family settled in the department of the Nord in France, was born at St Quentin on i7th August 1800. His father, an officer in the French army, perished in the Russian campaign of 1812; and the family moved to Liege, where the eldest son, Firmin, held a professorship. Charles, after being called "to the Bar, founded, in collaboration with his lifelong friends, Paul Devaux and Joseph Lebeau, the journal Mathieu Laensberg (afterwards Le Politique), which by its ardent patriotism and its attacks on the Dutch administra- tion soon acquired a widespread influence. When the insurrec- tion of 1830 broke out at Brussels, Rogier put himself at the head of 150 Liegeois, and inscribing on his banner the motto, ROGUE— ROHAN (FAMILY) " Vaincre ou mourir pour Bruxelles," he obtained arms from a local factory, and marched upon the capital. Here he took his place at once among the leaders of the revolutionary party. His influence saved the town-hall from pillage on igth September. On the 24th a commission administrative was formed, of which Rogier became president. The energetic measures of this body and of its successor, the gouvernement provisoire,soon freed the greater part of the country from the Dutch troops. Rogier was sent in October to suppress an outbreak among the colliers of Hainaut, and then as delegate of the provisional government to Antwerp, where the citadel still held out for Holland. He suc- ceeded in arranging an armistice, and then, in the exercise of the absolute power with which he was invested, reorganized the entire administration of the city. He sat for Liege in the National Congress, voted for the establishment of a hereditary monarchy, and induced the congress to adopt the principle of an elective second chamber. In the long-drawn debates on the be- stowal of the crown he ranged himself on the side of Louis Philippe : he first supported the candidature of Otto of Bavaria, and on his rejection declared for the due de Nemours. Finally, when Louis Philippe declined the crown on behalf of his son, Rogier voted with the majority for Leopold of Saxe-Coburg. In June 1831 he was appointed governor of the province of Antwerp, a post rendered exceptionally difficult by the continued presence of Dutch troops in the citadel. In October 1832 he was made minister of the interior in the Goblet-Devaux cabinet. In the following June he intervened in a quarrel in the chamber of deputies between Devaux and the Opposition leader, Alexandre Gendebien, claimed a prior right to give satisfaction, and fought a duel, in which he was severely wounded. During his term of office he carried, in the teeth of violent opposition, a law that established in Belgium the first railways on the continent of Europe, and thus laid the foundation of her industrial develop- ment. Owing to dissensions in the cabinet, he retired in 1834, together with Lebeau, and resumed the governorship of Antwerp. On Lebeau's return to power in 1840, Rogier became minister of public works and education. The proposals that he made in the latter capacity were defeated by the determined opposi- tion of the Clerical party, and on the resignation of the ministry in 1841, Rogier gave his support to a compromise on the subject of education, which passed into law in 1842. He led the Liberal party in Opposition till 1847, when he formed a cabinet in which he held the ministry of the interior. He at once embarked on a programme of political and economic reform. He took effective steps to remedy the industrial distress caused by the decay of the Flemish linen trade. The limits of the franchise were extended ; and as the result of the liberal policy of the govern- ment Belgium alone escaped the revolutionary wave that spread over the Continent in 1848. He passed a law in 1850 organizing secondary education under the control of the State, and giving the clergy only the right of religious instruction. The Clerical party, though unable to defeat this measure, suc- ceeded in shaking the position of the cabinet; and it was finally undermined, after Prince Louis Napoleon's coup d'etat of 1851, by the hostility of the French government, which found its political exiles welcomed by the liberal cabinet at Brussels. Rogier retired in October 1852, but was brought back into office by the liberal reaction of 1857. He again became president of the council and minister of the interior in a cabinet of which Frere-Orban was the most conspicuous member. The first important measure passed by the ministry was one for the fortification of Antwerp. In 1860 the fear of French designs on the independence of Belgium led to a movement of reconciliation with Holland, and inspired Rogier to write the only one of his numerous poems that is likely to survive, his national anthem, " La Nouvelle Brabanconne." Some of the ministers resigning in 1861, on the question of recognizing the kingdom of Italy, the cabinet was reconstructed, and Rogier exchanged the ministry of the interior for that of foreign affairs. In this capacity he achieved a diplomatic triumph in freeing the navigation of the Scheldt, and thus enabling Antwerp to become the second port on the mainland of Europe. Defeated at 459 Dinant, he sat for Tournai from 1863 till his death. His younger and more energetic colleague, Frere-Orban, gradually over- shadowed his chief, and in 1868 Rogier finally retired from power. He continued, however, to take part in public life, and was elected president of the extraordinary session of the chamber of representatives in 1878. From this limit his age, his devoted patriotism and the unassuming simplicity of his life made him the idol of all classes. The fiftieth anniversary of the kingdom of Belgium in 1880, and two years later that of his entry into parliament, were the occasion of demonstrations in his honour. He died at Brussels on the 27th of May 1885, and his remains were accorded a public funeral. See T. Juste, Charles Rogier, 1800-1885, d'apres des documents inedits (Verviers, 1885). ROGUE, a word which came into use about the middle of the i6th century as a slang or " cant " term for a vagrant vagabond, answering to the modern " tramp," and was adopted into English legal phraseology together with " vagabond " in the Statute of Elizabeth 1572, "rogue and vagabond" and " incorrigible rogue " remaining as legal terms for certain classes of persons amenable to the law under the Vagrancy Acts (see VAGRANCY). The act of Elizabeth defined " rogues, vagabonds and sturdy beggars " as including " idle persons going about and using subtle craft and unlawful games and all persons whole and mighty in body, but having neither land nor master, nor able to give an account how they get their living and all common labourers using loitering and refusing to work for the wages commonly given " (Sir G. Nicholls' History of the English Poor Law, ed. 1898 by H. G. Willink, vol, i. 159). The word has now the general meaning of a knave or rascal, though also used (by meiosis) as a term of playful or tender banter and in various special applications (e.g. a " rogue " elephant, one who has been driven out by the herd and lives a solitary life, becoming very savage and destructive. Gardeners also apply the word to a plant which does not come true from seed, showing some variation from the type). The derivation of the word has been much disputed. It has usually been referred to Fr. rogue, meaning proud, arrogant, which is variously derived from the Icelandic hroke, rook, long-winded talker, or Breton rok, proud, haughty; cf. Irish and Gaelic rucas, pride. The New English Dictionary, however, rejects this de- rivation, and considers possible a connexion with another early " cant " word " roger," a begging vagabond pretending to be a poor university scholar. ROHAN, the name of one of the most illustrious of the feudal families of France, derived from that of a small town in Morbi- han, Brittany. The family appears to have sprung from the viscounts of Porhoet, and claims connexion with the ancient sovereigns of Brittany. Since the i2th century it held an important place in the history of Brittany, and strengthened its position by alliances with the greatest houses in France. It was divided into several branches, the eldest of which, that of the viscounts of Rohan, became extinct in 1527. Of the younger branches the most famous is that of Guemenee, from which sprang the branches of Montbazon, Soubise and Gii. The seigneurs of Frontenay, an offshoot of this last branch, inherited by marriage the property of the eldest branch of the house. Hercule de Rohan, due de Montbazon (1568-1654) served Henry III. and Henry IV. against the League, and was made by Henry IV. governor of Paris and the Isle of France, and master of the hounds. His grandson, Louis de Rohan- Guemenee, the chevalier de Rohan, who was notorious for his dissolute life, conspired with the Dutch against Louis XIV. and was beheaded in Paris in 1674. In the i8th century the Soubise branch furnished several prelates, cardinals and bishops of Strassburg, among others the famous cardinal de Rohan, the hero of the affair of the diamond necklace. The seigneurs of Gie, a branch founded by Pierre de Rohan (1453- 1513), a cadet of the branch of Gue'me'ne'e and marshal of France, were conspicuous on the Protestant side during the wars of religion. Ren€ de Rohan, seigneur of Pontivy and Frontenay, commanded the Calvinist army in 1570, and 460 ROHAN, DUG DE— ROHAN, CARDINAL DE defended Lusignan with great valour when it was besieged by the Catholics (1574-75)- His son Henry, the first duke of Rohan, also distinguished himself in the Protestant army. His only child, Marguerite de Rohan, married in 1645 Henri Chabot, a cadet of a great family of Poitou. This marriage was opposed by her mother, Marguerite de Bethune, who put forward a rival heir called Tancred, whom she claimed to be her son by the duke of Rohan. This Tancred perished in the Fronde in 1649. The property and titles of Henry de Rohan thus passed to the Chabot family, which under the name of Rohan-Chabot produced some distinguished soldiers and a cardinal archbishop of Besancon. The male line of the Rohans is now represented by an offshoot of the Rohan- Guemenee branch. ROHAN, HENRI, Due DE (1570-1638), French soldier, writer and leader of the Huguenots, was born at the chateau of Blain, in Brittany, in 1579. His father was Rene II., count of Rohan (1550-86), and head of one of the oldest and most distinguished families in France, which was connected with many of the reigning houses of Europe. He was educated by his mother, who was a woman of exceptional learning and force of character. Rohan was by birth the second son, but his elder brother Rene dying young he became the heir of the name. He appeared at court and in the army at the age of sixteen, and was a special favourite with Henry IV., after whom, failing the house of Conde, he might be said to be the natural chief of the French Protestants. Having served till the peace of Vervins, he travelled for a considerable time over Europe, including England and Scotland, in the first of which countries he received the not unique honour of being called by Elizabeth her knight, while in the second he was godfather at Charles I.'s christening. On his return to France he was made duke and peer at the age of twenty-four, and two years later (1603) married Marguerite de Bethune, the due de Sully's daughter. He served in high command at the celebrated siege of Jiilich in 1610, but soon afterwards he fell into active or passive opposition to the govern- ment over the religious disputes. For a time, however, he abstained from actual insurrection, and he endeavoured to keep on terms with Marie de' Medici; he even, despite his dislike of De Luynes, the favourite of Louis XIII., reappeared in the army and fought in Lorraine and Piedmont. It was not till the decree for the restitution of church property in the south threw the Bearnese and Gascons into open revolt that Rohan appeared as a rebel. His authority and military skill were very formidable to the royalists; his constancy and firm- ness greatly contributed to the happy issue of the war for the Huguenots, and brought about the treaty of Montpellier (1623). But Rohan did not escape the results of the incurable factious- ness which showed itself more strongly perhaps among the French Huguenots than among any other of the numerous armed oppositions of the I7th century. He was accused of lukewarmness and treachery, though he did not hesitate to renew the war when the compact of Montpellier was broken. Again a hollow peace was patched up, but it lasted but a short time, and Rohan undertook a third war (1627-20), the first events of which are recounted in his celebrated Memoirs. This last war (famous for the defence of La Rochelle by Soubise, Rohan's younger brother) was one of considerable danger for Rohan. In spite of all efforts he had in the end to sign a peace, and after this he made his way quickly to Venice. Here he is said to have received from the Porte the offer of the sovereignty of Cyprus. It is more certain that his hosts of Venice wished to make him their general-in-chief, a design not executed owing to the. peace of Cherasco (1631). At Venice he wrote his Memoirs; at Padua, Le Parfait Capitaine. But when France began to play a more conspicuous part in the Thirty Years' War Rohan was again called to serve his lawful sovereign, and entrusted with the war in the Valtelline. The campaign of 1633 was completely successful, but Rohan was still considered dangerous to France, and was soon again in retirement. At this time he wrote his Traite du gouvernement des treize cantons. Rohan fought another Valtelline campaign, but without the success of the first, for the motives of France were now held in suspicion. The unfortunate commander retired to Geneva and thence went to the army of Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar. He received a mortal wound at the battle of Rheinfelden on the z8th of February 1638, and died at the abbey of Konigsfeld, canton Berne, on the i3th of April. His body was buried at Geneva, and his arms were solemnly handed over to the Venetian government. With his daughter Marguerite the honours of the family of Rohan-Gie passed to the house of Chabot. Rohan's Memoires sur les chases qui se sent passees en France, &c., rank amongst the best products of the singular talent for memoir writing which the French noblesse of the 1 6th and I7th centuries possessed. Alike in style, in clearness of matter and in shrewd- ness, they deserve very high praise. The first three books, dealing with the civil wars, appeared in 1644; the fourth, containing the narrative of the Valtelline campaigns, not till 1758. Some suspicions were thrown on the genuineness of the latter, but, it would seem, groundlessly. His famous book on the history and art of war, Le Parfait Capitaine, appeared in 1631 and sub- sequently in 1637 and 1693 (see also Quincy, Art de la guerre, Paris, 1741). It treats of the history and lessons of Caesar's cam- paigns and their application to modern warfare, and contains appendices dealing with phalangite and legionary methods of fighting and the art of war in general. He also wrote an account of his travels, the book on Switzerland mentioned above, De I'inleret des princes et etats de la chretiente, etc. The Memoirs may be conveniently found in the collection of Michaud and Poujoulat, vol. 19. See Fauvelet de Foix, Histoire du Due Henri de Rohan (Paris, 1667) ; Schybergson, Le Due de Rohan et la charte du parti protestant en France (Paris, 1880); Biihring, Venedig, Gustaf Adolf, und Rohan (Halle, 1885); Laugel, Henri de Rohan, son role politique et militaire (Paris, 1889); Veraguth, Herzog Rohan und seine Mission in Grau- bunden (Berne, 1894); and Shadwell, Mountain Warfare. ROHAN, LOUIS RENfc fiDOUARD, CARDINAL DE (1734- 1803), prince de Rohan-Guemenee, archbishop of Strassburg, a cadet of the great family of Rohan (which traced its origin to the kings of Brittany, and was granted the precedence and rank of a foreign princely family by Louis XIV.), was born at Paris on the 2$th of September 1734. Members of the Rohan family had filled the office of archbishop of Strassburg from 1704 — an office which made them princes of the empire and the compeers rather of the German prince-bishops than of the French ecclesiastics. For this high office Louis de Rohan was destined from his birth, and soon after taking orders, in 1760, he was nominated coadjutor to his uncle, Constantine de Rohan- Rochefort, who then held the archbishopric, and he was also consecrated bishop of Canopus. But he preferred the elegant life and the gaiety of Paris to his clerical duties, and had also an ambition to make a figure in politics. He joined the party opposed to the Austrian alliance, which had been cemented by the marriage of the archduchess Marie Antoinette to the dauphin. This party was headed by the due d'Aiguillon, who in 1771 sent Prince Louis on a special embassy to Vienna to find out what was being done there with regard to the partition of Poland. Rohan arrived at Vienna in January 1772, and made a great noise with his lavish fetes. But the empress Maria Theresa was implacably hostile to him; not only did he attempt to thwart her policy, but he spread scandals about her daughter Marie Antoinette, laughed at herself, and shocked her ideas of propriety by his dissipation and luxury. On the death of Louis XV. in 1774, Rohan was recalled from Vienna, and coldly, received at Paris; but the influence of his family was too great for him to be neglected, and in 1777 he was made grand almoner, and in 1778 abbot of St Vaast. In 1778 he was made a cardinal on the nomination of Stanislaus Ponia- towski, king of Poland, and in the following year succeeded his uncle as archbishop of Strassburg and became abbot of Noirmoutiers and^ Chaise-Dieu. His various preferments brought him in an income of two and a half millions of livres; yet the cardinal was restless and unhappy until he should be reinstated in favour at court and had appeased the animosity which Marie Antoinette felt against him. In pursuit of this object he fell into the hands of a gang of intriguers, the comtesse de Lamotte, the notorious Cagliostro and others, whose actions ROHILKHAND— ROHTAK 461 form part of the " affair of the diamond necklace." This story is disentangled elsewhere (see DIAMOND NECKLACE), and diverging views are still taken of it. Rohan certainly was led to believe that his attentions to the queen were welcomed, and that his arrangement by which she received the famous necklace was approved. He was the dupe of others, and at the trial in 1786 before the parlement his acquittal was received with universal enthusiasm, and regarded as a victory over the court and the unpopular queen. He was deprived, however, of his office as grand almoner and exiled to his abbey of Chaise-Dieu. He was soon allowed to return to Strassburg, and his popularity was shown by his election in 1789 to the states-general by the clergy of the bailliages of Haguenau and Weissenburg. He at first declined to sit, but the states-general, when it became the national assembly, insisted on validating his election. But as a prince of the church in January 1791 he refused to take the oath to the constitution, and went to Ettenheim, in the German part of his diocese. In exile his character improved, and he spent what wealth remained to him in providing for the poor clergy of his diocese who had been obliged to leave France; and in 1801 he resigned his nominal rank as archbishop of Strassburg. On the 1 7th of February 1803 he died at Ettenheim. See the Mimoires of his secretary, the abb6 Georgel, of the baroness d'Oberkirch, of Beugnot, and of Madame Campan; and works cited under DIAMOND NECKLACE. ROHILKHAND, a tract in the United Provinces of India. The name is associated with the Rohilla tribe (?.».), but in its historical significance it covers an area almost coincident with the modern division of Bareilly, for which it is a common alternative title. This division has an area of 10,720 sq. m., and comprises the districts of Bareilly, Bijnor, Budaun, Mora- dabad, Shahjahanpur and Pilibhit. Pop. (1901) 5,479,688. Political control over the state of Rampur is exercised by the commissioner for the division. ROHILLA (a Pushtu word for " mountaineer "), a tribe of Afghan marauders, who, towards the beginning of the i8th century, conquered a district of Hindostan, giving it the name of Rohilkhand, which still survives as an alternative title of the Bareilly division of the United Provinces. The Rohillas are chiefly notable for their association with Warren Hastings, which formed one of the main counts in his impeachment. Having been driven into the mountains by the Mahrattas, they had appealed for aid to Shuja-ud-Dowlah, wazir of Oudh, and ally of the British. The wazir promised to assist them in return for a sum of money; but when the Mahrattas were driven off the Rohilla chiefs refused to pay. The wazir then decided to annex their country, and appealed to Hastings for assistance, which was given in return for a sum of forty lakhs of rupees. Hastings justified his action on the ground that the Rohillas were a danger to the British as uncovering the flank of Oudh; and while he would never involve the company in an unjust war, neither did he desire an unprofitable one. The Rohillas were defeated by Colonel Champion in April 1774, and the majority of them fled across the Ganges; but the charges of destroying a nation, brought against Hastings by Burke and Macaulay, were greatly exaggerated. The Rohillas were never a nation, but consisted of a small body of Mahommedans, who had imposed an alien rule upon a million Hindus; and one of their chiefs was left in possession of a tract which now forms the state of Rampur (q.v.). See Charles Hamilton, History of the Rohilla Afghans (1787) ; and Sir J. Strachey, Hastings and the Rohilla War (Oxford, 1892). ROHLFS, FRIEDRICH GERHARD (1831-1896), German explorer of the Sahara, son of a physician, was born at Vege- sack, near Bremen, on the I4th of April 1831. After the ordinary course at the gymnasium of Osnabruck he entered the Bremen corps in 1848, and took part as a volunteer in the Schleswig-Holstcin campaign, being made an officer after the battle of Idstedt (July 1850). He became a medical student at the universities of Heidelberg, Wurzburg and then Got- tingen; but his natural inclination was for travelling, and in 1855 he went to Algeria and enlisted in the Foreign Legion. He took part in the conquest of Kabylia, and was decorated for bravery as Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Having made himself master of Arabic and gained a thorough knowledge of native customs, Rohlfs went to Morocco in 1861; presenting himself as a Mussulman, he gained the favour of the enlightened sherif of Wazzan, and was thus enabled to travel over the length and breadth of the country. He then entered the Sahara and traversed the entire extent of the Wad Draa, being the second European (the first being Ren6 Caillie) to visit Tafilet. On leaving Tafilet he was robbed by his guides and left for dead; but two marabouts charitably succoured him and he was able to reach Algeria. When scarcely re- covered from his wounds he started once more for the Sahara (August 1862) by way of Algeria. Compelled by tribal dis- turbances to turn back, he went to Tangier and thence in March 1864 made a fresh start. Crossing the Atlas by an eastern route he again visited Tafilet, and thence made his way across the desert to the oasis of Tuat, which he was the first European to describe. Returning by Ghadames and Tripoli he spent three months in Germany, and then (March 1865) went back to Tripoli, intending to explore the highlands of the Ahaggar; being prevented, however, by a war among the Tuareg, he went from Ghadames to Mur/.uk, where he spent five months, and thence across the Sahara to Bornu, mapping en route the oasis of Kawar. Rohlfs passed through Mandara and its ancient capital Mora, and struck out for the coast of the Gulf of Guinea. He reached the Benue by way of the Bauchi highlands, and descended that river -to its confluence with the Niger, which he ascended to Rabba. Thence he made his way on horseback to Lagos, reaching Liverpool on the 2nd of July 1867. In the following year he accompanied the British expedition against Theodore of Abyssinia, and on his return went once more to Tripoli, whence he traversed the Cyrenaica, reaching Egypt by way of the oasis of Siwa ( 1 869) . Returning home, he married and settled down in Weimar. He did not rest long, however, for in 1873-74 he took command of an expedition sent by the Khedive Ismail into the Libyan Desert, which made investigations of great value to science. In 1878 Rohlfs and Dr Sleeker were commissioned by the German African Society to go to Wadai. They succeeded in reaching the oasis of Kufra, one of the chief centres of the Senussites, but being attacked by the Arabs, they were obliged to retreat, making their way to the coast at Benghazi, reached in October 1879. In 1880 Rohlfs accompanied Dr Sleeker in an exploring expedition to Abyssinia; but after delivering a letter from the German emperor lo the Negus, he relurned to Europe. In 1885, when the rivalry belween Ihe British and Germans in Easl Africa was very keen, Prince Bismarck appointed Rohlfs consul al Zanzibar, which island Bismarck desired lo secure for Germany. Rohlfs, unlrained in diplomacy, was no match for Sir John Kirk, the British Agenl, and he was soon recalled, and did not again visit Africa. He died at Riingsdorf, near Bonn, on the 2nd of June 1896. Rohlfs visited many regions not before traversed by Europeans, and the value of his work was recognized in 1868 by the Royal Geographical Society, which bestowed on him the Patron's Medal. Accounts of each of his expeditions, and other works on Africa were published by Rohlfs, including Mein Erster Aufenthalt in Marokko (Bremen, 1873; English edition, Travels in Morocco, London, 1874); Reise durch Marokko (Bremen, 1868); Over durch Afrika (Leipzig, 1874-75); Von Tripolis nach Alexandrien (Bremen, 1871); Expedition zur Erforschung der Libyschen Waste (Cassel, 1875-76); Kufra: Reise von Tripolis nach der Oase Kufra (Leipzig, 1881); Land und Volk in Afrika (Bremen, 1870); Quid novi ex Africa? (Cassel, 1886). See also a biographical notice by Dr W. Wolkenhauer in the Deutsche geo. Blatter for 1896. ROHTAK, a town and district of British India, in the Delhi division of Ihe Punjab. The lown, which is of great antiquity, became Ihe headquarters of a British district in 1824. Viewed from the sandhills to the south, Rohtak, with ils white mosque in the centre, a fort standing out boldly to the east, is striking and picturesque. It has a station on the Southern Punjab 462 ROJAS ZORRILLA— ROLAND, J. M. railway, 44 m. N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901) 20,323. It is an important trade centre, with factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and a speciality in muslin turbans. The district of Rohtak has an area of 1797 sq. m. It is situated in the midst of the level tableland between the Jumna and the Sutlej, forming one unbroken plain of hard clay copi- ously interspersed with light yellow sand, and covered in its wild state by a jungle of scrubby brushwood. The only natural reservoir for its drainage is the Najafgarh jhil, a marshy lake lying within the boundaries of Delhi. The Sahibi, a small stream from the Ajmere hills, traverses a corner of the district, and the northern portions are watered by the Rohtak and Butana branches of the Western Jumna canal; but the greater portion of the central plain, comprising about two-thirds of the district area, is entirely dependent upon the uncertain rainfall. The climate, though severe in point of heat, is gener- ally healthy; the rainfall averages annually about 20 in. The population in 1901 was 630,672, showing an increase of 6-8% in the decade. The principal crops are millets, wheat, barley, pulses, cotton and sugar-cane. The district is traversed by the line of the Southern Punjab railway from Delhi to Jind, and also touched by the Rewari-Ferozepore branch of the Rajputana railway. It is peculiarly exposed to drought, suffering in the famine of 1896-97, and yet more severely in 1899-1900, when the highest number of persons relieved was 33,632 in March 1900. Rohtak was formerly included within the region known as Hariana. The district, with the other possessions of Sindhia west of the Jumna, passed to the British in 1803. Until 1832 Rohtak was under the administration of a political agent, resident at Delhi, but in that year it was brought under the general regulations and annexed to the North-Western Pro- vinces. The outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857 led to its abandon- ment, when the mutineers attacked and plundered Rohtak, destroying every record of administration. It was not until after the fall of Delhi that the authority of the British govern- ment was permanently restored. Rohtak was then transferred to the Punjab. ROJAS ZORRILLA, FRANCISCO DE (i6o7~e. 1660), Spanish dramatist, was born at Toledo; the only circumstance recorded of his life is that he became a knight of Santiago in 1644. The exact date of his death is unknown. His plays were published in 1640-45; the best of his dramatic compositions, Del Rey abajo Ninguno, is not included in the collection and was printed separately under the title of Garcia del Castanar. Of his other pieces, apart from their intrinsic merit, an international interest attaches to No hay padre siendo rey, which was borrowed by Rotrou for his Venceslas; to Donde hay agravios no hay zelos and the A mo criado, which were imitated by Scarron in his Jodelet Soufflete and Mailre Valet; to Entre Bobos anda el juego, the source of Thomas Corneille's Don Bertrand de Cigarral, as well as of Scarron's Don Japhel d'Armenie; to Obligados y ofcndidos, from which are derived Les Genereux Ennemis by Boisrobert, Les Illustres Ennemis by Thomas Corneille, and Scarron's Ecolier de Salamanque; and to La traicidn busca el casligo, upon which are based Vanbrugh's False Friend and Le Sage's Trattre puni. Rojas Zorrilla's power of conveying a tragic impression is manifest in Garcia del Castanar; his chief defect is his persistent preciosity of diction. ROKITANSKY, CARL, FREIHERRVON (1804-1878), thefounder of the Vienna school of pathological anatomy, was born on the 1 9th of February 1804 at Koniggratz in Bohemia. He studied medicine at Prague and at Vienna, graduating at the latter place in 1828. Soon afterwards he became assistant to Johann Wagner, the professor of pathological anatomy, and suc- ceeded him in 1834 as prosector, being at the same time made extraordinary professor. It was not until ten years later (1844) that he reached the rank of full professor. To his duties as a teacher he added in 1847 the onerous office of medico-legal anatomist to the city, and from 1863 he filled an influential office in the ministry of education and public worship, wherein he had to advise on all routine matters of medical teaching, including patronage. A seat in the upper house of the Reichs- rath rewarded his public labours in 1867, and on his retirement from all his offices in 1874 he was made a commander of the Order of Leopold. He joined the Imperial Academy of Sciences as a member in 1848, and became its president in 1869. He was president also of the medical society of the Austrian capital and an honorary member of many foreign societies. On his retire- ment at the age of seventy his colleagues celebrated the occasion by a function in the aula of the university, where his bust was unveiled. In his leave-taking speech he said that work had always been a pleasure to him and pleasures mostly a toil. His death in Vienna on the 23rd of July 1878 elicited many genuine expressions of affection and of esteem for his upright character. Two of his sons became professors at Vienna, one of astronomy and another of medicine, while a third gained distinction on the lyric stage. With Rokitansky's name is associated the second great period of the medical school of Vienna, its first success having been identi- fied with the liberal patronage of it by Maria Theresa and with the fame of Van Swieten, whom the empress had attracted thither from Leiden. The basis of its second reputation was morbid anatomy, together with the precision of clinical diagnosis de- pendent thereon, and associated with the labours of Rokitansky's lifelong friend, Joseph Skoda (1805-1881). The anatomical vogue had begun under Wagner while Rokitansky was still a student ; but it reached its highest point while the latter was assistant in the dead-house and afterwards prosector and professor. The enthusiasm for the post-mortem study of disease brought one very serious con- sequence at the outset, in the enormous increase of the death- rate from puerperal fever in the lying-in wards of the general hospital. A comparison between the slight mortality in the wards that were afterwards reserved for the training of midwives and the excessive mortality in those set apart for the training of students proved that the cause was the conveyance of infection from the dead-house by the hands of the latter. The precautions introduced by I. P. Semmelweiss in 1847 proved adequate in removing that grave reproach from the study of morbid anatomy. Another and more lasting consequence of the assiduous pursuit of post-mortem study, counterbalancing somewhat the advantage of a more precise and localized diagnosis, was the loss of faith in the power of drugs to remedy the textural changes — the so-called " nihilism " of the Vienna school. The immediate outcome of Rokitansky's close application to the work of the dead-house was his Handbuch der paihologisclien Anatomic (1842—46), in 3 vols., of which the first was published last. The value of the work lies in the second and third volumes, containing succinct descriptions of the visible changes and abnormalities in the several organs 'and parts of the body. Whenever Rokitansky touched the vital problems of general path- ology, as he did in the postponed first volume, he revealed a meta- physical bent, which was strong in him behind all his undoubted powers of outward observation and accurate description. Being a few years too soon to profit by the microscopic movement which led to the cellular pathology, he endeavoured to reconcile the old humoral doctrine with his anatomical observations, and to read a new meaning into the doctrine of the various dyscrasias. In 1862 he entered into possession of a new pathological institute, in which he found means, for the first time, to display his extensive collection of specimens in a museum. Although he had no direct share in the newer developments of pathology, he was far from indifferent or reactionary towards them; indeed, the laboratories and chairs for microscopic and experimental pathology and for pathological chemistry were warmly encouraged and aided by him. Next to his Handbuch, of which the Sydenham Society published an English translation in 4 vols. (1849-52), his most important writings were four memoirs in the Denkschriften of the Vienna Academy of Sciences (on the anatomy of goitre, cysts, diseases of arteries, and defects in the septa of the heart), the last as late as 1875. Other papers of less importance brought up the total of his writings to thirty-eight, including three addresses of a philosophical turn, on " Freedom of Inquiry " (1862), " The Independent Value of Knowledge " (1867) and " The Solidarity of Animal Life " (1869). ROLAND [ROLAND DE LA PLATIERE], JEAN MARIE (1734- 1793), French statesman, was born at Thizy on the i8th of February 1734. He received a good education, and early formed the studious habits which remained with him through life. Proposing to -seek his fortune abroad, he went on foot to Nantes, but was there prostrated by an illness so severe that all thoughts of emigration were perforce abandoned. For some years he was employed as a clerk; thereafter he joined a relative who was inspector of manufactures at Amiens, and he himself speedily rose to the position of inspector. To these two employments may be ascribed those qualities of assiduity and ROLAND, J. M. 463 accuracy, and that familiarity with the commerce of the country, which distinguished his public career. In 1781 he married Manon Jeanne Phlipon (1754-1793), and the name of MADAME ROLAND is famous in history. She was the daughter of Gratien Phlipon, a Paris engraver, who was ambitious, speculative and nearly always poor. From her early years she showed great aptitude for study, an ardent and enthusiastic spirit, and un- questionable talent. She was to a considerable extent self- taught; and her love of reading made her acquainted first with Plutarch — a passion for which author she continued to cherish throughout her life — thereafter with Bossuet, Massillon, and authors of a like stamp, and finally with Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau. These studies marked stages of her development, and as her mind matured she abandoned the idea of a convent which for a year or two she had entertained, and added to the enthusiasm for a republic which she had imbibed from her earlier studies not a little of the cynicism and the daring which the later authors inspired. She almost equalled her husband in knowledge, and infinitely excelled him in talent and in tact. Through and with him she exercised a singularly powerful in- fluence over the destinies of France from the outbreak of the Revolution till her death. For four years after their marriage Roland lived at Amiens, he being still an inspector of manufactures; but his knowledge of commercial affairs enabled him to contribute articles to the Encyclopedic Nouvelle, in which, as in all his literary work, he was assisted by his wife. On their removal to Lyons the in- fluence of both became wider and more powerful. Their fervent political aspirations could not be concealed, and from the be- ginning of the Revolution they threw in their lot with the party of advance. The Courrier de Lyon contained articles the success of which reached even to the capital and attracted the attention of the Parisian press. They were from the pen of Madame Roland and were signed by her husband. A corre- spondence sprang up with Brissot and other friends of the Revolution at headquarters. In Lyons their views were publicly known; Roland was elected a member of the municipality, and when the depression of trade in the south demanded representa- tion in Paris he was deputed by the council of Lyons to ask the Constituent Assembly that the municipal debt of Lyons, which had been contracted for the benefit of the state, should be re- garded as national debt. Accompanied by his wife, he appeared in the capital in February 1791. He remained there until September, frequenting the Society of the Friends of the Con- stitution, and entertaining deputies of the most advanced opinions, especially those who later became the leading Giron- dists. Madame Roland took an active part in the political discussions in these reunions. In September 1791, Roland's mission being executed, they returned to Lyons. Meanwhile the inspectorships of manu- factures had been abolished; he was thus free; and they could no longer remain absent from the centre of affairs. In December they again reached Paris. Roland became a member of the Jacobin Club. They had made many and influential friends in advance, and Madame Roland's salon soon became the rendezvous of Brissot, Petion, Robespierre and other leaders of the popular movement, above all of Buzot, whom she loved with platonic enthusiasm. In person Madame Roland was attractive though not beautiful; her ideas were clear and far-reaching, her manner calm, and her power of observation extremely acute. It was almost inevitable that she should find herself in the centre of political aspirations and presiding over a company of the most talented men of progress. The rupture had not yet been made evident between the Girondist party and that section still more extreme, that of the Mountain. For a time the whole left united in forcing the resignation of the ministers. When the crisis came the Girondists were ready, and on the 23rd of March 1792 Roland found himself appointed minister of the interior. As a minister of the crown Roland exhibited a bourgeois brusqueness of manner and a remarkable combination of political pre- judice with administrative ability. While his wife's influence could not increase the latter, it was successfully exerted to foment and embitter the former. He was ex officio excluded from the Legislative Assembly, and his declarations of policy were thus in writing — that is, in the form in which she could most readily exert her power. A great occasion was invented. The decrees against the emigrants and the non-juring clergy still remained under the veto of the king. A letter was penned by Madame Roland and addressed by her husband to Louis. It remained unanswered. Thereupon, in full council and in the king's presence, Roland read his letter aloud. It contained many and terrible truths as to the royal refusal to sanction the decrees and as to the king's position in the state; but it was inconsistent with a minister's position, disrespectful if not insolent in tone. Roland's dismissal followed. Then he completed the plan: he read the letter to the Assembly; it was ordered to be printed, became the manifesto of disaffection, and was circulated everywhere. In the demand for the rein- statement of the dismissed ministers were found the means of humiliation, and the prelude to the dethronement, of the king. After the insurrection of the loth of August, Roland was recalled to power, one of his colleagues being Danton. But now he was dismayed by the progress of the Revolution. He was above all a provincial, and was soon in opposition to the party of the Mountain, which aimed at supremacy not only in Paris but in the government as well. His hostility to the insurrectional commune of Paris, which led him to propose transferring the government to Blois, 'and his attacks upon Robespierre and his friends rendered him very unpopular. His neglect to seal the iron chest discovered in the Tuileries, which contained the proofs of Louis XVI.'s relations with the enemies of France, led to the accusation that he had destroyed a part of these documents. Finally, in the trial of the king he demanded, with the Girondists, that the sentence should be pronounced by a vote of the whole people, and not simply by the Convention. He resigned office on the 23rd of January 1793, two days after the king's execution. Although now extremely unpopular, the Rolands remained in Paris, suffering abuse and calumny, especially from Marat. Once Madame Roland appeared personally in the Assembly to repel the falsehoods of an accuser, and her ease and dignity evoked enthusiasm and compelled acquittal. But violence succeeded violence, and early on the morning of the ist of June she was arrested and thrown into the prison of the Abbaye. Roland himself escaped secretly to shelter in Rouen. Released for an hour from the Abbaye, she was again arrested and thrown among the horrors of Sainte-Pelagie. Finally, she was transferred to the Conciergerie. In prison she won the affections of the guards, and was allowed the privilege of writing materials and the occasional visits of devoted friends. She there wrote her A ppel & I'impartiale posliritS, those memoirs which display a strange alternation between self-laudation and patriotism, between the trivial and the sublime. On the 8th of November 1793 she was conveyed to the guillotine. Before yielding her head to the block, she bowed before the clay statue of Liberty erected in the Place de la Revolution, uttering her famous apostrophe — "O Liberty! what crimes are committed in thy name! " When Roland heard of his wife's condemnation, he wandered some miles from his refuge in Rouen; maddened by despair and grief, he wrote a few words expressive of his horror at those massacres which could only be inspired by the enemies of France, protesting that " from the moment when I learned that they had murdered my wife I would no longer remain in a world stained with enemies." He affixed the paper to his breast, and unsheathing a sword-stick fell upon the weapon, which pierced his heart, on the loth of November 1793. Madame Roland's Mtmoires, first printed in 1820, have been edited among others by P. Faug^re (Paris, 1864), by C. A. Dauban (Paris, 1864), by T. Claretie (Paris, 1884), and by C. Perroud (Paris, 1905). Some of her Lettres intdites have been published by C. A. Dauban (Paris, 1867), and a critical edition of her Lettres by ROLAND, LEGEND OF C. Perroud (Paris, 1900-2). See also C. A. Dauban, £tude sur Madame Roland et son temps (Paris, 1864); V. Lamy, Deux femmes celebres, Madame Roland et Charlotte Corday (Paris, 1884); C. Bader, Madame Roland, d'apres des letlres et des manuscrits inedits (Paris, 1892); A. J. Lambert, Le mariage de Madame Roland, trots annees de correspondance amoureuse (Paris, 1896); Austin Dobson, Four Frenchwomen (London, 1890); and articles by C. Perroud in the review La Revolution fran faise (1896-99). t ROLAND, LEGEND OF. The legend of the French epic hero Roland (transferred to Italian romance as Orlando) is based on authentic history. Charlemagne invaded Spain in 778, and had captured Pampeluna, but failed before Saragossa, when the news of a Saxon revolt recalled him to the banks of the Rhine. On his retreat to France through the denies of the Pyrenees, part of his army was cut off from the main body by the Basques, who had ambushed in a narrow defile, and now drove the rear- guard into a valley where it was surrounded and entirely destroyed. The Basques, after plundering the baggage, made good their escape, favoured by the darkness and by their knowledge of the ground. The incident is related in the Annales (Pertz i. 159) commonly ascribed to Einhard, and with more detail in Einhard's Vita Karoli (cap. ix.; Pertz ii. 448), where the names of the leaders are given. " In this battle were slain Eggihard, praepositus of the royal table; Anselm, count of the palace; and Hruodland, praefect of the Breton march. . . ." The scene of the disaster is fixed by tradition at Roncevaux, on the road from Pampeluna to Saint Jean Pied de Port. There is no foundation in this story for the fiction of the twelve peers, which may possibly arise from a still earlier tradition. In 636-37, according to the Chronicles of Fredegarius (ed. Krusch p. 159), twelve chiefs, whose names are given, were sent by Dagobert against the Basques. The expedition was successful, but in an engagement fought in the valley of Subola, or Robola, identified with Mauleon, which is not far from Roncevaux, the Duke Harembert, with other Prankish chiefs, was slain. Later fights in the same neighbourhood and under similar circum- stances are related in 813 (Vita Hludowici; Pertz ii. 616), and especially in 824 (Einhard's Annales; Pertz i. 213). These incidents no doubt served to strengthen the tradition of the disaster to Charlemagne's rear-guard in 778, the importance of which was perhaps underrated by the Frankish historians and was certainly magnified in popular story. The author of the Vita Hludowici, writing sixty years after the battle of Roncevaux, thought it superfluous to give the names of the fallen chiefs, as being matter of common report. Growth of the Legend. — The choice of Roland or Hruodland as the hero of the story probably points to the borders of French Brittany as the home of the legend. The exaggeration of a rear-guard action into a national defeat; the substitution of a vast army of Saracens, the enemies of the Frankish nation and the Christian faith, for the border tribe mentioned by Einhard;1 and the vengeance inflicted by Charlemagne, where in fact the enemy escaped with complete impunity — all are in keeping with the general laws of romance. Charlemagne himself appears as the ancient epic monarch, not as the young man he really was in 778. The earliest version of the legend which we possess dates no earlier than the nth century, but there is abundant evidence of the existence of a continuous tradition dating from the original event, although its methods of transmission remain a vexed question. Roncevaux lay on the route to Compostella, and the many pilgrims who must have passed the site from the middle of the gth century onwards may have helped to spread the story. Whether the actual cantilena Rottandi chanted by Taillefer at the battle of Hastings (William of Malmesbury, De gestis regum angl. iii. 242, and Wace, Brut. ii. 1 1, 8035 seq.) was any part of the existing Chanson de Roland cannot be stated, but the choice of the legend on this occasion by the trouvere is proof of its popularity. The oldest extant forms of the legend are: (a) chapters xix.-xxx. of the Latin chronicle, known as the Pseudo-Turpin, 1 It is noteworthy, however, that an Arab historian, Ibn-al-Athir, states that Charles's assailants were the Arabs of Saragossa, by whom he had been originally invited to interfere in Spain. which purports to be the work of Turpin, archbishop of Reims, who died about 800, but probably dates from the I2th century; (b) Carmen de proditione Guenonis, a poem in Latin distichs; and (c) the Chanson de Roland, a French chanson de geste of about 4000 lines, the oldest recension of which is in the Bodleian Library, Oxford (MS. Digby 23). It is in assonanced tirades, of unequal length, many of them terminated with the refrain Aoi. This MS. was written by an Anglo-Norman scribe about the end of the I2th century, and is a corrupt copy of a text by a French trouvere of the middle of the nth century. It con- cludes with the words: " Ci fait la geste, que Turoldus declinet." There was a Turold (d. 1098) who was abbot of Peterborough; another was tutor to William the Conqueror and died in 1035. Even if we could identify this personage, we cannot tell whether he was the poet, the minstrel or the scribe of the MS., but it seems likely that he was merely the scribe. The poem, which was first printed by Francisque Michel (Oxford, 1837), is the finest monument of the heroic age of French epic. In its fundamental features it evidently dates back to the reign of Charlemagne, who is not represented as the capricious despot of the later chansons de geste, but as governing in accordance with Frankish custom, accepting the counsel of his barons, and carrying out the curious procedure of Frankish law. Roland represents the monarchical idea, and was evidently, in its primitive form, written before the feudal revolts which weak- ened the power of Charlemagne's successors. Its unity of conception, the severity and conciseness of the language, the directness, vividness and sobriety of the narrative, place it far above the chansons of later trouveres, with their wordiness and their loose, episodic construction. With the exception of the small place allotted to Aide, women have practically no place in the story, and the romantic element is thus absent. Roland's master-passions are daring and an exaggerated con- ception of honour, the extravagance of which is the cause of the disaster. His address to Oliver before the battle is typical of the warlike spirit of the poem: — " Notre empereur qui ses Francs nous laissa, Tels vingt mille hommes a pour nous mis a part, Qu'il sait tres bien que pas un n'est couard. Pour son seigneur grands maux on souffrira, Terribles froids, grands chauds endurera, Et de son sang, de sa chair on perdra! Brandis ta lance; et moi, ma Durendal, Ma bonne epee, que le Roi me donna. Et si je meurs, peut dire qui 1'aura C'etait 1'epee d'un tres noble vassal." (tr. Petit de Julleville xi. 1114 seq.) The Story as related in the Chanson de Roland. — Charlemagne, after fighting for seven years in Spain, had conquered the whole country with the exception of Saragossa, the seat of the Saracen king Marsile. He was encamped before Cordova when he received envoys from the Saracen king, sent to procure the evacuation of Spain by the Franks through false offers of sub- mission. Charlemagne held a council of his barons, Naimes of Bavaria, Roland, Oliver, Turpin, Ogier, Ganelon and the rest. Roland, the emperor's nephew, was eager for war; the peace party was headed by Ganelon of Mayence.2 The Franks were weary of campaigning, and Ganelon's counsels won the day. At the suggestion of Roland, Ganelon, who was his stepfather, was entrusted with the embassy to Marsile — a sufficiently perilous errand, since two former envoys had been beheaded by the Saracens. Ganelon, inspired by hatred of Roland and Oliver, agreed with Marsile to betray Roland and his com- rades for ten mule-loads of gold. He then returned to Charle- magne bearing Marsile's supposed assent to the Frankish terms. The retreat began. Roland, at Ganelon's instigation, was placed in commartd of the rear-guard. With him were the rest of the famous twelve peers,3 his companions-in-arms, Oliver, Gerin, Gerier, Oton, Berengier, Samson, Anseis, Girard 2 Ganelon may perhaps be identified with Wenilo, archbishop of Sens, whose treason against Charles the Bald is related in the Annales Bertiniani (anno 859). 3 The lists vary in different texts. ROLANDSECK— ROLL, A. P. 465 de Roussillon, Engelier the Gascon, Ivon and Ivoire, and the flower of the Prankish army. They had nearly reached the summit of the pass when Oliver, who had mounted a high rock, saw the advancing army of the Saracens, 400,000 strong. In vain Oliver begged Roland to sound his horn and summon Charlemagne to his aid. A description of the battle, a series of single combats, follows. Oliver, with his sword Hautecldre, rivalled Roland with Durendal. After the first fight, a second division of the pagan army appears, then a third. Roland's army was reduced to sixty men before he consented to sound his horn. Presently all were slain but Roland and Oliver, Turpin and another. Finally, when the Saracens, warned of the return of Charlemagne, had retreated, Roland alone sur- vived on the field of battle. With a last effort he blew his horn once more, and heard before he died the sound of Charle- magne's battlecry of " Montjoie." Charlemagne pursued the enemy, and destroyed their army. The raising of a second army by Baligant, the emir of Babylon, and its defeat by the emperor, who slays Baligant in single combat, is obviously an interpolation in the original narrative. The trouvere then relates the return of the Franks, the burial of the heroes of Roncevaux, and, at great length, the trial of Ganelon at Aix, his execution, and that of his thirty kinsmen, and the death of Aide, Roland's betrothed and Oliver's sister, when she heard the news of Roland's death. The trial of Ganelon is one of the most curious parts of the story, providing, as it does, a full account of the Prankish criminal procedure. Relations between the Earlier Forms of the Legend. — The Pseudo- Turpin represents a different recension of the story, and is throughout clerical in tone. It was the trouvere of the Chanson de Roland who developed the characters into epic types; he invented the heroic friendship of Roland and Oliver, the motives of Ganelon's treachery, and many other details. The famous fight between Roland and the giant Ferragus appears in the Pseudo-Turpin (chapter xviii.), but not in the poem. The Chanson de Roland presupposes the existence of a whole cycle of epic poetry, probably in episodic form; it contains allusions to many events outside the narrative, some of which can be explained from other existing chansons, while others refer to narratives which are lost. In lines 590-603 of the poem Roland gives a list of the countries he has conquered for Charles, from Constantinople and Hungary on the east to Scotland on the west. Of most of these exploits no trace remains in extant poems, but his capture of Bordeaux, of Nobles, of Carcassonne, occur in various compilations. Roland was variously repre- sented by the romancers as the son of Charlemagne's sister Gilles or Berte and the knight Milon d'Anglers. The romantic episode of the reconciliation of the pair with Charlemagne through Roland's childish prattle (Berte et Milon) is probably foreign to the original legend. In the Scandinavian versions Roland is the son of Charlemagne and his sister, a recital prob- ably borrowed from mythology. His enfances, or youthful exploits, were, according to Aspremonl, performed in Italy against the giant Eaumont, but in Girais de Viane his first taste of battle is under the walls of Vienne, where Oliver, at first his adversary, becomes his brother-in-arms. Other Versions. — Most closely allied to the Oxford Roland are (a) a version in Italianized French preserved in a I3th or I4th century MS. in the library of St Mark, Venice (MS. Fr. iv.) ; (6) the Ruolantes Liet (ed. W. Grimm, Gottingen, 1838) of the Swabian priest Konrad (fl. 1130), who gave, however, a pious tone to the whole;1 (c) the 8th branch of the Karlamagnus-saga (ed. C. Unger, Christiania, 1860), and the Danish version of that compilation. In the 1 2th century the Chanson de Roland was modernized by replacing the assonance by rhyme, and by amplifications and 1 A proof of the popularity of the legend in Germany is supplied by the so-called Roland statues, of which perhaps the most famous example is that of Bremen. Mention of a statua Rolandi is made in a privilegium granted by Henry V. to the town of Bremen in I in. The Rolands-saule were probably symbolic of the judicial rights possessed by the towns where they are found, and it has been suggested that the word arises from false etymology with Rothland-sdule, red-land-pillar, the symbol of the possession of the power of life and death. additions. Several MSS. of this rhymed recension, sometimes known as Roncevaux, are preserved. In the prose compilations of Calien and in David Aubert's Conqutles de Charlemagne (1458) the story kept its popularity for many centuries. In England the story was understood in the original French, and the English romances of Charlemagne (q.v.) are mostly derived from late and inferior sources. In Spain the legend underwent a curious transformation. Spanish patriotism created a Spanish ally of Marsile, Bernard del Carpio, to be the rival and victor of Roland. It was in Italy that the Roland legend had its greatest fortune : Charlemagne and Roland appear in the Paradise (canto xviii.) of Dante; the statues of Roland and Oliver appear on the doorway of the cathedral of Verona; and the French chansons de geste regularly appeared in a corrupt Italianized French. The Roland legend passed through a succession of revisions, and, as the Spagna, forming the 8th book of the great compilation of Carolingian romance, the Reali di Francia, kept its popularity down to the Renaissance. The story of Roland (Orlando) in a greatly modified form is the subject of the poems of Luigi Pulci (Morgante Maggiore, 1481), of Matteo Boiardo (Orlando innamorato, 1486), of Ariosto (Orlando furioso, 1516), and of Francesco Berni (Orlando, 1541). AUTHORITIES. — For a complete bibliography of the editions of the various MSS. of the Chanson de Roland, of the foreign versions, and of the enormous literature of the subject, see Leon Gauticr, Les Epopees franfaises (2nd ed., vol. iii., 1880), and the same author's Bibliographic des chansons de geste (1897). Among critical editions of the Chanson are those by Wendelin Foerster in the Altfrans. Bibliotek, vols. yi. and vii. (Heilbronn, 1883-86), and by E. Stengel, Das altfranzosische Rolandslied (Leipzig, 1900, &c.). The most popular edition is La Chanson de Roland (Tours, 1872. and numerous subsequent editions), by L£on Gautier, with text, translation, intro- duction, notes, variants and glossary. L. Petit de Julleville published in 1878 an edition with the old French text, and a ittodern French translation in assonanced verse. There are various other transla- tions in French ; in English prose by I. Butler (Boston, Mass., 1904) ; and a partial English verse translation by A. Way and F. Spencer (London, 1895). Consult further G. Paris, Hist. poet, de Charle- magne (reprint, 1905), and De Pseudo Turpino (Paris, 1865); P. Rajna, Le Origini dell' epopea francese (Florence, 1884) and Le Fonti dell' Orlando Furioso (2nd ed., Florence, 1900); F. Picco, Rolando nella storia e nella poesia (Turin, 1901); G. Paris, " Roncevaux," in Legendes du moyen age (1903), on the topography of the battle- field. ROLANDSECK, a village of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, delightfully situated on the left bank of the Rhine, 8 m. above Bonn, with a station on the railway Cologne-Coblenz. The place consists almost entirely of villas and is a favourite summer resort. Crowning the vine-clad hills behind it lie the ruins of the castle, a picturesque ivy-covered arch, whence a fine view is obtained of the Siebengebirge and the Rhine valley as far as Bonn. Immediately below Rolandseck in mid-river is the island of Nonnenwerth, on which is a nursing school under the conduct of Franciscan nuns, established in 1850. The convent which formerly stood here was founded in 1122 and secularized in 1802. Tradition assigns the foundation of the castle of Rolandseck to Charlemagne's paladin, Roland. It was certainly built at a very early date, as it was restored by Frederick, archbishop of Cologne, in 1 1 20, and it was a fortress until the end of the isth century. ROLL, ALFRED PHILIPPE (1846- ), French painter, was born in Paris on the ist of March 1846. Pupil of Ger&me and Bonnat at the ficole des Beaux Arts, he made his debut at the Salon in 1870 with " Environs of Baccarat " and " Evening," and attracted the widest attention in 1875 by his colossal painting of " The Flood at Toulouse " (now at the Havre Museum). All his early work is imbued with the spirit of romanticism under the influence of Geiicault, whilst his colour tended to Bolognese heaviness with a strong leaning towards dark shadows in the flesh painting, in which he closely followed Courbet. In 1877 he showed at the Salon the " Fete of Silenus " (now at the Ghent Museum), a painting of such vivid colour -and exuberant life that it recalls the work of Jordaens. About this time he began to devote himself to the realistic rendering of modern life, especially among the working classes, and together with romantic subjects he abandoned his earlier heavy colouring, and devoted himself to the study of free light. His " Miners' Strike " of 1880 (now at the Valen- ciennes Museum) placed him in the front rank of modern French painters, and from that date his career was one of continuous and brilliant success. He became " official painter " to the 466 ROLL— ROLLE DE HAMPOLE French government, and was entrusted with numerous com- missions for the decoration of public buildings and for com- memorative pictures, like the " President Carnot at Versailles at the Centenary of the Etats Generaux " (now at Versailles Palace), and " The Tzar and President Faure laying the Founda- tion Stone of the Alexandre III. Bridge." For the H6tel de Ville he executed " The Pleasures of Life " and " The Rosetime of Youth." Besides the pictures already mentioned, a vast number of his works are to be found in the public galleries of France. The museum of the Hotel de Ville in Paris owns his " National Fete at Paris in 1880 "; the Cognac Museum, " Labour, Works at Suresnes "; the Luxembourg, his " War " and " Manda Lametrie, farm-hand." At Avignon Museum is the "Don Juan and Haidee"; at Laval Museum, "Halt!"; at Fontainebleau Palace, "In Normandy "; at Pau Museum, " Roubey, cementer" ; and at the Museum of Geneva, " Marianne Offrey, crieuse de vert." In portraiture he is known by his " Yves Guyot," " Coquelin cadet," " Jules Simon," &c., but his greatest success was the group of " Fritz Thaulow and his Wife." In 1905 he replaced Carolus-Duran as president of the Societe Nationale des Beaux-Arts, of which he was one of the founders. ROLL (O. Fr. rolle, roulle, mod. rdle, Lat. rotulus, dim. of rota, wheel) , something rolled or wound up in a cylindrical form on an axis, or something which " rolls," that is, moves or is moved along a service by a turning motion. Primarily the word is used of a piece of writing material, such as parchment or paper, rolled up for the purpose of convenient storage, handling, &c. This is the meaning of the Med. Lat. rotulus, denned by Du Cangeas " Scheda, charta in speciem rotulaeseurotaeconvoluta." It was thus the convenient name for any document kept in this form as an official record, and hence for any register, record, catalogue or official list. " The Rolls " was the name of the building where the records of the Chancery Court were kept, the keeper of which was the Master (q.v.) of the Rolls, now the title of the third member of the English Supreme Court of Judicature. Other familiar examples of the use of the word in this sense are the list of those admitted as qualified solicitors, whence the phrase " to strike off the rolls, " of removal by the court of a solicitor for offences or delinquencies. There are numerous applications of the word to other objects packed in a cylindrical form, such as tobacco, cloth, &c., and particularly to a small loaf of bread rolled over before baking, the crust being thin and crisp and the crumb spongy. In architecture a " roll " or " scroll " moulding is a moulding resembling a section of a roll or scroll of parchment with the end overlapping; a " roll and fillet " moulding is a section of a cylindrical moulding with a square fillet running along the centre of the face (see LABEL). For the sense of an object that rolls, the word " roller " is more general, but " roll " is frequent in technical usage for revolving cylinders, especially when working in fixed bearings. For the rolling of steel see ROLLING MILL. HOLLAND, JOHN (fl. 1560), Scottish poet, appears to have been a priest of the diocese of Glasgow, and to have been known in Dalkeith in 1555. He is the author of two poems, the Court of Venus and a translation of the Seven Sages. The former, which was printed by John Ros in 1575, may have been written before 1560. The latter was translated from a Scots prose version at the suggestion of an aunt (" ane proper wenche "), who had found his treatment of the courtly allegory involved and uninteresting. The Court of Venus was edited by Walter Gregor for the S.T.S. in 1884. See W. A. Craigie's long list of corrections of that edition in the Modern Language Quarterly (March 1898). The Seven Sages was printed in 1578, and frequently during the earlier decades of the 1 7th century. It was reprinted by David Laing for the Banna- tyneClub (1837). Sibbald, in his Chronicle of Scottish Poetry (iii. 287), hinted that Holland may be the author of the Thrie Priestis of Peblis. There is not a scrap of evidence in support of this; and there are many strong reasons against the ascription. ROLLE DE HAMPOLE, RICHARD (d. 1349), English hermit and author, was born near the end of t.he i3th century, at Thornton (now Thornton Dale), near Pickering, Yorkshire. His father, William Rolle, was perhaps a dependant of the Neville family. Richard was sent to Oxford at the expense of Thomas de Neville, afterwards archdeacon of Durham. At Oxford he gave himself to the study of religion rather than to the subtleties of scholastic philosophy, for which he professed a strong distaste. At the age of nineteen he returned to his father's house, and, making a rough attempt at a hermit's dress out of two kirtles of his sister's and a hood belonging to his father, he ran away to follow the religious vocation. At Dalton, near Rotherham, he was recognized by John de Dalton, who had been at Oxford with him. After satisfying himself of Rolle's sanity, Dalton's father provided him with food and shelter and a hermit's dress. Rolle then entered on the con- templative life, passing through the preliminary stages of puri- fication and illumination, which lasted for nearly three years, and then entering the stage of sight, the full revelation of the divine vision. He is very exact in his dates, and attained, he says, the highest stage of his ecstasy four years and three months after the beginning of his conversion. Richard belonged to no order and acknowledged no rule. He left the Daltons, and wandered from place to place, resting when he found friends to provide for his wants. He seems to have desired to form a rule of hermits, but met with much opposition. The pious compilers of his " office " evidently thought it necessary to defend him against the charge of mere vagrancy. He nowhere says himself that his preaching made many converts, but his example was followed by many recluses in the north of England. After some years of wandering he gave up his more energetic propaganda, contenting himself with advising those who sought him out. He began also to write the songs and treatises by which he was to exert his widest influence. He settled in Richmondshire, twelve miles from the recluse Margaret Kirkby, whom he had cured of a violent seizure. To her some of his works are dedicated. Finally he removed to Hampole, near Doncaster, invited by an inmate of the Cistercian nunnery of St Mary. There he died on the 29th of September 1349. Many miracles were wrought at his shrine, and, in view of an expected canonization, an office was drawn up giving an account of his life and the legends connected with it. Richard Rolle had a great influence on his own and the next generation. In his exaltation of the spiritual side of religion over its forms, his enthusiastic celebration of the love of Christ, and his assertion of the individualist principle, he represented the best side of the influences that led to the Lollard movement. He was himself a faithful son of the church, and the political activity of the Lollards was quite foreign to his teaching. The popularity of his devotional writings is attested by the numerous existing editions and by the many close imitations of them. A very full list of his Latin and English works is given (pp. 36-43) in Dr Carl Horstmann's edition (1895-96) of his works in the Library of Early English Writers. Some of his works exist in both English and Latin, and it is often not easy to say which is the original version. The most considerable of them are The Pricke of Conscience and his Commentary on the Psalter. The Pricke of Conscience is a long religious poem, in rhyming couplets, dealing with the beginning of man's life, the instability of the world, why death is to be dreaded, of doomsday, of the pains of hell, and the joys of heaven, the two latter subjects being treated with uncompromising realism. Rolle wrote in the northern dialect, but southern transcripts are also found, and the poem exists in a Latin version (Stimulus conscientiae). The sources of this work in- cluded the De Contemplu Mundi sive de miseria humanae condilionis of Pope Innocent III., and Rolle also showed a knowledge of Bartholomew Glanyille, Thomas Aquinas and Honorius of Awtun. His English devotional commentary on the Psalms follows very closely his Latin Expositio Psalterii, which he based partly on Peter Lombard's Catena. It often agrees with the English metrical Psalter preserved in three MSS. in the British Museum (Cotton Vesp. D. yii., Egerton 614, and Harl. 1770). Dr R. F. Littledale in his edition (1873) of J. M. Neale's Commentary on the Psalms called it a " terse mystical paraphrase, which often comes very little short in beauty and depth of Dionysius the Carthusian himself." There is no complete and accessible edition of his works. The best collection is by C. Horstmann, Yorkshire Writers: Richard Rolle of Hampole; An English Father of the Church and his Followers ROLLER— ROLLIN (2 yols., 1895-96), in the " Library of Early English Writers." This includes many English prose treatises by Rolle, some beautiful examples ot his lyric poems, and other treatises in prose and verse from northern MSS., some of which are attributed to Rolle and others to his followers. Wynkyn de Worde printed in one volume, m 1506, Rycharde Rolle Hermyte of Hampull in his contemplac yons of the drede and love of God . . . and the Remedy ayenst the troubles of temptacyons. Neither of these are accepted by Dr Horstmann as Kolle s work. His Latin treatises, De emendatione vilae and De tncendw amons, the latter one of the most interesting of his works because it is obviously largely autobiographical, were translated (1434-35) by Richard Misyn (ed. R. Harvey, Early English Text Soc., 1896). The Pncke of Conscience was edited (1863) by Richard Morns for the Philological Society. His Commentary on the Psalms was edited by the Rev. H. R. Bramley (Oxford, 1884). Ten prose treatises by Richard Rolle from the Thornton MS.( c. 1440, Lincoln Cathedral Library) were edited by Canon George Perry for the Early English Text Society in 1866. Partial editions of his Latin works are dated Pans (1510), Antwerp (1533), Cologne (1535-36), Paris (I6I8); and in vol. xxvi. of the Bibliotheca Patrum Maxima " (Lyons, 1677). The office, which forms the chief authority for Kolle s life, was printed in the York Breviary, vol. ii. (Surtees Soc., 1882), and in Canon Perry's edition referred to above. See also Percy Andreae, who collated eighteen MSS. in the British Museum in his Handschriften des Pricke of Conscience (Berlin 1888); Sludwn iiber Richard Rolle von Hampole unter besonderer Berucksichttgung seiner Psalmencommentare, by H. Middendorff (Magdeburg, 1888), with a list of MSS., sources, &c.; j. Zupitza in Englische Studien (Heilbronn, vols. vii. and xii.); A. Hahn Quellenuntersuchungen zu Richard Rolle's Englischen Schriften (Halle' 1900) ; and for his prosody, G. Saintsbury, Hist, of English Prosody vol. i. ROLLER, a very beautiful bird, so called from its way of occasionally rolling or turning over in its flight,1 somewhat after the fashion of a tumbler-pigeon. It is the Coracias garrulus of ornithology, and is widely though not very numer- ously spread over Europe and Western Asia in summer, breeding so far to the northward as the middle of Sweden, but retiring to winter in Africa. It occurs almost every year -in some part or other of the British Islands, from Cornwall to the Shetlands, while it has visited Ireland several times, and is even recorded from St Kilda. But it is only as a wanderer that it comes, since there is no evidence of its having ever attempted to breed in- Great Britain; and indeed its conspicuous appear- ance— for it is nearly as big as a daw and very brightly coloured ^-would forbid its being ever allowed to escape a gun. Except the back, scapulars and tertials, which are bright reddish- brown, the plumage of both sexes is almost entirely blue — of various shades, from pale turquoise to dark ultramarine — tinted in parts with green. The bird seems to be purely in- sectivorous. The genus Coracias, for a long while placed by systematists among the crows, has really no affinity whatever . to them, and is now properly considered to belong to the hetero- geneous group of birds now associated as Coracnformes, in which it forms the type of the family Coraciidae; and its alliance to the bee-eaters (Meropidae) and king-fishers (Alce- dinidae) (q.v. ) is very evident. Some eight other species of the genus have been recognized, one of which, C. leucocephalus or C. abyssinicus, is said to have occurred in Scotland. India has two species, C. indicus and C. qffinis, of which thousands upon thousands used to be annually destroyed to supply the demand for gaudy feathers to bedizen ladies' dresses. One species, C. temmincki, seems to be peculiar to Celebes and the neighbouring islands, but otherwise the rest are natives of the Ethiopian or Indian regions. Allied to Coracias is the genus Eurystomus with some half-dozen species, of similar distribution, but one of them, E. pacificus, has a wider range, for it inhabits Australia and reaches Tasmania. Madagascar has four or five very remarkable forms which have often been considered to belong to the family Coraciidae; and, according to A. Milne-Edwards, no doubt should exist on that point. Yet if any may be entertained it is in regard to one of them, 467 1Gesner in 1555 said that the bird was thus called, and for this reason, near Strassburg, but the name seems not to be generally used in Germany, where the bird is commonly called Rake, apparently from its harsh note. The French have kept the name Rollier. It is a curious fact that the roller, notwithstanding its occurrence in the Levant, cannot be identified with any species mentioned by Aristotle. Leptosomus discolor, which, on account of its zygodactylous feet some authorities place among the Cuculidac, while others have considered it the type of a distinct family Lcptosomatidae. The genera Brachypteractas and Atelornis present fewer structural differences from the rollers, and perhaps may be rightly placed with them; but the species of the latter have long tarsi, and are believed to be of terrestrial habit, which rollers generally certainly are not. These very curious and in some respect* very interesting iorms, which are peculiar to Madagascar, arc admirably described and illustrated by a series of twenty plates in the great work of A orandidier and A. Milne-Edwards on that island (Oiseaux, pp. 223- 250) while the whole family Coraciidae is the subject of a mono- graph hry H. E. Dresser, as a companion volume to his monograph on the Meropidae. (A. N.) ROLLER. For agricultural purposes the roller formerly consisted of a solid cylinder of timber or stone attached to a frame and shafts, but to facilitate turning two or more iron cylinders revolving on an axle are now generally used. The simplest form has a smooth surface. The diameter of the drum should be as great as possible— 30 in. being a good size— because the larger this is the more easily it is pulled (within certain limits), while rollers of small diameter are heavier of draught and do their work less efficiently. The implement is used in spring and summer as an aid in pulverizing and cleaning the soil, by bruising clods and lumps of tangled roots and earth which the cultivator or other implement has brought .to the surface; in smoothing the surface for the reception of small seeds or the better operation of the mower or reaper; in consolidating soil that is too loose in texture and pressing it down about the roots of young plants. In the case of young plants the roots are close to the surface, which must therefore be kept moist. This end is attained by the compression by the roller of the top-soil of which the capillarity, i.e. the power of drawing water from the sub-soil is thereby increased. On the other hand, when it is desired to conserve the soil-moisture, the roller may be followed by the harrow, which, by pulverizing the surface-soil, breaks the capillarity. Of the variations on the common smooth roller, the clod-crusher and the Cambridge roller are the most important. The clod-crusher combines weight with breaking power. The best-known form was patented about 1841 by Crosskill, and consists of a number of disks with serrated edges threaded loosely on an axle round which they revolve. The Cambridge roller carries on its axle a number of closely packed wheels, the rims of which narrow down to a wedge shape. The tubular roller, instead of drums, has tubes arranged longitudinally, producing a corrugated surface which is reproduced in the condition of the soil after it has been rolled. ROLLER-SKATING, a pastime which, by the use of small wheels instead of a blade on the skate, has provided some of the pleasures of skating on ice without having ice as the surface (see SKATING). Wheeled skates were used on the roads of Hol- land as far back as the i8th century, but it was the invention of the four-wheeled skate, working on rubber springs, by J. L. Plimp- ton of New York, in 1863, that made the amusement popular. Still greater advance was made by the Raymond skate with ball and cone bearings. The wheels or rollers were first of turned boxwood, but the wearing of the edges was a fault which has been surmounted by making them of a hard com- position or of steel. The floor of the rink on which the skating takes place is either of asphalt or of wood. The latter is that always used in newly made rinks. The best floors are of long narrow strips of maple. Figure-skating on roller-skates is in some respects easier to learn than on ice-skates, the four points of contact given by the wheels rendering easier the holding of an edge; but some figures, such as loops, are more difficult. ROLLIN, CHARLES (1661-1741), French historian and educationist, was born at Paris on the 3Oth of January 1661. He was the son of a cutler, and at the age of twenty-two was made a master in the College du Plessis. In 1694 he was rector of the university of Paris, rendering great service among other things by reviving the study of Greek. He held that post for two years instead of one, and in 1699 was appointed principal of the College de Bcauvais. Kollin held Jansenist 468 ROLLINAT— ROLLING-MILL principles, and even went so far as to defend the miracles supposed to be worked at the tomb of Francois de Paris, commonly known as Deacon Paris. Unfortunately his religious opinions deprived him of his appointments and disqualified him for the rectorship, to which in 1719 he had been re-elected. It is said that the same reason prevented his election to the French Academy, though he was a member of the Academy of Inscriptions. Shortly before his death (i4th December 1741) he protested publicly against the acceptance of the bull Unigenitus. Rollin's literary work dates chiefly from the later years of his life, when he had been forbidden to teach. His once famous Ancient History (Paris, 1730-38), and the less generally read Roman History, which followed it, were avowed compilations, uncritical and somewhat inaccurate. But they instructed and interested generation after generation almost to the present day. A more original and really important work was his Traite des 6tudes (Paris, 1726-31). It contains a summary of what was even then a reformed and innovating system of education, including a more frequent and extensive use of the vulgar tongue, and discarded the medieval traditions that had lingered in France. See Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. vi. ROLLINAT, MAURICE (1853-1903), French poet, was born at Chateauroux in 1853. His father represented Indre in the National Assembly of 1848, and was a friend of George Sand, whose influence is very marked in young Rollinat's first volume, Dans les brandes (1877). The volume, however" attracted little attention, and it was with his second publica- tion, very different in manner, that he made his reputation. In Les Neuroses, with the sub-title Les Ames, Les Luxures, Les Refuges, Les Spectres, Les Tenebres, he showed himself as a disciple of Charles Baudelaire. He constantly returns in these poems to the physical horrors of death, and is obsessed by unpleasant images. Less outre in sentiment are L'Abime (1886), La Nature, and a book of children's verse, Le Livre de la Nature (1893). He was musician as well as poet, and set many of his songs to music. He lost his reason in consequence of his wife's death from hydrophobia, and died on the 26th of October 1903. ROLLING-MILL, a term which includes several types of machines used for producing the sectional forms (fig. i) in which wrought iron and steel are required for the use of boiler-makers, platers and bridge-builders, and for construc- tional work generally. The production of wrought iron has been a diminishing industry for many years, while that of steel increases. Though the plant employed for both is alike in essential principles of design, the growth in the use of steel has revolutionized the practice, chiefly on account of the more massive dimensions in which steel sections are rolled. Iron sections are relatively small, and many are produced by piling, i.e. by building up with small portions of malleable puddled metal. There is no limit in reason to the dimensions in which steel sections can be rolled, and they are never piled, however large, but always rolled from soh'd cast ingots. When steel ingots are rolled into sectional forms the reduction in transverse dimensions is very great. The work begins at nearly a white heat, and continues until a low red is reached. Obviously the stresses to which the material is subjected are very severe. For this reason the process of reduction has to be effected very gradually, and especially so in those cases where reduction is being done in two directions at right angles with each other, as in channel sections (fig. 6) and joist or beam sections (figs. 7 and 8). It might be thought, since steel is always cast previously to rolling, that it might be cast at once into the sectional forms required. But sound results could not be obtained in this way, because the gases occluded in the metal form blow-holes which are sources of weakness. The material itself, even in the solid portions, is not homogeneous. By removing the head of the ingot where the blow-holes chiefly congregate and rolling the remainder at a white or red heat, the metal is improved by consolidation, and by the work done upon it. To this practice there is no exception. Rolling-mills are known as " two-high," or " three-high," according as two or three rolls are mounted one over the othel JLZII FIG. I. — Forms of the Principal Rolled Sections, i, 2, Flats. 3, Flat with bevelled edges. 4, 5, Flats with rounded edges. 6, Bulb bar. 7, Wedge bar. 8, Scree or -grate bar. 9, Square. 10, Triangular. II, Hexagonal. 12, Round. 13, Oval. 14, Hollow half-round. 15, Half-round. 16, Convex. 17, Square-edged convex. 18, Vee. 19, O.G. 20, Angle iron. 21, Square root, or square throat angle. 22, Round-backed angle. 23, Unequal-sided angle. 24, Acute angle. 25, Obtuse angle. 26, Bulb angle. 27, Tee. 28, Bulb tee. 29, 30, Beams or joists, or girders, or H-irons. 31, Channel. 32, Zed. 33, Cruciform section. 34, Pillar section. 35, Troughing. 36, 37, 38, Rail- way rail. 39, Tramway rail. 40, Heavy crane rail. (figs. 2 and 3). In the two-high type the two rolls revolve in opposite directions, so that an ingot, slab or bloom pre- sented to the entering side is drawn in and between the rolls, which reduce its thickness. In the case of rolls which are two perfectly plain cylinders (plate-rolls) the shape produced is that of broad, long and flat plates or sheets. Several passages (passes) are required to effect the reduction required, because this must be gradual. To regulate the amount the top roll is set down bodily by means of screws pressing on its bearings which slide in the end supports (housings). In the case of plate-rolls, which are plain cylinders, this setting down must be equal at each end. The mass of the top roll is balanced, to avoid shock when a plate is entering. The rolls are made of cast iron, and are either grain rolls or chilled rolls. The first are formed from a tough strong grade of iron, the quality which is used for all the roughing down and general work. The second are made of a highly mottled iron, cast against a cold mould (chill) of cast iron, by which a steely surface is obtained. These are used for fine finishing, or for imparting a polished surface to a section already nearly reduced to size in grain rolls. In later heavier practice, rolls of cast steel and forged steel are becoming common. They are more costly than iron, but more durable and much lighter for equal strength. They are essential in armour plate rolls. The length of rolls should not exceed about four times their diameter, for otherwise they are liable to spring and produce plates thicker at the centre than towards the edges. From this elementary design several types are derived. In the two-high mill it is clear that if the direction of the rotation of the rolls is always the same, then the plate being rolled must be taken back after each " pass " to the front of the rolls. Hence there is one " lost pass " for every reduction in thickness. This is the case in the " pull-over " mill, nearly obsolete. In the two-high reversing mill, introduced to avoid this " lost pass," as soon as a plate has gone through, the direction of rotation of the rolls is reversed, and the plate is rolled again on the backward journey, so avoiding the lost ROLLING-MILL 469 aotLe* COOLING SUNK ri tor uw FIG. 2. — General Arrangement of 12-in. Merchant and Guide-Mill Plant. (Thomas Perry & Son Ltd., Bilston.) A, First roughing rolls. B, Second ditto. C, Guide rolls for ovals or diamonds. D, Ditto for rounds or squares. E, Driving pinions. ' Engine, 30 in. X 22 in. cylinder, direct- coupled to rolls. Runs from loo to 180 revolutions per minute to suit work. The shears are used for cutting the smaller sections, the hot saw for cutting the merchant iron. FIG. 3. — 12-in. Merchant Guide-Mill and Engine. Four-set mill. A, B, Three-high sets. C, Works either three-higher two-high; a, being a dummy roll. D, Two- high set (guide rolls). E, Coupling pieces. F, Housings. G, Pinions. The mill is capable of rolling rounds, squares, flats, angles, tees or similar sections by changing the rolls. The guide rolls D are used for small sections, and the second set B for merchant iron (larger sections). pass. An alternative is the three- high mill, in which three rolls are used. Here the plate is run through the lower rolls and back through the upper ones, so that there is no reversal of direction of the mill as a whole, but the lower and upper 'rolls draw the plates in opposite directions (see also IRON AND STEEL, § 129). Plate-Mills. — In Great Britain plate- mills are generally two-high reversing mills, in America three-high mills. Another difference is that in British practice two stands of rolls are used, in America one only. In the two-stand design there are two sets of rolls coupled endwise, one set being grain-rolls for roughing, and the other chilled rolls for finishing. Sets of live rollers conduct the plates to and from the separate rolls. The plate-mills proper are those which roll from } in. to about 2 in. thick. Armour plate-mills are a special design for massive plates and sheet-mills are for thin plates or sheets having a less thickness than } in. Armour plate-mills are of two- high reversing type usually, with forged steel rolls. They are of immense proportions, the rollers ranging from 10 to 14 ft. in length, by from 3 to 4 ft. in diameter. In sheet-mills, on the other hand, the rolls seldom exceed 30 in. in diameter, and they are chilled. The size of sheet-mills has within the last few years been consider- ably increased (since the introduction of steel sheets), and all new mills are made from 28 to 30 in. diameter. The mills are of the two- high type and are almost the only instance of the retention in present practice of the non-reversing mill. It is found more con- venient in this case than the reversing or the three-high mills, because two men roll two pieces at once, one handing over a sheet just rolled to his fellow just as the latter has entered a sheet between the rolls on his side. Strip-mills are a smaller but similar type, used for rolling the thin narrow strips required for the hoops of barrels, ties for cotton bales, &c. The details of these mills cannot be discussed here, nor the numerous arguments in favour of the two systems. English practice retains the two-high reversing mill for all heavy work, the exceptions being those just noted. American practice retains the three-high mill. Grooved Rolls. — In the mills designed for rolling various sectional forms the same distinction between two-high and three-high re- mains, but new problems arise. By " sectional forms " is meant all those which are i*>t plates and sheets, such as bars of round and square section, angles, channels, rails and allied sections (fig. l), for the production of which grooved rolls are required. _ The shapes and proportions of these grooves are such that reduction is effected very gradually. When metal is squeezed or hammered, one effect is to spread it laterally, since the metal cannot be appreciably squeezed in on itself. But the lateral extension is very much less than 470 ROLLOCK the longitudinal. The most marked effect of reduction in thickness is extension in length. But as there is some lateral extension, three courses are open: one is to gauge the exact amount of width re- quired for extension ; another is to turn a bar over at intervals in order to exercise pressure on the portions extended laterally and obliterate them (open passes) ; and a third is to allow the extensions to take the form of fin to be cut off subsequently (closed passes). The first is generally impracticable. The second can be illustrated by diagrams representing roll sections. The work of reduction is generally divided between three sets of rolls. The first are the cogging-, or blooming-rolls, as they are termed in America, in which ingots are reduced to blooms with dimensions suitable for rolling the various sections. In these an ingot of say 14 in. square may be reduced to a bloom of 6 in. square. The grooves form rectangular sections (box passes). The top roll being raised, the ingot is passed through the largest groove; then the roll is lowered and it is passed through a second time. Then it is turned round through 90° and re-rolled. Afterwards the same processes are gone through till the last groove is reached. There is a great difference between, say, a plate and a rail, but the cogging-rolls have to be so designed as to produce blooms for varied forms. There are three principal forms: the box just noticed, the gothic and the diamond (fig. 4), all open passes. For plates, A, Box Pass. B FIG. 4. B, Gothic Pass. C, Diamond Pass. provision is made in " slabbing " rolls for roughing out, first in a box pass, and then in a broad flat groove, alternating with the square groove for correction of the edges. Gothic passes and diamond passes produce blooms which are subsequently used for various shapes having little resemblance to each other. These shapes are simple, and little difficulty arises in the work of drawing down. The rolls make 40 to 50 revolutions per minute; the difference in the area of the cross section (draught) between adjacent grooves is from 20 to 25 %. The formative rolls for finished sections are of two classes: roughing and finishing. The roughing-rolls approximate much more closely to the finished sections than the cogging-rolls, but the aim is to make them do duty for a wide range of sections, in order to change them as seldom as possible. Thus the gothic pass (fig. 4) will serve alike for rolling square or round bars. Finishing rolls must be changed for every different section, except when slight differences in thicknesses only are made in the webbed portion of a rolled section. With the exception of rounds, sections are usually roughed and finished in closed passes — that is, the bar is wholly enclosed by the rolls. The groove in the lower roll is flanked by collars slightly deeper than the enclosed bar. These enter into grooves turned on the upper roll, and between them the bar Is confined (fig. 5). It passes through a succession of these grooves, \/ FIG. 5. — Pair of Rolls for producing Angle Sections. (Thomas Perry & Son Ltd., Bilston.) being diminished in area and extended at each pass. A certain amount of fin is squeezed out, and this is obliterated in the succeed- ing pass, and more formed, until in the finishing pass the amount of reduction is very slight, a surface finish being the principal result. Since but a slight amount of lateral extension occurs, it follows that the reduction wholly or mainly in the vertical plane is the most favourable condition. Rounds, squares and flats are wholly reduced in this way and offer no difficulty. The most unfavourable section is the joist or girder, the channels, tees and rails fojlow, and after these the various angles. In rolling a channel or a girder section (figs. 6, 7, 8), a square bloom is taken, and passed in succes- sion through closed passes. The first produce shallow grooves in FIG. 6. — Reduction of Channel Section. FIG. 7. — Reduction of Girder Section in Roughing Rolls. FIG. 8. — Reduction of Girder Section in Finishing Rolls. the opposite faces, gradually deepening until the insides of the flanges assume a definite slope. The angle of slope becomes gradu- ally lessened, and the thicknesses of web and flanges, and also the radius in the corners, are reduced. At the same time the width over the flanges is being gradually increased. While this is going on, the fibres of the flanges, are being strained, because the rolls run at a higher speed at their peripheries than next the body. The metal is being violently thrust and drawn in different ways, so that while economy has to be studied by reducing the number of passes, as much as possible, undue stress must be avoided by making the reductions as easy as is practicable. These things cannot be put into a formula, but the roll-turners work by experience and em- pirical rules gathered by long practice. In order to avoid these deep groovings, and also severe lateral thrusts on the rolls, angle sections are always rolled with the slope of the flanges approximately equalized; so too are zeds (fig. I, No. 32). The reduction is then effected with the minimum of stress to the metal. Variations are readily made in the thicknesses of rolled sections without changing the rolls, by simply varying the distance between their centres. This is effected by the adjustment of the top roll (fig. 5). Differ- ences in thickness are made in j^ths of an inch, up to a maximum of about J in. Another detail of design in closed passes is so to shape the rolls as to make any pass obliterate the fin produced in the previous groove. Sometimes sections are turned over to effect this, but often the bodies of the rolls are turned of suitable diameters to produce the result. Guards are required to prevent the bars from becoming wrapped round the rolls (" collaring "). With the same object the upper roll is always made larger in diameter than the lower. Its speed is therefore slightly greater than that of the lower one. This stretches the plate or bar very slightly on the upper side, and so imparts a downward movement to it towards the floor, which is what is required. The difference in diameter varies with circumstances, ranging from £th to about I in. Besides the standard types of mills noticed, the two-high and three-high, there are special mills. The merchant mill simply denotes either one of the above types used for the production of flat bars. The continuous mills are special designs for rolling small rods to be drawn into wire. In these there are several pairs of rolls placed in series, so that the billet is rolled from one stand to others in succession without re-heating. There are a number of different designs, _one of which is the Belgian looping mill, so called because the rod is bent backward and forward in the form of the letter S in its passage through adjacent sets of rolls. In another design a flying shear is employed, which automatically cuts off billets from the bar while the latter is travelling at the rate of 6 or 8 ft. per second.^ (J. G. H.) ROLLOCK, ROBERT (c. 1555-1599), the first principal of the university of Edinburgh, son of David Rollock of Powis, near Stirling, was born about 1555. He received his early education at the school of Stirling from Thomas Buchanan,, a nephew of George Buchanan, and, after graduating at St Andrews, became a regent there in 1580. In 1583 he was ROMA— ROMAN ARMY appointed by the Edinburgh town council sole regent of the "town's college" (" Academia Jacobi Sexti," afterwards the university of Edinburgh), and three years later he received from the same source the title of " principal, or first master, and was engaged in lecturing on philosophy. When the staff of the young college was increased by the appointment of additional regents, he assumed with consent of the presbytery the office of professor of theology. From 1587 he also preached regularly in the East Kirk every Sunday at 7 a.m., and in 1596 he accepted one of the eight ministerial charges of the city. He took a prominent part in the somewhat troubled church politics of the day, and distinguished himself by gentleness and tact, as well as ability. He was appointed on several occasions to committees of presbytery and assembly on pressing ecclesiastical business. He was elected moderator of the General Assembly held at Dundee in May 1597. In 1598 he was translated to the parish church of the Upper Tolbooth, Edinburgh, and immediately thereafter to that of the Grey Friars (then known as the Magdalen Church). He died at Edinburgh on the 8th of February 1599. Rollock wrote Commentaries on the Epistles tc the Ephesians (1590) and Thessalonians (1598) and Hebrews (1605), the book of Daniel (1591), the Gospel of St John (1599) and some of the Psalms (1598); an analysis of the Epistle to the Romans (1594), arid Galatians (1602); also Questions and Answers on the Covenant of Cod (1596), and a Treatise on Effectual Calling (1597). Soon after his death eleven Sermons (Certaine Sermons upon Several Places of the Epistles of Paul, 1599) were published from notes taken by his students. His Select Works were edited by W. Gunn for the Wodrow Society (1844-1849). A Life by George Robertson and Henry Charteris was reprinted by the Bannatyne Club in 1826. See also the introduction to the Select Works, and Sir Alexander Grant's History of the University of Edinburgh. ROMA, a town of Waldegrave county, Queensland, Australia, 318 m. by rail W.N.W. of Brisbane. It is the centre of a rich pastoral and wheat-growing district, in which oranges and vines are largely grown and much wine is produced. The town was incorporated in 1867. Flour-milling is its chief industry. Pop. (1901) of town, 2371; of the district, 7110. ROMAN, capital of the department of Roman, Rumania, on the main line from Czernowitz in Bukovina to Galatz, and on the left bank of the river Moldova, i\ m. W. of its junction with the Sereth. Pop. (1900) 14,019, including 6099 Jews. The river is here spanned by a fine bridge of iron. Roman has been the seat of a bishop since 401. Its seminary dates from 1402. There are several ancient churches, including a cathedral, built in 1541. Roman has a transit trade in the products of northern Moldavia. A large annual fair is held in August. ROMAN ARMY. In the long life of the ancient Roman army, the most effective and long-lived military institution known to history, we may distinguish four principal stages, (i) In the earliest age of Rome the army was a national or citizen levy such as we find in the beginnings of all states. (2) This grew into the Republican army of conquest, which gradually subdued Italy and the Mediterranean world. A citizen army of infantry, varying in size with the needs of each year, it eventually developed into a mercenary force with long service and pro- fessicnal organization. This became (3) the Imperial army of defence, which developed from a strictly citizen army into one which represented the provinces as well as Italy, and was a garrison rather than a field army. Lastly, (4) the assaults of the Barbarian horsemen compelled both the creation of a field force distinct from the frontier garrisons and the inclusion of a large mounted element, which soon counted for much more than the infantry. The Roman army had been one of foot soldiers; in its latest phase it was marked by that predominance of the horseman which characterized the earlier centuries of the middle ages. So far as we can follow this long development in its details, it was throughout continuous. So unbroken, indeed, is the growth that many of the military technical terms survived in use from epoch to epoch, unchanged in form though deeply modified in meaning, and ordinary readers often miss the diversity which underlies this unchanged-seeming system. The term legio, for example, occurs in all the four stages above outlined. But in each its significance varies. Throughout, it denoted citizen-soldiers: throughout, it denoted also a force which was chiefly, if not wholly, heavy infantry. But the setting of these two constant features varies from age to age. In the first period legio was the " levy," the whole host sum- moned to take the field. In the second period it was not the whole levy, but one of the principal units into which developing organization had divided that levy; the " legion " was now a body of some 3000 men — the number of " legions " varied with the circumstances, and the army included other troops besides citizens, though they were for the most part unim- portant. In the third or Imperial age there were many legions (indeed, a fixed number) quartered in fixed fortresses; there were also other troops, numerous and important, if not yet so formidable as the legionaries. Finally, the legions became smaller units, and the other troops of the army, notably the cavalry, became the real fighting-line of Rome (see LEGION). First Stage. — The history of the earliest Roman army is, as one might expect, both ill-recorded and contaminated with much legend and legal fiction. We read of a primitive force of 300 riders and 3000 foot soldiers, in which the horseman counted for almost everything. But the numbers are clearly artificial and invented, while the pre-eminence accorded to the cavalry has no sequel in later Roman history. We reach firmer ground with the organization ascribed to Servius Tullius. In this system the host included all citizens from 1 7 to 60 years of age, those under 47 for service in the field, those over 46 for garrison duty in Rome. The soldiers were grouped at first by their wealth — that is, their ability to provide their own horses, armour, &c. — into cavalry (i 8 " centuries "), heavy infantry, a remainder which it would be polite to call light infantry, and some artificers. The heavy infantry counted for most. Armed with long spears and divided into the three orders of haslati, principes and triarii (the origins and real senses of these names are lost), they formed a phalanx, and charged in a mass, while the cavalry protected the wings. The men were enrolled for a year — that is, for the summer cam- paign; in the autumn, like all primitive armies, they went home. It has been conjectured that about the time of the fall of the kings the normal Roman army comprised some 8500 infantry under 47 years of age, 5000 seniors, 1000 riders and sco fabri, &c. The evidence for the calculation is un- fortunately inadequate, but the result is not altogether im- probable, and it may help the reader to realize what " may have been." It must be added that this Servian system is closely connected with the political organization (see ROME, History). Second Stage. — From this Servian army a series of changes which we cannot trace in detail produced the Republican army of conquest. Our ancient authorities ascribe the chief reforms to the half-legendary Camillus (?.».), who introduced the beginnings of pay and long service, improved the armour and weapons, abolished the phalanx and substituted for it an open order based on small subdivisions (maniples), each con- taining two centuries. Whatever the truth about Camillus, some such reforms must at some time have been carried through, to convert the Servian system into the army which was engaged for nearly three centuries (from 350 B.C.) in conquering Italy and the world. This army broke in succession the stout native soldiers of Italy and the mountaineers of Spain and overthrew the trained Macedonian phalanx. Once only did it fail — against Hannibal (see PUNIC WARS). But not even Hannibal could oust it from entrenchments, and not even his victories could permanently break its moral. Much of its strength lay in the same qualities which made the Puritan soldiers of Cromwell terrible — the excellent character of the common soldiers, the rigid discipline, the high training. Credit, too, must be given to the genius of the Scipios and to the more commonplace capacities of many fairly able generals. But the organism 472 ROMAN ARMY itself deserves attention, and, as it chances, we know much about it, mainly from Polybius. Its elements were three: — (A) The principal unit was the legion, generally a division of 4500 men — 3000 heavy infantry, 1200 Tighter-armed (velites), 300 horse — though sometimes including as many as 6000 men. The heavy infantry were the backbone of the legion. They were levied from the whole body of Roman citizens who had some private means and who had not already served 16 campaigns, and in effect formed a yeoman force, For battle they were divided into 1200 haslati, 1200 principes and 600 iriarii: all had a large shield, metal helmet, leather cuirass, short Spanish thrusting and cutting sword, and in addition the hastati and principes each carried two short heavy throwing spears (pila), while the triarii had ordinary long spears (see ARMS AND ARMOUR). They were drawn up in three lines: (l) hastati, (2) principes, (3) triarii; the first two were divided into 10 maniples each (of 120 men, when the legicn only counted 4500), the third into 10 maniples of half the strength. According to the ordinary interpretation of our ancient authorities, the maniples were arranged in a chess-board fashion (quincunx'), the idea being that the front row of maniples could retire through the intervals in the second row without disordering it, and the second row could similarly advance. Recent military writers, however, Hastati doubt whether this arrangement can be considered workable, and it is possible that our authorities did not really mean what has been supposed. In any case the procedure in fighting seems to have been simple: the front line discharged a volley of pila and rushed in with the short sword — a sequence much like the volley and bayonet charge of the l8th century — and if this failed, the second line went in turn through the same process: the third line of triarii, armed with spear instead of pilum, was a reserve. The velites, armed with javelins, were either broken up among the heavy- armed centuries or used as skirmishers or as aids to the cavalry. The 300 cavalry, however, were (it seems) of little account — a natural result if, as we have reason to think, the horses were small and stirrups were not used. The officers of the legion consisted of : (a) Six tribunes, in part elected by the comitia, in part appointed by the consuls, and holding .command in rotation. They were either veteran officers, sometimes even ex-magistrates, or young noblemen beginning their career, (b) Sixty centurions, each commanding one century, or, rather, a pair commanding each maniple. They were chosen by the tribunes from among the veteran soldiers serving at the time and were arranged in a complicated hierarchy, by means of which a centurion might move upwards till he became primus pilus, senior centurion of the first maniple of triarii, the chief officer in the legion, (c) There were also standard-bearers and other under-officers, for whom reference must be made to specialist publications. (B) Besides the legions, composed of citizens, the Roman army included contingents from the Italian " allies " (socii), subjects of Rome. These contingents appear to have been large: in many armies we find as many socii as legionaries, but we are ignorant of details. The men were armed and drilled like the legionaries, but they served not in legions but in cohorts, smaller units of 400-500 men, and their conventional positions seem to have been on the wings of the legions. They were principally infantry, but included also a fairly large proportion of cavalry. Despite their numbers, they do not appear to have ranked with the heavy legionary infantry, and they were probably used more as detachments from the main army than as infantry of the line. (C) Besides legionaries and socii, the Roman army included non-Italian troops of special kinds, Balearic slingers, Numidian horsemen, Rhodians, Celtiberians and others: at Trasimene, for example (217 B.C.), the Roman army included 600 Cretan archers. The numbers of these auxilia varied; probably they were not numerous till the latest days of the Republic. Composition and Size of Armies in the Second Stage. — According to the general practice, each of the two consuls, if he took the field alone, commanded an army of two legions with appropriate socii. If the two consuls combined their forces, commanding the joint force in rotation (as often occurred), the total would be — accord- ing to our authorities — four legions, each of 4200 infantry, the same number of " allied " infantry (in all 33,600 infantry), 1200 legionary cavalry and about 3600 " allied " cavalry = 38,400 men. Such, for example, was the Roman army at Trebia (218 B.C.), where (says Polybius) there fought 16,000 legionaries and 20,000 allied infantry. The total number of men in the field could be increased; we even hear of 23 legions serving at one time in the Second Punic War. Just before this war, in 225 B.C., the total strength of Rome was reckoned at three-quarters of a million, of which about 65,000 were in the field and 55,000 were in a reserve at Rome; of the total, 325,000 were Roman citizens and 443,000 (apparently a rough estimate) were allies. The battle order in normal circumstances was simple. In the centre stood the legionary infantry: on each side of that was the allied infantry: on the wings the cavalry. But sometimes the legions were held in reserve and the brunt (and honour) of the fight was left to the allies. Sometimes, when the army was a double force, one commander's troops fought and the others lay in reserve. Frequently the attack was begun by one wing, as by Caesar at Pharsalus. At Ilipa in Spain Scipio put his Spanish auxiliaries in the centre, his Roman troops on the wings, and attacked with both wings. The chief command of the army fell (as stated above) to the consul, if present, or, if two consuls acted together, to them in turn. In default of consuls, a pro- consul, praetor, or propraetor, in charge of a province, would command. Development from the Second Stage to the Third. — Towards the end of the Republic many changes began to work them- selves out in the Roman army. If Camillus began the system of pay and long service, it was effectually developed by long foreign wars in Spain and in the East. Moreover, the growth of Rome as a wealthy state tended to wreck the old theory that every citizen was a soldier, and favoured a division of labour between (e.g.) the merchant and the military, while the increasing complexity of war required a longer training and a more professional soldier. In consequence, the old restriction of legionary service to men with some sort of private property was abolished by Marius about 104 B.C. and the legionaries now became wholly proletariate and professionals. By a second change, also connected with the name of. Marius, the legion was reorganized as a body of 6000 men in 60 centuries, divided into 10 cohorts instead of (as hitherto) into 30 maniples; the unit of tactical action thus became a body of 600 instead of 120. This was probably an adaptation within the legion of the system of cohorts already in use for the con- tingents of the socii. Soon after, the extension of the Roman franchise to all Italians converted allies and subjects into citizens, and the socii into legionaries. A fourth change abolished the legionary cavalry and greatly increased the auxilia (C above). And, finally, the appearance of great military leaders in place of civilian statesmen, and of pretenders to a throne in place of patriots, familiarized the world with the notion of large standing armies commanded by permanent chiefs, and at the same time destroyed discipline and military loyalty. Third Stage. — The Imperial Army of Defence. — The evils of the Civil Wars (49-31 B.C.) furnished the first emperor, Augustus^ with both the opportunity and the necessity for reforming the army. Disorganization had reigned for twenty years. It was needful to restore loyalty and system alike. Augustus did this, as he did all his work, by adapting the past: yet there is some truth in the view of his latest historian, von Domaszewski, that his army reforms were his greatest and most original work. The main lines of his work are simple. The Imperial army consisted henceforward of two classes or grades of troops, about equal in numbers if unequal in importance. The first grade were the legions, recruited from Roman citizens, whether resident in Italy or in the provinces. The second grade was formed by the auxilia, recruited from the subjects (not the citizens) of the Empire in the provinces, organized in cohorts and aloe and corresponding somewhat to both the socii and the auxiliaries (B, C above) of the Republican army. There were also in Rome special " household" troops (see PRAE- TORIANS), and a large body of vigiles who were both fire brigade and police. (A) The legion of the Empire was what Marius had left it — 6000 heavy infantry divided into 10 cohorts: Augustus added only 1 20 horsemen to serve as despatch-riders and the like. The supreme command was no longer in the hands of the six tribunes. According to a practice which had sprung up in the latest Republic it was in the hands of a legatus legionis, deputy of the general (now of the emperor, commander-in-chief of the whole army) and a man usually of senatorial rank and position. The six tribunes assisted him, in theory: in practice they were now little more than young men of good birth learning their business or wasting their ROMAN ARMY 473 time. The real officers of the legion were the 60 centurions, men who (at least in the early Empire) generally served up from the ranks, and who knew their work. The senior centurion, primus pilus, was an especially important officer, and on retirement frequently became praefectus castrorum, " camp adjutant," or obtained other promotion. Below the centurions were under-officers, standard- bearers, optiones, clerks and the like. The men themselves were recruited from the body of Roman citizens (though we may believe that birth-certificates were not always demanded). During the 1st century Italy, and particularly north Italy, provided the bulk of the recruits. After A.D. 70, recruiting in Italy for the legions practically ceased and men were drawn from the Romanized towns of the provinces. After Hadrian, each province seems to have supplied most of the men for the legion (if any) stationed in it, and so many sons of soldiers born during service (castrenses) flocked to the army that a military caste almost grew up. The term of service was, in full, twenty years, at least in theory, but recruiting was voluntary and when men were short discharges were often withheld. On discharge the ex-legionary received a bounty or land: many coloniae (municipalities) were established in the provinces by certain emperors for the special purpose of taking discharged veterans — according to a custom of which the first instances occur in the latest Republican age. On the whole, the legionary was still the typical " Roman " soldier. If he was no longer Italian, he was generally of citizen birth and always of citizen rank, and his connexion with the Empire and the government was real. Each legion bore a title and a number (e.g. II. Augusta, III. Gallica). The custom of using such titles and numbers can be detected sporadically in the latest Republic, and many titles and numbers then borne by legions passed on into the Empire with the legions themselves. As Augustus gradually became master of the world, he found himself with three armies, his own and those of Lepidus and Antony; from the three he chose certain legions to form his new standing army, and he left these with the titles and numbers which they had previously borne, although that concession resulted in three legions numbered III. and two numbered IV., V., VI. and X. respectively. Sirnilar titles and numbers were given to legions raised afterwards either to fill up gaps caused by disaster or to increase the army. Here, as elsewhere in the Roman and above all in the Augustan system, precedent defied logic. (B) Besides the legions Augustus developed a new order of auxilia. Auxiliaries (as is said above) had served occasionally in the Republican armies since about 250 B.C., and in the latest Re- public large bodies of them had been enlisted in the armies of con- tending generals. Thus Caesar in Gaul enrolled a division of native Gauls, free men but not citizens of Rome, which ranked from the first in all but legal status as a legion, the " Alaudae," and in due course was formally admitted to the legionary list (legio V.). But this use of non-citizens had been limited in extent and confined in normal circumstances to special troops such as slingers or bowmen. This casual practice Augustus reduced, or rather extended, to system, following in many details the scheme of the Republican socii and veiling the novelty under old titles. Henceforward, regiments of infantry (cohortes) or cavalry (alae), 500 or 1000 strong, were regularly raised (apparently, by voluntary recruiting) from the non-citizen populations of the provinces and formed a force almost equal in numbers (and perhaps ultimately much more than equal) to the legions. The men who served in these units were less well paid and served longer than the legionaries; on their discharge they received a bounty and the Roman franchise for themselves and wife and children. They were commanded by Roman praefecti or tribuni, and were no doubt required to understand Roman orders; they must have generally become Romanized and fit for the citizenship, but they were occasionally (at least in the 1st century A.D.) permitted to retain tribal weapons and methods of fighting and to serve under the command of tribal leaders, who were at once their chiefs and Roman officers. These auxiliaries provided both the whole of the archers, &c., and nearly the whole of the cavalry of the army; they also included many foot regiments. A peculiar arrangement (to which no exact parallel seems to occur in any other army) was that a cohort of 500 men might include 380 foot and 120 horse and a cohort of 1000 men or 760 foot and 240 horse (cohors equitata), and an ala might similarly include a proportion of foot (ala peditata). Each regiment bore a number and a title, the latter often derived from the officer who had raised the corps (ala Indiana, raised by one Julius Indus) or, still more often, from the tribe which supplied the first recruits (cohors VII. Gallorum, cohors II. Hispanorum and the like). To what extent recruiting remained territorial is uncertain after the 1st century, probably, the territorial names meant in most cases very little. The total number of the auxiliary regiments probably varied from time to time and can at present hardly be guessed. Composition of Armies and Distribution of Troops in the Thira Stage. — If the system of legions and auxilia in the early Empire was novel, the use made of them was no less so. The latest Republic offers to the student the spectacle of large field armies and though it also reveals a counter tendency to assign specia legions to special provinces, that tendency is very feeble Augustus ended the era of large field armies: he could, indeed, eave no such weapons for future pretenders to the throne. By seeping the Empire within set frontiers, he developed the counter tendency. That policy exactly suited the military position in his :ime. The early Roman Empire had not to face — as Britain or France or Germany might have to face to-day — the danger of a war with an equal enemy, needing the mobilization of all its national forces. From Augustus till A.D. 2 50 Rome had no conterminous ioe from whom to fear invasion. Parthia, her one and dangerous equal, was far away in the East and little able to strike home. Elsewhere, her frontiers bordered more or less wild barbarians, who might often harass, but could not do serious harm. To meet this there was need, not of a strong army concentrated in one or two cantonments, but of many small garrisons scattered along each frontier, with a few stronger fortresses to act as military centres adjacent to these garrisons. Accordingly, a system grew up under Augustus and his im- mediate successors whereby the whole army was distributed along the frontiers or in specially disorderly districts (such as N.W. Spain) in permanent garrisons. On the actual frontiers and on the chief roads leading to them were numerous cohorts and alae of auxiliaries, garrisoning each its own caslellum of 3-7 acres in extent. Close behind the frontiers, or even on them, were the twenty-five legions, each (with a few exceptions of early date) holding its own fortress (castra stativa or hiberna) of 50-60 acres. Details varied at different times. Sometimes, where no Rhine or Danube helped, and where outside enemies were many, the frontier was further fortified by a continuous wall of wooden palisades (as in part of Germany, see LIMES) or of earth or stone (as in Britain, see article BRITAIN, ROMAN), or the boundary might be guarded by a road patrolled from forts planted along it (as in part of Roman Africa). The result was a long frontier guard covering Britain, and Europe from the German Ocean to the Black Sea, and the upper Euphrates valley, and the edge of the Sahara south of Tunis and Algeria and Morocco, while the wide Empire behind it was little troubled by the presence of soldiers. The following table shows the disposition of the legions about A.D. 120 and for many decades subsequently. It would be im- possible, even if space allowed, to add the auxiliaries, since the details of their distribution are too little known. But it may be in general assumed that the total number of auxiliaries in any province was little less, and probably rather greater, than the number of legionaries, and the sizes of the various provincial armies can thus be calculated roughly. Thus Britain was held probably by 35,000-40,000 men. Each provincial army was commanded either by the governor of the province or (in a few exceptional cases) by the senior legatus of the legions stationed there: — Britain Lower Germany ( = lower Rhine) Upper Germany Pannonia (Danube to Semlin) Upper Moesia (Middle Danube) ,t ii Dacia (now Transylvania) Lower Moesia (Lower Danube) II. Augusta (Isca Silurum, now Caer- leon). VI. Victrix (Eburacum, York). XX. Valeria Victrix (Deva, Chester). I. Minervia (Bonna, Bonn). XXX. Ulpia Victrix (Vetera, Xanten). XXII. Pnmigenia (Moguntiacum, Mainz). VIII. Augusta (Argentorate, Strassburg). X. Gemina (Vindobona, Vienna). XIV. Gemina (Carnuntum, Petronell). I. Adiutrix (Brigetio, near Komorn). II. Adiutrix (Aquincum, near Buda- pest). IV. Flavia (Singidunvm, Belgrade). VII. Claudia (Vtminacium, Kostolac). XIII. Gemina (Apulum, Karlsburg). I. XI. V. Asia Minor (Cappadocia) XV. XII. Italira (Novae, Sistov). Claudia (Durostorum, Silistria). Macedonica (Troesmis, Iglitza). Apollinaris (Satala, Armenian fron- tier). Fulminata (Melitene, on upper Euphrates). 474 Syria . Judaea Arabia Egypt Africa Spain ROMAN ART XVI. Flavia (Samosata, on upper Euphrates). IV Scythica-i VI. Ferrata > near Antioch (?). III. Gallica ) X. Fretensis (Jerusalem). III. Cyrenaica (Bostra). II. Trajana (near Alexandria — a dis- orderly city). III. Augusta (Lambaesis) . VII. Gemina (Legio, Leon, in N.W. Spain). The total of legionaries may be put at about 180,000 men, the auxiliaries at about 200,000. If we exclude the " house- hold " troops at Rome, the police fleets on the Mediterranean, and the local militia in some districts, we may put the regular army of the Empire at about 400,000 men. This army, as will be plain, was framed on much the same ideas as the British army of the ipth century. It was meant not to fight against a first-class foreign power, but to keep the peace and guard the frontiers of dominions threatened by scattered barbarian raids and risings. Field army there was none, nor any need. If special danger threatened or some special area was to be con- quered— such as southern Britain (A.D. 43) or a little land across the upper Rhine (A.D. 74) — detachments (vexillationes) were sent by legions and sometimes also by auxiliaries in adjacent provinces, and a field force was formed sufficient for the moment and the work. Change from the Third Period to the Fourth. — Two principal causes brought gradual change to the Augustan army. In the first place, the pax Romana brought such prosperity to many districts that they ceased to provide sufficient recruits. The Romans, like the British in India, had more and more to look to uncivilized regions and even beyond their borders. Hence comes, in the 2nd century and after, a new class of numeri or cunei or vexillationes who used (like the earlier auxiliaries) their national arms and tactics and imported into the army a more and more non-Roman element. This tendency became very marked in the 3rd century and bore serious fruit at its close. And, secondly, the old days of mere frontier defence were over. The barbarians began to beat on the walls of the Empire as early as A.D. 160: about A.D. 250 they here and there got through, and they came henceforward in ever-growing numbers. Moreover, they came on horseback, bringing new tactics for the Roman infantry to face, and they came in huge masses. We may doubt if any military system could have permanently stayed this astonishing torrent. But the Empire did what it could. It enlisted barbarians to fight barbarians, and added freely — too freely, perhaps, if there was any choice — to the non- Roman elements of the army. It increased its cavalry and began to form a distinct field force. Fourth Period. — The results are seen in the reforms of Dio- cletian and Constantine the Great (A.D. 284-circa 320). New frontier guards, styled limitanei or riparienses, were established, and the old army was reorganized in field forces which accom- panied or might accompany the emperors in war (comitatenses, palalini). The importance of the legions dwindled; the chief soldiers were the mercenaries, mostly Germans, enlisted from among the barbarians. New titles now appear, and it becomes plain even to the casual reader that in many points the new order is not the old. The details of the system are as compli- cated as all the administrative machinery of that age. Here it is enought to point out that the significance of such officers and titles as the dux and the comes (duke, count) lies ahead in the history of the middle ages, and not in the past, the history of the Roman army itself. War Office, General Staff. — Under the Republic we do not find, and indeed should not expect to find, any central body which was especially entrusted with the development of the army system or military finance or military policy in wars. Even under the Empire, however, there was no such organiza- tion. The emperor, as commander-in-chief, and his more or less unofficial advisers doubtless decided questions of policy. But the army was so much a group of provincial armies that much was left to the chief officers in each province. Here, as elsewhere in the Empire, we trace a love if not for Home Rule, at least for Devolution. There was, however, a central finance office in Rome for the special purpose of meeting the bounties (or equivalent) due to discharged soldiers. This was established by Augustus in A.D. 6 with the title aerarium militare, and had, for receipts, the yield of two taxes, a 5% legacy duty and a i% on sales (or perhaps only on auction- sales). The legacy duty did not touch legacies to near relations or legacies of small amount. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — Liebenam, " Exercitus," in Pauly-\Vissowa, Realencydopadie; Von Domaszewski, in Mommsen-Marquardt's Handbuch der romischen Altertumer (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1884), vol. v, pp. 319-612; H. Delbruck, Geschichte der Kriegskunst, vol. i., 2nd ed. (Berlin, 1907) ; E. Lammert, " Die Entwicklung der romischen Taktik," in Neue Jahrbucher fur das klassische Altertum, ix. 100-28, 169-87; Cagnat's article "Legio" in Daremberg and Saglio, Diction- naire des antiquites grecques et romaines; E. G. Hardy, Studies in Roman History (London, 1906^-9); Th. Mommsen, " Das romische Militarwesen seit Diocletian," in Hermes, xxiv. 195-279. (F. J. H.) ROMAN ART. (i) Introductory: History of Recent Research. — The scientific study of ancient Roman art dates from a com- paratively recent period. The great artists of the Renaissance, headed by Raphael and Michelangelo, showed no lack of apprecia- tion for such models as the bas-reliefs of Trajan's Column; and it is sufficient to name Mantegna's " Triumph of Caesar " in order to recall the influence exerted by Roman historical sculpture upon their choice and treatment of monumental •subjects; but their eyes were fixed on the Greek ideal, however imperfectly represented by monuments then accessible, and the supremacy of this standard became established beyond challenge. In the i8th century Winckelmann, the founder of the science of classical archaeology, directed the gaze of students and critics towards the glories of classical Greek art, which he divined behind the copies which filled the palaces and museums of modern Rome;1 and the rediscovery of the extant remains of that art, which began early in the igtb century and still continues, has naturally absorbed the attention of the great majority of classical archaeologists. Neverthe- less, towards the close of the igth century, when the main lines of Greek artistic development had been firmly traced and interest was aroused in its later offshoots, critics were led to examine more closely the products of the Roman period. As early as 1874 Philippi had published a study of Roman triumphal reliefs;2 but his intention was to show that they were derived from the paintings exhibited on the occasion of a triumph — a theory which can no longer be maintained — and not to determine their place in the history of art. In 1893, however, Alois Riegl published a series of essays on the history of ornament under the title of Stilfragen, in one of which he expressed the opinion that " there was in the antique art of the Roman Empire a development along the ascending line and not merely a decadence, as is universally believed." This thesis was taken up two years later by Franz Wickhoff in a preface contributed to the reproduction in facsimile of the illustrated MS. of Genesis in the imperial library at Vienna. Wickhoff contended that, whilst the art of the Augustan period was the culmination of that which had flourished under the Hellenistic monarchies, it was succeeded by an outburst of genuinely Roman artistic effort, which reached the height of its achievement in the reliefs and portrait-sculpture of the Flavian period, and gave birth in the 2nd century A.D. to the monuments of the " continuous " style of representation ex- emplified by the imperial columns. Wickhoff's work has become familiar to English readers through Mrs Strong's 1 The eleventh book of Winckelmann's Geschichte der Kunst, which deals with art under the Romans, contains notable proofs of the author's sureness of vision; for example, he divined the true date and affinities of the reliefs in the Villa Borghese, after- wards .wrongly attributed to the time of Claudius (see below). " t)ber die romischen Triumphalreliefs und ihre Stellung in der Kunstgeschichte " (Abhandlungen der sacks. Gesellsch. der Wissenschaften, vi., 1874). ROMAN ART 475 excellent translation, with copious illustrations, which ap- peared in 1900; in the following year Riegl published the first (which, by reason of his untimely death, remains the only) volume of his Late Roman Industrial Art in Austria and Hungary, in the opening chapters of which he endeavours to show that the later transformations of Roman art in the 2nd and suc- ceeding centuries after Christ continue to mark a definite advance. On the other hand, the originality of Roman art under the Empire was called in quesion by Josef Strzygowski, whose first important work on the subject, Orient oder Rom, appeared in 1901. Strzygowski holds that even in the imperial period, Rome was receptive rather than creative; that what is termed " Roman imperial art " is in reality the latest phase of Hellenistic art, whose chief centres are to be sought in Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt; and that this late Hellenistic art was itself gradually transformed by the invading spirit of the East into that Byzantine art which is half Greek and half Oriental, but wholly un-Roman. The problem thus stated will presently be discussed; in the meantime it is to be noted that the principal monuments which fall within our province have been at length rendered accessible to students by a series of adequate reproductions. In sculpture, the reliefs of Trajan's Column have been published by Cichorius, and those of the column of Marcus Aurelius by Petersen and others; in metal- work, the treasure of Bosco Reale has been reproduced in the Monuments Plot, and that of Hildesheim has been published by the authorities of the Berlin Museum; a series of repro- ductions, including all the important examples of Roman painting, is issued by the firm of Bruckmann under the super- vision of Paul Herrmann; and the ancient paintings preserved in the Vatican library, which include some of the most famous examples of the art, were published and described by Dr Nogara in 1907. The discussion of the date to be assigned to the Trophy of Trajan at Adam-Klissi in the Dobruja, initiated by Adolf Furtwangler, has led to a closer study of the remains of Roman provincial art; and the discovery of the founda- tions of the Ara Pacis Augustae at Rome, together with addi- tional remains of its sculptured decoration, has given an impulse to the study of Roman historical monuments. In this field important contributions to knowledge have been made by members of the British school at Rome, which will be noticed below. Finally, the history of Roman sculpture has for the first time been systematically and comprehensively treated by Mrs Strong in a handbook whose copious and well-chosen illustrations add greatly to its value. Thus the necessary equipment has been furnished for students of the problem presented by Roman art. (2) National Roman Art; Landmarks of its History. — It is impossible to speak of a specifically Roman national art until we approach the latest period of Republican history. The germs of artistic endowment which existed in the Roman character were not developed until her political institutions were matured and her supremacy in the Mediterranean established. Up to that time such works of art as were produced in, or imported into, Rome were without exception Greek or Etruscan. Both in Etruria and in Latium Greek artists were commissioned to decorate the temples in which wood and terra-cotta took the place of the marble which Greece alone could afford to use. In 496 B.C., according to tradition, two Greek artists, Damophilos and Gorgasos, decorated the temple of Ceres, Liber and Libera with paintings and sculpture; when the temple was restored by Augustus their terra-cotta reliefs were carefully removed and framed.1 But most of the early sculpture preserved in Rome doubtless belonged to the " Tuscan " school, whose works Pliny 2 quotes as evidence that there was an art of statuary native to Italy. It is true that Etruscan art was dependent for its motives and technique on Greek models; but in its portraiture — notably in the reclining figures which adorn Etruscan sarcophagi — we can trace the uncompromising realism and close attention to detail which are native to Italian 1H.N. xxxv. 154. *H.N. xxxiv. 34; cf. 43; and see Quint.^xli. 10, I. soil; the fragments of temple-sculptures which have been preserved are of less value, since, if not the work of Greeks, they are entirely Greek in conception. Roman portraiture undoubtedly continues the Etruscan tradition. It was a common custom in Etruria to decorate the urn containing the ashes of the dead with a lid in the form of the human head (such urns are called canopi), and the same desire to record the features of the departed produced the waxen masks, or imagines, which were preserved in the houses of the Roman aristocracy. In architecture, too, Roman builders learnt much from their Etruscan neighbours, from whom they borrowed the character- istic form of their temples, and perhaps also the prominent use of the arch and vault. But the stream of Etruscan influence was met by a counter-current from the south, where the Greek colonies in Campania provided a natural channel by which Hellenic ideas reached the Latin race; and Roman architects soon abandoned the purely Etruscan type of temple for one which closely followed western Greek models. The conquests of the later Republic, however, brought them into more direct contact with the art of Greece proper. Beginning from 212 B.C., when Marcellus despoiled Syracuse of its principal statues, every victorious general adorned his triumph with masterpieces of Greek art, whether of sculpture or of painting, and, when Philhellenism became the ruling fashion at Rome, wealthy connoisseurs formed private collections drawn from the Greek provinces — Greek craftsmen, moreover, were employed in the decoration of the palaces of the Roman nobles and capitalists, which scarcely differed from those of the great Hellenistic cities. Except in portraiture, there was nothing character- istically Roman in the art which flourished in Rome in the time of Caesar and Cicero. But the remains of an altar, preserved partly at Munich and partly in the Louvre (Plate II. fig. 10), which is believed with good reason to have been set up by Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus shortly before 30 B.C., furnish an early example of the historical, or, to speak more exactly, commemorative art, to whose development the Empire gave so powerful an impulse. On the one face of the altar we find a Greek subject — the marriage of Poseidon and Amphitrite, — on the other a Roman sacrifice, the suovelaurilia, with other scenes from the life of the army. Augustus enlisted art, as he did literature, in the service of the new order. The remarkable technical dexterity which characterizes all forms of art in this period — silver plate and stucco decoration, as well as sculpture in the round or in relief — is purely Greek; but the form is filled with a new content. For Augustus determined to enlist art as well as literature in the service of the new regime, and this purpose was served not only by public monuments, such as the Ara Pacis Augustae (Plate II. figs. 11-13), but by the masterpieces of the silversmith's and gem-engraver's art (Plate VII. figs. 32-37). In the art, as in the literature of the Augustan age, classicism was the dominant note, and the naturalism so congenial to the Italian temperament was repressed, though never extinguished. The result of this was that under the Julio-Claudian dynasty academic tradition filled the place of inspiration, and Roman art failed to discover its vocation. A change came under the Flavian emperors. The painters who decorated with fairy landscapes the walls of Roman palaces, untrammelled by the conventions of official art, introduced into Rome a summary method of working, which has much in common with that of the modern impressionist school; and the sculptors of the Flavian period laid to heart the lesson taught by their successful " illusionism " (to borrow Wickhoff's term). We shall see that this is true of all forms of sculpture — historical sculpture, portraiture and decorative ornament; and we are entitled to rank this Flavian art as the specific creation of imperial Rome, whatever may have been the precise nationality of the individual workers who adorned the new capital of the world. But this phase was of short duration; and the Roman spirit, which in harmony with that of Greece had produced such brilliant results, triumphed under Trajan and found its characteristic expression in the " epic in stone " with which his column is adorned. Wickhoff claims the " continuous " 476 ROMAN ART style in which the artist recounts the Dacian campaigns of Trajan as a creation of the Roman genius. W« shall see that the term is not altogether a happy one; but there is good reason (as will be shown below) for the belief that the designer of the column, however profoundly influenced in his selection of motives and in his composition of individual scenes by Greek tradition, nevertheless worked out his main principles for himself. The realism of the Roman is shown in the minute rendering of details, which makes the reliefs a priceless source of information as to military antiquities. Historical art achieved no less a triumph in the great frieze from Trajan's Forum (Plate II. fig. 16), and in the panels of the arch at Benevento. Imposing as these works are, they suffer from the defects incidental to an art which endeavours to express too much. Overcharged with detail, and packed with meanings which reveal themselves only to patient study, they lack the spacious and reposeful character of Greek art; while, if we regard only their decorative function, we must admit that the excess of ornamental surface mars the effect of the buildings which they adorn. Along the path thus marked out, Roman art continued to progress; it is true that under the influence of Hadrian there was a brief renaissance of classicism which gave birth to the idealized type of Antinous, and to certain eclectic works which belong to Greek rather than to Roman art; but the historical reliefs which survive from the Antonine period, and more especially the sarcophagi, which reproduce scenes of Greek mythology with a close adherence to the letter but a fresh artistic spirit, show that the new leaven was at work. The main fact underlying the changes of the time was the loss of the true principles of plastic art, which even in Hellenistic times had become obscured by the introduction of pictorial methods into relief-sculpture. Colour, rather than form, now took the highest place in the gamut of artistic values. Painting, indeed, so far as our scanty knowledge goes, was not practised with conspicuous success; but the art of mosaic was carried to an extraordinary degree of technical perfection; and in strictly plastic art the choice of material was often determined by qualities of colour and transparency. For example, por- phyry, basalt and alabaster of various hues were used by the sculptor in preference to white marble; and new conventions, such as the plastic rendering of the iris and pupil of the eye, were dictated by the ever-growing need for contrasts of light and shadow. This great revolution in taste has been traced, and doubtless with justice, to the permeation of the Graeco- Roman world of the 2nd century by oriental ideas. The East has always preferred colour to form, and richness of ornament to significance of subject; and in art, as in religion, the West was now content to borrow. Roman official art, however, continued to produce the historical monuments which the achievements of the time demanded; but the principles of figure-composition were less fully grasped. The reliefs of the Aurelian Column form a less intelligible series than those of the Column of Trajan; and the panels of the Arch of Septimius Severus, with their bird's-eye perspective, have not inaptly been compared to Flemish tapestries. The extravagance and pomp of the dynasty founded by Septimius Severus filled Rome with such works as the art of the time could produce; and the busts of Caracalla show that in portraiture Roman crafts- men retained their cunning. Even during the anarchy which followed masterpieces such as the portrait of Philip the Arabian were produced; and during the reign of Gallienus (A D. 253-268), which saw the dismemberment of the Empire, there was a note- worthy outburst of artistic activity, whose products are seen in the naturalistic portraits of the emperor and the court.1 But by the close of the 3rd century a further transformation had taken place, which coincided with the political revolution by which the absolute monarchy of Diocletian succeeded to the principate of Augustus. The portraits of Constantine and his house can no longer be termed naturalistic; they are *It is very remarkable that the coin-portraits of the Gallic usurper Postumus (A.D. 258-68) are executed in precisely the same style ; the coins were struck either at Trier or at Cologne. monumental, both in scale and in conception, and, above all, their rigid " frontality " carries us back at a bound to the primitive art of the East. The classical standard set by the Greek genius had ceased to govern art, although the fund of types which Hellenism had created still furnished subjects to the artist, or was made the vehicle by which the new ideas derived from Christianity were expressed. The Roman spirit was still strong enough to maintain that interest in the human form and the representation of dramatic events which was lacking in the Oriental; but in the monuments of the Constan- tinian period, such as the narrow friezes of the Arch of Con- stantine, we can see nothing but the work of artists who had lost touch with true plastic principles, in spite of the ingenious arguments adduced by Riegl. If we are to seek for signs of progress, it must be rather in the domain of architecture, which had never ceased to make advances in dealing with the spatial and constructive problems presented by the great building works of the Empire; it was now called upon to face a fresh task in providing Christians with a fit place for public worship. In the solution of this problem the architects of the 4th century showed a wonderful fertility of resource; but to describe their achievements would be to pass the confines of Roman art in the proper sense of the word. (3) Individual Arts, (a) Architecture. — This branch of the subject may be studied in the article ARCHITECTURE, and illus- trations will be found in other articles (CAPITAL; COLUMN; ORDER; TRIUMPHAL ARCH; &c.). Architecture, regarded as a fine art, had been brought by the Greeks to the highest perfection of which it was capable under the limitations which they imposed upon themselves. The Greek temple appeals to the aesthetic sense by the simplicity and harmony of its proportions as well as by the rational correspondence between function and decoration in its several members. On these lines there was no room for progress. It is true that the Etruscans modified the type of the Greek temple and profoundly influenced Roman construction in this respect. The Etruscan temple was not approached on all sides by a low flight of steps, but raised on a high platform (podium) with a staircase in the front; it was broad in proportion to its depth, indeed, in many cases, square; and the temple itself (cello) was faced by a deep portico, which often occupied half the platform. Moreover, as the use of marble for building was unknown in early Italy, wood was employed in construction and terra-cotta in decoration, and this change of material led to a wider spacing of the columns than was possible in Greece. But these alterations in the system of proportions were disadvantageous to aesthetic effect; and the Romans — though they soon ceased (under the influence of the western Greeks) to build temples of purely " Tuscan " type — preserved certain of their features, such as the high platform and deep portico (see ARCHITECTURE, fig. 26). Nor can we regard as felicitous the design of certain Roman temples, such as that of Concord overlooking the Forum, and the sup- posed temple of Augustus (see ROME), which have a broad front (approached in the temple of Concord by a central portico) and narrow sides. The great temples of the Empire were (in general) inspired by Greek models, and need not therefore concern us; but we may notice Hadrian's peculiar design for the double temple of Venus and Rome, with twin cellae placed back to back. To the orders (see ORDER) of Greek architecture the Etruscans added the " Tuscan," a simplified Doric, of which an early example has been found at Pompeii, enclosed within the wall of the Casa del Fauno.2 This column, which can scarcely be later than the 6th century B.C., has a smooth shaft with pronounced entasis, a heavy capital with a scotia between abacus and echinus, and a plain circular base. To the Romans we owe the " Composite " crder, so called because it contains features distinctive of the Corinthian and Ionic orders (see ORDER, fig. 14). It is really a variety of the Corinthian, with Ionic volutes inserted in the capital; the earliest known example of its use is seen in the Arch of Titus. The Romans, moreover, made frequent use of the figured capital, which, as 2Romische Mitteilungen (1902), pi. vii. ROMAN ART PLATE L Photo, Alinari. FIG. i.— DOMITIUS AHENOBARBUS (SO CALLED). Photo, Anderson. FIG. 2.— SCIPIO AFRICANUS (SO CALLED). Photo, Alinari. FIG. 3.— UNKNOWN WOMAN. Photo, Alinari. FIG. 4.— VESPASIAN. Photo, F. Bruckmann, Munich. FIG. 5.— UNKNOWN PHYSICIAN. Photo, Ciraudon. FIG. 6.— ANTINOCS. Photo F. Bruckmann, Munich. FIG 7.— UNKNOWN ROMAN. XXIII. 476. Photo, Giraudon. FIG. 8.— GALLIENUS. Photo, F. Bruckmann, Munich. FIG. 9.— UNKNOWN MAN CENTURY). Photo, Giraudnn, FIG. io.— ALTAR OF D AUGUSTUS AND THE ROYAL FAMILY. CLAUDIA FIGS. 11-13.— PORTIONS OF THE DECO By permission of the Italu By permission of the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction. FIG. 14.— RELIEF FROM THE ARCH OF TITUS: TRIUMPH OF TITUS AND THE SPOILS OF JERUSALEM. ART PLATE H. TIUS AHENOBARBUS. IILY. DN OF THE ARA PACIS AUGUSTAE. stry of Public Instruction. THE EARTH GODDESS AND THE SPIRITS OF AIR AND WATER. / atom. i..— PILASTER. By permission of the Italian Ministry of PtMic In slruction. FIG. 16.— RELIEF FROM THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE: ROMAN CAVALRY CHARGE. PLATE III. ROMAN ART Photo, Anderson. FIG. 17.— CAESAR AUGUSTUS. Photo, Anderson. FIG. 18— MEDALLION, ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. Photo, A nderson. CONSTANTINE DISTRIBUTING A DOLE. Photo, Anderson. CONSTANTINE ON THE ROSTRUM. FIG. 19.— BAS-RELIEFS ON THE ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. ROMAN ART 477 the remains of Pompeii show, was an invention of the later Hellenistic age. Reduced copies of statues are found in the decoration of such capitals in the baths of Caracalla ; the capitals with Victories and trophies in S. Lorenzo Fuori also belonged to a building of pagan times. But the specific achievement of the Roman architect was the artistic application of a new set of principles — those which are expressed 'in the arch, the vault and the dome. The recti- linear buildings of the Greeks, with their direct vertical supports, gave place to vaulted structures in which lateral thrust was called into play. The aesthetic effect of the curves thus brought into prominence was well understood by the Romans; and they were the inventors of the decorative combination of the Greek orders with the arcade. More than this, the erection of vaults and domes of wide span, rendered possible by the use of concrete, gave to the Roman architect the opportunity of dealing artistically with internal spaces. A simple yet grandiose example of this may be found in the Pantheon of Hadrian. Circular buildings were a common feature in Italian archi- tecture;1 the temple of Vesta, which doubtless represented the primitive hut or dwelling of the king, always had this form, and the theme was repeated with many variations, from the well-known circular temple in the Forum Boarium to the fantastic structure with broken outlines at Baalbek. But in the Pantheon the artist lays stress, not on the exterior, which possesses no special effect, but on the interior, whose proportions are carefully determined and give a most impressive result. The same may be said of the great halls of the Imperial Thermae, and as time went on more elaborate architectural schemes were devised to meet the requirements of the Christian Church. (b) Sculpture. — It was pointed out above that in the late Republican period specifically Roman art was practically con- fined to portraiture. Of this we have many fine examples, such as the so-called Domitius Ahenobarbus of the Braccio Nuovo (Plate I. fig. i); and there is a series of busts which possess a special interest in that some of them have been claimed as portraits of Scipio Africanus. The example in the Museo Capitolino (Plate I. fig. 2), with a modern inscription, though executed in the 2nd century A.D., is clearly copied from a famous Republican original. The baldness of the head has been thought to be derived from the technique of the waxen imagines, in which the hair was painted; the presence of a scar above the temple, which has given rise to various theories, merely betokens the unsparing realism of the Republican artist. In monumental sculpture our earliest datable example is the altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus, already referred to (Plate II. fig. 10). The ceremonial scene of the suovetaurilia fills the centre of the composition; to the left we see the dismissal of veterans for whom diplomata are being prepared; to the right the troops on active service, both horse and foot, are represented. The artist was clearly inspired by statuary and other types of earlier date, which are grouped in a somewhat loose composition. Augustan art is adequately represented by the Prima Porta statue of the emperor, dis- covered in 1863 in the Villa of Livia and now in the Braccio Nuovo (Plate III. fig. 17). The attitude of the figure is that of an imperator addressing his army; but there is a character- istic blending of the real with the ideal, for the emperor is not only bareheaded but barefoot, and beside him is a tiny cupid riding on a dolphin, which indicates the descent of the Julian house from Venus. We note, too, how the Roman artist — or the Greek artist interpreting the wishes of the Roman — is scarcely more concerned for the total effect of his work than for the significant details of the decoration. The chasings of the corselet display, as a central subject, the restoration by the Parthian in 20 B.C. of the standards taken from Crassus at Carrhae (53 B.C.). Not content with this, the artist has added a group of personifications indicating sunrise — Sol, Caelus, Aurora and the goddess of the morning dew — as well as Apollo, Diana, Mars and the earth goddess, and two figures symbolical of the western provinces, Gaul and Spain. It is also to be 1 See Altmann, Die italischen Rundbauten (1906). noted that the statue shows abundant traces of its original polychrome tints — brown, yellow, blue, red and pink. It must have been executed later — probably not much later — than 13 B.C., when Augustus returned from the West, and therefore belongs to the same period as the Ara Pacis Augustae, dedicated January 30, 9 B.C. This altar stood in a walled enclosure with two entrances, measuring nj by ioj metres. The walls, with their plinth, were about 6 metres in height, and were decorated internally with a frieze of garlands and bucrania, and externally with two bands of relief, the lower consisting of conventional scrolls of acanthus varied with other floral motives, and teeming with bird and insect life, the upper showing processions (Plate II. fig. n) passing from east to west. The most interesting of these is that on the south wall, which included Augustus himself, the flamines and the imperial family.2 On the western face, towards which the processions are directed, we find a scene of sacrifice, with a landscape background, in which the ideal figures of senate and people appear. To the east front (apparently) belongs the beautiful group of the earth goddess (Tellus) and the spirits of air and water (Plate II. fig. 13). It is impossible to deny the incongruity of this composition with the realistic procession which adjoins it, and we can only suppose that the artist bor- rowed the group from some Hellenistic precursor and used it in that blend of the real and ideal which, as we saw, was the keynote of the new imperial art. The lack of public monuments which can be assigned to the Julio-Claudian period is only in part supplied by those of private significance; the most important of these are the sepulchral cippi and other altars, decorated sometimes with figure-subjects, but largely with plant and animal forms rendered with the utmost naturalism. The altar with plane- leaves in the Museo delle Terme (fig. 38), though perhaps not Redrawn from a photo by Anderson. FIG. 38. — Altar with Plane-leaves. later than Augustus, is typical of the spirit in which vegetable forms were treated under the first dynasty. We may take a female portrait discovered in a ist-century house on the right bank of the Tiber (Plate I. fig. 3) as an example of the por- traiture of this period, which shows great technical merit but a touch of conventionality. The sculpture of the Flavian period finds its best-known example in the reliefs of the Arch of Titus. This has but a single archway; the piers had no sculptured decoration, and the narrow frieze which surmounts the architrave is perfunc- torily executed. But the long panels on either side of the passage, which represent the triumph of Titus and the spoils of Jerusalem, have been deemed (by Wickhoff) worthy of a place in the history of art beside the masterpieces of Velazquez —the " Hilanderas " and the " Surrender of Breda "; and * Some doubt has recently been cast on the identification of the emperor and his family. ROMAN ART though we cannot subscribe to his view that the artist calculated the effect of natural illumination upon the relief, it remains true that they are eminently pictorial compositions in respect of their depth of focus, yet without sacrifice of plastic effect (Plate II. fig. 14). So far as bas-relief is concerned, the problem of representing form in open space is here solved. Equally admirable in technique, though of less historical importance, are the circular medallions (tondi) which now adorn the Arch of Constantine, but originally belonged (as the present writer has shown)1 to a monument of the Flavian period, perhaps the " temple of the Flavian house " erected by Domitian. The one shown (Plate III. fig. 18) is remarkable in that the head of the emperor has been replaced by a portrait, not of Constantine, but (in all probability) of Claudius Gothicus (A.D. 268-70), who was the first to divert these sculptures from their original destination. Flavian portraits,2 of which two are here figured, — a bust of Vespasian in the Museo delle Terme (Plate I. fig. 4) and a bust, now in the Lateran, found in the tomb of the Haterii, which, as is shown by the snake, represents a physician (Plate I. fig. 5), — must rank as the masterpieces of Roman art. Their extraordinarily lifelike character is due to the fact that the artist, without accumulating unnecessary detail, has contrived to catch the characteristic expression of his subject, and to render it with the utmost technical virtuosity. These portraits differ from the works of the Greek masters, who always subordinated the individual to the type, and therefore gave a less complete impression of reality than the Roman artists. The same tendency has been noted in ornamental work which may be dated to the Flavian period. Wickhoff selected a pilaster from the monument of the. Haterii (Plate II. fig. 15) upon which a column entwined with roses is carved. The flowers are not in fact represented with precise fidelity to nature, but the illusion of reality is no less great than in more accurately worked examples. Roman sculpture soon passed the zenith of its achievement. We are not able to assign any historical monuments to the earlier years of Trajan's reign, but the portraits of the emperor betray a certain hardness of touch which makes them less interesting than those of the Flavian period. To the latter part of the reign belong a number of monuments which represent Trajanic art at its best. First and foremost come the reliefs, colossal in scale, which appear to have decorated the walls of Trajan's Forum. Four slabs were removed by Constantine's order and used to adorn the central passage and the shorter sides of the attic of his arch. The first of these (Plate II. fig. 16) shows the victorious charge of the Roman cavalry, with the emperor at its head, against their Dacian enemies. Other fragments of this frieze are extant in the Louvre,3 and a much-restored relief, walled up in the garden of the Villa Medici, shows a Dacian on horseback swimming the Danube with Trajan's Bridge in the background. The composition of the battle-scene is very fine, and the heads of the Dacians are full of character; but, although details of armour, &c., are carefully and accurately reproduced, we see clear signs of technical decadence, both in the fact that the human eye is in many cases represented as though in full face on heads which are shown in profile, and also in the naive attempt to render several files of troops in perspective by means of superposed rows of heads.4 The reliefs of the spiral 1 Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. iii. pp. 229 ff. Sieve- king (Rom. Mitth. (1907) pp. 345 ff.) believes that four of the medallions only belong to the Flavian period and the rest to Hadrian's reign. 2 On this subject see Mr Crowfoot's paper in Journal of Hellenic Studies, xx. (1900) pp. 31 ff. A list of examples is given by Mr Wace in Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. iii. pp. 290 ff. 3 Mr Wace has recently identified the reliefs which show an emperor sacrificing before the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus as a part of the frieze (Papers of the British School at Rome, iv. pp. 229 ff.). 4 These features make it clear that the reliefs in the Villa Borghese, formerly supposed to belong to an arch of Claudius, are Trajanic; see Papers of the British School at Rome, iii. pp. 215 ff. (Stuart Jones). column in the Basilica Ulpia tell the same tale. The designer borrowed certain motives from Hellenistic art; e.g. we find the suicide of the Dacian king Decebalus represented in precisely the same way as that of a Gallic chief on the well- known sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum representing a battle between Greeks and Gauls; again, the symmetry of the scene in which the fall of Sarmizegetusa (the Dacian capital) is depicted recalls that of Greek monuments — particularly the painting of the fall of Troy by Polygnotus, described by Pausanias at Delphi. But the loving care with which the arms and accoutrements of the Roman troops — both regular and irregular — are rendered 6 betrays the nationality of the artist; and his technical deficiencies, especially in the matter of perspective, point in the same direction. It seems probable, moreover, that the artistic conception of a column ornamented with a band of relief was new, and that the designer had to find his own solution for the problem. We find, in fact, that he tells his story in more than one way: (a) Considerable portions of the narrative, e.g. Trajan's march in the opening campaign, consist in a series of isolated and successive scenes; the divisions are usually marked by some conventional means, such as the insertion of a tree, or a change of direction in the action. (b) At other times the scenes unfold themselves against a continuous background, and merge almost insensibly into those which succeed them; to this form of narrative the term " continuous style," brought into use by Wickhoff, more properly applies, (c) The direct progress of the narrative is sometimes broken by passages which can only be called " panoramic "; the great composition showing the siege and fall of Sarmizegetusa falls under this head, and the " con- tinuous " narration of Trajan's journey at the outset of the second war is followed by an extensive panorama illustrating the operations in Moesia in A.D. 105. The reliefs (as already indicated) tell the story of both of Trajan's wars with the Dacians, a formal division between the two narratives being made by a figure of Victory setting up a trophy; and the design of the second series shows a decided advance in artistic and dramatic effect on that of the first. Clearly the artist learnt the laws of composition applicable to his problem in the course of his work. Before leaving the Trajanic period a word must be said as to the arch erected at Benevento (see TRIUMPHAL ARCH, fig. 2), from which point a new road — the Via Trajana — ran to Brun- disium. The inscription on this arch bears the date A.D. 114, but the prominence given to Hadrian has led to the supposition that the reliefs were executed after his accession. We have already noted that the use of relief as ornament is here carried to excess in the artist's desire to present a summary of Trajan's achievements at home and abroad.6 The arrangement of the panels is calculated and significant. On the side which faces the town of Benevento the subjects have reference to Trajan's work in Rome. On the attic we see, to the left, a group of gods with the Capitoline triad — Jupiter, Juno and Minerva — in the foreground; to the right, Trajan welcomed at the entrance to the Capitol by the goddess Roma, the penates and the con- suls. He is accompanied by Hadrian, who is designated by the gesture of Roma as the emperor's successor. The two lowest panels likewise form a single picture. To the right Trajan appears at the entrance of the Forum, where he is welcomed by the praefectus urbi; to the left, with the Curia as background, we see the representatives of senate, knights and people. The central panels symbolize the military and civil aspects of Trajan's government — veterans to left, merchants to right, are the recipients of imperial favour. On the other 6 Thus Cichorius, in his publication of the reliefs, has been able to identify several of the corps which took part in the war; e.g. the " cohorts of Roman citizens " are distinguished from the bar- barian auxiliaries by the national emblems on their shields. 6 The significance of these reliefs was first demonstrated by Domaszewski (Jahreshefte des osterreichischen archdologischen Instituts, ii. 1899, pp. 173 ff.); a full account will be found in Mrs Strong's Roman Sculpture, ch. 9. ROMAN ART 479 face of the arch we have a series of panels relating to Trajan's work in the provinces. On the attic the gods of the Danube provinces appear to the left, the submission of Mesopotamia on the right; the lowest panels represent negotiations with Ger- mans (left) and Parthians (right); in the centre (as on the other face) we have a military scene (recruiting in the provinces) to left, balancing the foundation of colonies and growth of the proles Romana on the right. As the above description will show, this arch is, in respect of its significance, the most im- portant monument of Roman historical art. Technically, the reliefs fall somewhat short of the best work of the Flavian period — the long panels of the archway, which represent a sacrifice offered by Trajan and his benefactions to the municipia of Italy, have not the verse of those from the Arch of Titus, but are at least as fine as the works executed for Trajan's Forum. With the accession of Hadrian — the " Greekling," as he was called by his contemporaries — a short-lived renaissance of classicism set in. The eclectic modifications of Greek statuary types which it called forth do not fall within our province; but it should be noticed that in portraiture the most important work of this period was the idealized type of Antinous, here represented by a famous example (Plate I. fig. 6) in the Louvre, which invests the favourite of Hadrian with a divinity expressed in the terms of Hellenic art as well as a pathos which belongs to his own time.1 The historical monuments of this and the following reign are few in number, and lack the preg- nancy of meaning and vigour of execution which distinguish those of the Trajanic period; mention may be made of three reliefs in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, one of which represents the apotheosis of an empress, and of the panels in the Palazzo Rondinini shown by the analogy of a medallion of Antoninus Pius to belong to his time. .This is also the place to take note of the ideal figures symbolical of the subject peoples of the Empire. Under Trajan Roman sculptors had produced the fine statues of Dacian captives which now adorn the Arch of Con- stantine; to the Hadrianic period belong the idealized figures of provinces, classical in pose and motive, several of which arc in the Palazzo de Conservatori.2 We pass on to the period of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus, in which Roman art underwent a further transformation. The earliest monument of the time which calls for our attention is the base of the column (now destroyed) erected in honour of Antoninus Pius. Two of its faces are here shown (Plate IV. figs. 21 and 22), and the contrast is remarkable between the classicistic representation of the apotheosis of Antoninus and Faustina, witnessed by the ideal figures of Rome and the Campus Martius (holding an obelisk), and the realistic treatment of the decursio, a ceremony performed by detachments of the prae- torian guard on horse and foot. We note the endeavour of the Roman sculptor to express more than his medium will allow, and his inadequate grasp of the laws of proportion and per- spective. Discarding the classical standard and its conven- tions, the artist disposes his figures like a child's toys, and, when confronted with the problem of the background, waves it aside and reduces the indication of the place of action to a few projecting ledges on which his puppets are supported. The reliefs of the Column of Marcus Aurelius suffer by comparison with those of Trajan's Column. The story which the designer had to tell was doubtless less definite in outline; we cannot trace, as in the former instance, the march of events towards a dramatic climax, and there is some reason to think that, although the two bands of relief, separated (as on Trajan's Column) by a figure of Victory, correspond generally with the " Germanic " and " Sarmatic " wars of Marcus down to A.D. 175, the narrative is not strictly chronological; thus the fall of rain ascribed by Christian tradition to the prayers of the " Thundering " Legion 1 It is in the portraits of the Hadrianic period that we first meet with the plastic rendering (in marble) of the iris and pupil of the eye ; on the significance of this convention see above. 2 On these see Lucas's article in Jahrb. des k. deutschen arch. Instituts (1900), pp. I ff., and Mrs Strong, Roman Sculpture, pp. 243 ff. (Plate IV. fig. 24) is represented at a very early stage, whereas our historians place it towards the close of the war. The figures are smaller and at the same time more crowded than those upon Trajan's Column, and the landscape is less intelli- gently rendered. The type of the rain-god, which is without doubt the creation of the Roman sculptor, is boldly conceived but scarcely artistic. Still the reliefs show that the designers of the time were making vigorous efforts to think for them- selves, and for this reason possess a higher value than the more conventional panels now distributed between the attic of the Arch of Constantine and the Palazzo dei Conservatori, which seem to have decorated a triumphal arch set up in or after A.D. i y6.3 The portraiture of the time also shows the invasion of new principles. Even before the reign of Marcus we find a tendency to emphasize the contrast between hair and flesh, the face often showing signs of high polish. In the latter half of the 2nd century the contrast is heightened by a new method of treating the hair, which is rendered as a mass of curls deeply undercut and honeycombed with drill-holes; a fine example is the Commodus of the Palazzo dei Conservatori. The aim of the sculptor is to obtain an ornamental effect by the violent contrast of light and dark — an adaptation for the purposes of plastic art of the chiaroscuro which more properly belongs to painting. This tendency may be seen at work in all branches of sculpture. The sarcophagi of the Antonine and later periods, with their crowded compositions and deep shadows, have the same pictorial effect; and in pure ornament the vivid illusion ism of Flavian art disappears, and, though plant-forms are lavishly used — from the time of Trajan onwards we note a growing distaste for pure outlines, which are hidden beneath all-per- vading acanthus foliage — the interest of the sculptor comes to lie more and more in intricacy of pattern, pro- duced by the complemen- tary effect of lights and shadows. An instance of this may be found in a pilaster now in the Lateran Museum (fig. 39), which Wickhoff justly contrasts with the rose-pillar from the monu- ment of the Haterii. It is all-important to remember that (as Strzygowski has pointed out) 4 it is not true shadow which is contrasted with the high lights in later Roman ornament; if so, the plastic effect of the free members would be height- ened, whereas the reverse is actually the case, for even the figures on sarco- phagi, worked in the round though they be, do not stand out from the back- ground— which indeed is practically abolished — but seem rather to form ele- ments in a pattern. The reason is that pure darkness is set off against lights, and the whole surface being thus broken remains no impression of depth. Under Septimius Severus and his successors, Roman art drifts steadily in its new direction. The reliefs of his arch at the entrance to the Forum represent the emperor's campaigns in the East in a compromise between bird's-eye perspective and the " continuous " style which cannot be called successful; 1 This series of panels is discussed in Papers of the British School at Rome, vol. iii. p. 251 ff. 4 Jahrbuch der preussischen Kunstsammlungen (1904), p. 271. (Drawn from photo, Mosckmi ) FIG. 39. — Pilaster with Oak Leaf Ornament. the high up, there 480 ROMAN ART a better example of the art of this period is to be seen in the relief (Plate IV. fig. 20) now in the Palazzo Sacchetti, recently published by Mr A. J. B. Wace,1 which probably represents the presentation of Caracalla to the senate as the destined successor of his father. The squat figures of the senators, their grouping, which, though not lacking in naturalism and a certain effective- ness, is not in its main lines aesthetic, and the lavish use of deeply drilled ornament, are features which leave no doubt as to the period to which this work should be assigned. Rome, however, could still boast a school of portrait-sculptors, whose work was of no ordinary merit. The bronze statue of Sep- timius Severus, which passed into the Somzee collection, has been pronounced by Furtwangler to be of much earlier date, except for the head of the emperor, and we cannot therefore feel confidence in using it as a measure of the artistic achieve- ments of Severus's reign; but the busts of Caracalla, which represent the tyrant in his later years, are masterly both in conception and in execution. In the second quarter of the 3rd century A.D., when the Empire was torn by internal strife, threatened in its very existence by the inroads of barbarism, and hastening towards economic ruin, art could no longer flourish, and monuments of sculpture become scarce, if we except portraits and sar- cophagi. The busts of this period are easily distinguished by the treatment of the hair and beard, which seem to have been closely clipped, and are indicated by a multitude of fine chisel strokes on a roughened surface. But, rough as these technical methods may seem, the artists of the time used them with wonderful effect, and the portraits of the emperor Philip (A. D. 244-49) m the Braccio Nuovo, and an unknown Roman in the Capitoline Museum (Plate I. fig. 7), are hardly to be surpassed in their delineation of craft and cruelty. Amongst the sarcophagi of the 3rd century we select, in preference to those adorned with scenes of Greek mythology, the fine example in the Museo delle Terme (formerly in the Ludovisi collection) decorated with a melee of Romans and Orientals (Plate IV. fig. 23); the principal figure — whose portrait is also to be seen in the Capitoline Museum — has been identified by Mr A. H. S. Yeames as C. Furius Sabinius Aquila Timesitheus, the minister and father-in-law of Gordian III. (d. A.D. 244). Even after the middle of the century, when the Empire was for a time dismembered, portrait-sculpture put forth fresh evidences of life and vigour. Gallienus, who was himself a dilettante and doubtless largely endowed with personal vanity, seems to have called into being a naturalistic school of sculptors, who harked back to the models of the later Antonine period, so that it is not always easy to distinguish the busts of his time from those of a much earlier date. The Louvre bust of the emperor (Plate I. fig. 8) will serve as a type of these works. But this singular renaissance was as short-lived as the eclectic revival of classicism under Hadrian. It is remarkable that the portrait of Gallienus is the last which can be identified by truly individual traits. The period of storm and stress which followed his death has left little or no monumental material for the historian of sculpture; and when the curtain again rises on the art of the new monarchy founded by Diocletian and perfected by Constantine, we seem to move in a new world. The East has triumphed over the West. Just as in Egyptian and, speaking generally, in all oriental art, before the revela- tion of true plastic principles, which we owe to the Greek genius, the law of " frontality " was universally operative, i.e. the pose of sculptured figures was rigidly symmetrical and without lateral curvature, so the portraits of Constantine and his successors are discerned at a glance by their stiff pose and fixed and stony stare. The fact is that the secret of organic structure has been lost; the bust (or statue) is no longer a true portrait, a block of marble made to pulsate with the life of the subject represented, but a monument. It was thus that the absolute monarchs of the Empire, before whom their subjects prostrated themselves in mute adoration, preferred to 1 Papers of the British School at Rome, iv. pi. xxxiv., from which fig. 15 is taken. be portrayed; and we cannot help recalling Ammianus's description2 of the entry of Constantius II. into Rome (A.D. 356). The emperor rode in a golden chariot, turning his head neither to the right nor to the left, but gazing impassively before him " tanquam figmentum hominis." The description fits such a portrait as that of an unknown personage of the 4th century in the Capitoline Museum (Plate I. fig. 9), which has found a panegyrist in Riegl. It remains to note that the narrow bands of relief on the Arch of Constantine, some of which probably date from the reign of Diocletian,3 partake of the same monumental character as the single statues of the time. Where the nature of the subject permits, as in the case of the reliefs here represented (Plate III. fig. 19), the frontality of the central figure, and the strict symmetry of the grouping, which imparts an almost geometrical regularity to the main lines of the composition, are calculated for architectonic rather than for plastic effect. The breath of organic life has ceased to inspire the marble. We have confined ourselves in the above section to tracing the course of development in what we may call official Roman sculpture, represented in the main, as is natural, by the monuments of the capital. The products of local schools cannot here be treated in detail. The difficult problems which they raise are best illustrated by the case of " Trajan's trophy " at Adam-Klissi in the Dobruja. Although the very name of the monument might seem to furnish sufficient evidence of its date, the late Professor Furtwangler stoutly maintained that Trajan did but restore a monument dating from 29 B.C.* He called attention to the uniformity in style of the grave- monuments of soldiers from north Italy, serving in the legions of the Rhine and Danube; these date from the early imperial period, and represent (according to Furtwangler) a traditional " legionary style." It may be admitted that they are eminently Italian in their hard realistic character; but the tradition was not extinct in the Trajanic period, so that the analogy between these monuments and its rudely carved figures is inconclusive, and the ornament of the trophy, which is far from being homogeneous, contains, as Studniczka5 has observed, oriental elements which could not possibly be found in sculpture of the ist century B.C. Local tradition may also be traced, e.g. in southern France, where the Hellenic influence which penetrated by way of Massilia was still strongly felt under the Julio-Claudian dynasty, as the sculptures of the tomb of the Julii at St Remy and the triumphal arches of Orange and Carpentras suffice to prove. Gallo-Roman art, on the other hand, has a physiognomy of its own, whose outlines have been traced by M. Salomon Reinach (Antiquites nationales; bronzes figures de la Gaule romaine, Introduction). In the Rhineland we find, at a later period, a singular school of realistic sculptors at work; the museum at Trier contains a number of their grave-monuments decorated with scenes of daily life.6 Nor must we omit to mention the Palmyrene sculptors of the 3rd century A.D., whose portrait-statues give us the clue to the origin of the " frontal " style of the Constantinian period.7 (c) Painting and Mosaic. — The arts whose proper medium is colour enjoyed a popularity with the ancients and with the Romans, no less than with the Greeks, at least as great as that of sculpture; we need go no further for evidence of this than the statement of Pliny8 that Julius Caesar paid eighty talents (£20,000) for the " Ajax and Medea " of Timomachus of Byzantium, which he placed in his newly built forum. But we are in a difficult position when we try 2 Amm. Marc. xvi. 10. 10. 3 See Mr Wace's article in Papers of the British School at Rome, iv. pp. 270 ff. 4 His view is accepted by Mrs Strong (Roman Sculpture, p. 99). 6 " Tropaeum Trajani " (Abhandlungen der sacks. Gesellsch. der Wissenschaften, xxii., pp. 88 ff.). 6 Hettner, Illustrierter Fiihrer durch das National Museum zu Trier (1903), pp. 2 ff. ' Some fine examples are in the Jacobsen collection ; see Arndt- Bruckmann, Griechische und romiscne Portraits, pis. 59, 60. 8 H.N. xxxv. 136. ROMAN ART PLATE IV. By permission oftlte British School of Rome. FIG. 20.— PRESENTATION OF CARACALLA TO THE SENATE. Photo, Afoscioni. FIG. 21.— BASE OF COLUMN OF ANTONINUS. Photo, Mosciani. FIG. 22.— BASE OF COLUMN OF ANTONINUS. By permission of the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction. FIG. 23.— MELEE OF ROMANS AND ORIENTALS, FROM A SARCOPHAGUS. Photo, Anderson. FIG. 24.— DETAIL OF THE COLUMN OF ANTONINUS. PLATE V. ROMAN ART From Richter & Taylor's Golden Ay of Classic Christian A rl, by permission of the authors and Duckworth & Co. FIG. 25.— MOSAIC, SHOWING CLOUD AND SKY EFFECTS. Photo , Sansaini. FIG. 26.— FRESCO: ODYSSEUS AMONG THE SHADES. Pholo, Brogl. FIG. 27.— FRESCO FROM POMPEII: EVENING BENEDICTION IN FRONT OF THE TEMPLE OF ISIS. Photo, Anderson. FIG. 28.— FRESCO: THE MARRIAGE OF ALDOBRANDINI ROMAN ART 481 to estimate the artistic value of the masterpieces of ancient painting, since time has destroyed the originals, and it is but rarely that . we can even recover the outlines of a famous composition from decorative reproductions. For the history of Greek painting we have in Pliny's Natural History a fairly full literary record; but this fails us when we come to Roman times, nor do original works, worthy to be ranked with the monuments of Roman historical sculpture, supply the want. Painting in Italy was throughout its early history dependent on Greek models, and reflected the phases through which the art passed in Greece. Thus the frescoes which adorn the walls of Etruscan chamber-tombs show an unmistakable analogy with Attic vase-paintings. The neutral background, the use of conventional flesh-tones, and the predominant interest shown by the artists in line as opposed to colour, clearly point to the source of their inspiration; and the fine sarcophagus at Florence1 depicting a combat between Greeks and Amazons, in which we first trace the use of naturalistic flesh-tints, though it bears an Etruscan inscription, can hardly have been the handiwork of native artists. Roman tradition tells of early wall-paintings at Ardea and Lanuvium, which existed " before the foundation of Rome";2 of these the Etruscan frescoes mentioned above may serve to give some impression. We also hear of Fabius Pictor, who earned his cognomen by decorating the temple of Salus on the Quirinal (302 B.C.); and a few more names are preserved by Pliny on account of the trivial anecdotes which attached to them. The chief works of specifically Roman painting in Republican times (other than the frescoes which adorned the walls of temples) were those exhibited by successful generals on the occasion of a triumph; thus we hear that in 263 B.C. M. Valerius Messalla was the first to display in the Curia Hostilia such a battle-piece, representing his victory over Hiero II. of Syracuse and the Carthaginians.3 We may perhaps form some idea of these paintings from the fragment of a fresco discovered in a sepulchral vault on the Esquiline in i88g,4 which appears to date from the 3rd century B.C4. This painting represents scenes from a war between the Romans and an enemy who may almost certainly (from their equipment) be identified as Samnites; the names of the commanders are indicated, and amongst them is a Q. Fabius, probably Q. Fabius Maximus Rullianus, who played a part in the third Samnite War. The scenes are superposed in tiers; the background is neutral, the colour- scale simple, and there is but little attempt at perspective; but we note the files of superposed heads in the representation of an army, which are found at a later date in Trajanic sculpture. We pass from this isolated example of early Roman painting to the decorative frescoes of Rome, Herculaneum and Pompeii, which introduce us to the new world conquered by Hellenistic artists. The scheme of colour is no longer conventional, but natural flesh- tints and local colour are employed; the " artist understands," as Wickhoff puts it, how to " concentrate the picture in space " instead of isolating the figures on a neutral background; he struggles (not always successfully) with the difficult problems of linear and aerial perspective, and contrives in many instances to give " atmosphere " to his scene; the modelling of his figures is often excellent; finally, he can, when need requires, produce an effective sketch by compendious methods. It must be premised that this style of wall-decora- tion was a new thing in the Augustan period. In the Hellenistic age the walls of palaces were veneered with slabs of many- coloured marble (crustae); and in humbler dwellings these were imitated in fresco. This " incrustation " style is found in a few houses at Pompeii, such as the Casa di Sallustio, built in the 2nd century B.C.; but before the fall of the Republic it had given place to what is known as the " architectural " style. In this the painter is no longer content to reproduce in stucco 1 Journal of Hell. Stud. iv. (1883), pis. xxxvi.-xxxviii. 2 Pliny, H.N. xxxv. 18. ' Ibid. xxxv. 22. * Bullettino Comunale (1889), pis. xi. xii. xxin. 16 the marble decoration of more sumptuous rooms; by intro- ducing columns and other architectural elements he endeavours to give the illusion of outer space, and this is heightened by the landscapes, peopled, it may be, with figures, which form the background. We shall take as an example of such decoration one of the " Odyssey landscapes " discovered on the Esquiline in 1849; these may be amongst the more recent works of this school, but can scarcely, from the character of their surroundings, be later than the reign of Claudius. Amongst the remains of a large private house was a room whose walls were decorated in their upper portion with painted pilasters treated in perspective, through which the spectator appears to look out on a continuous background of land and sea, which is diversified by scenes from the voyage of Odysseus. It is clearly to such works as these that Vitruvius refers in a well-known passage (vii. 5) where, in describing the wall-paintings of his time, he speaks of a class of " paintings on a large scale which represent images of the gods or unfold mythical tales in due order, as well as the battles of Troy or the wanderings of Odysseus through landscapes (topia)." And it is* worthy of note that in a chamber discovered in the 1 8th century below the Flavian state-rooms on the Palatine (see ROME) the tale of Troy seems to have been represented in a very similar manner; drawings of the panel on which the landing of Helen is depicted have been preserved. Of the eight scenes from the Odyssey found on the Esquiline three represent the ad venture- in the country of the Laestrygones; the third forms a transition from this subject to the visit of Odysseus to Circe, which occupies the fourth and fifth panels;' the' two last depict Odysseus among the shades. The second of these, which is here reproduced (Plate V. fig. 26), is only half as wide as the others, and was probably next to a door or window. It is, however, typical in style and treatment. The artist is mainly interested in the landscape, which is sketched with great freedom and br.eadth of treatment. He has clearly no scientific know- ledge of perspective, and commits the natural error of placing the horizon too high. His figures are identified by Greek inscriptions, and we see that artistic considerations weigh more highly with him than close adherence to his poetical text; for the group of the Danaids in the foreground has no counterpart in the Homeric description. The conventional distinction of flesh-tints between the sexes is to be observed. The use of landscape in decoration is expressly stated by Pliny (H.N. xxxv. 1 16) to have become fashionable in Rome in the time of Augustus. He attributes this to a painter named Studius, who decorated walls with " villas, harbours, landscape gardens, groves, woods, hills, fish-ponds, canals, rivers, shores," and so forth, diversified with figures of " persons on foot or in boats, approaching the villas by land on donkeys or in carriages, as well as fishers and fowlers, hunters and even vintagers." Vitruvius, too, in the passage above quoted, speaks of " harbours, capes, shores, springs, straits, temples, groves, mountains, cattle and herdsmen "; and existing paintings fully confirm the statements of ancient writers. In the Villa of Livia at Prima Porta the walls of a room are painted in imitation of a park; from the Villa of Fannius Synistor at Bosco Reale we have a variety of landscapes and perspectives; and in the house dis- covered in the grounds of the Villa Farnesina by the Tiber we find a room decorated with black panels, upon which landscapes exactly conforming to Pliny's description are sketched in with brush-strokes of white. While we have no reason to dispute the accuracy of Pliny's statement, or to refuse credit to the Roman artist for the development of landscape decoration, it is to be noted that the summary methods of impressionist technique which are here employed are probably traceable to Alexandrian influence. Petronius, who puts into the mouth of one of his characters a lament over the decline of art, attributes the de- cadence of painting to the " audacity of the Egyptians " and their discovery of " a short cut to high art " (tarn magnae artis compendiaria). This has been thought to mean no more than the process of fresco-painting, which led to the substitution of 1 The latter of these is so badly preserved that the subject cannot be precisely identified. 482 ROMAN ART mere wall-decoration for elaborate easel-paintings; but this was no new invention. It has been pointed out by Mrs Strong1 that amongst the wall-paintings of Pompeii we can distinguish a group executed in bold dashes of colour — especially white — according to the principles of modern impressionism. The most striking example of this betrays its source of inspiration by its subject — the ceremony of the evening benediction in front of the temple of Isis (Plate V. fig. 27). So far the paintings which we have considered can only be regarded as an extremely ingenious and, in the main, tasteful form of wall-decoration; they tell us little of that which we most wish to know— the style and treatment of substantive works of painting. The gap is in some measure filled by the central panels of Pompeian walls, which are usually adorned with subject-paintings, often mythological in subject, clearly marked off from the rest of the wall and intended to take the place of pictures. In the Architectural style these are usually framed in a species of pavilion or aedicula, painted in per- spective;2 but this motive gradually loses its importance. In the Third style ("ornate") distinguished by -Mau the architectural design ceases to be intelligible as the counterfeit of real construction, and becomes a purely conventional scheme of decoration; and in the Fourth or Intricate style, which again reverts to true architectural forms, however fantastic and bewildering in their complexity, the figure-subjects are plainly conceived as pictures and framed with a simple band of colour. The subjects of these frescoes are for the most part taken from Greek mythology, and it has been argued that in the main we have to deal with reproductions of Hellenistic paintings rather than of contemporary works of art. It is not to be denied that the motives of famous compositions of earlier date may have found their way into the repertory of the Pompeian artists; it is not unnatural, for example, to conjecture that the figure of Medea here reproduced (Plate VI. fig. 30) may have been inspired by the celebrated painting of Timomachus above-mentioned. But there are reasons for thinking that the debt owed by the Pompeian artists to the Greek schools of the Hellenistic age is not so direct as was believed by Helbig, whose Untersuchungen ilber die kampan- ische W andmalerei won a general acceptance for the theory. It seems clear that in the central subjects of walls decorated in the Architectural style we are intended to see, not a picture in the strict sense, but a view of the outside landscape, gener- ally with a small shrine or cult-statue as the centre of the piece; and the importance of the figure-subject was therefore at first subordinate. These subjects are, it is true, taken from Greek mythology, but this only proves that that source of inspiration was as freely drawn upon in the art as in the litera- ture of imperial Rome. In the later styles figure-subjects without landscape are extremely common, but it has been shown that, e.g. in the triclinium of the Casa dei Vettii, which is decorated with a cycle of mythological paintings, the lighting is carefully calculated with a view to illusionistic effect under the local conditions, so that the conception of an outlook into external space is not given up. We sometimes, as in one of the rooms in the " Farnesina " house, find framed pictures directly imitated, and here the models were clearly of a re- latively early period; but this is exceptional. The Pompeian paintings, therefore, may fairly be used as evidence for the methods and aims of art in imperial Rome; and when allowance is made for their decorative character and hasty execution, we must admit that they give token of considerable technical skill — the modelling of figures is often excellent, the colour- scale rich, the " values " nicely calculated. The composition of subject-pictures is somewhat theatrical.. Amongst the wall- paintings which have been preserved are some which from their classicistic style have been thought to represent Greek originals; the most famous is the " Aldobrandini Marriage " (Plate V. fig. 28), now in the Vatican library. As a matter 1 The Elder Pliny's Chapters on the History of Art, p. 238. 2 The most striking example is that from the " House of Livia " on the Palatine. of fact, the composition is formed by the juxtaposition of sculpturesque types, after a fashion familiar to Roman wall- painters. Mention may here be made of the combination of ornamental work in plaster with painting which is found at Pompeii, in the work of the Flavian period at Rome, and in tombs of the 2nd century A.D. In the Augustan period we find exquisitely modelled relief-work in plaster, used to ornament vaulted surfaces in the " Farnesina " house; it might seem natural to treat of these under the heading of Sculpture, but in point of fact they are translations from painting into stucco. At a later time both painter and modeller worked in conjunction, with admirable effect; the results are best seen in the tombs on the Latin Way. Little can be said as to Roman portrait-painting. We know that in this branch of art the technique generally used was that called " encaustic." The colours were mixed with liquefied wax and fixed by heat; whether they were applied in a molten state or not has been disputed, but it seems more likely that the pigments were laid on cold, and a hot instrument used afterwards. Several examples of such wax-paintings have been found in Egypt, where it was the custom during the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D. to substitute panel portraits for the plastic masks with which mummy-cases were adorned; but these cannot be described as works of high art, though they sometimes have realistic merit. A good example in the Berlin Museum (Antike Denkmaler, ii. pi. 13) is executed in tempera on primed canvas. The medium used in ancient as in medieval tempera painting appears from the statements of ancient writers to have been yolk of egg mixed with fig-sap or natural gums. To the little we know of purely Roman painting something is added by that which we learn from the remains of the sister art of mosaic, which, being less easily destroyed, have survived in large numbers to the present day. It has been estimated by Gauckler that considerably more than 2000 mosaics with figure-subjects have been discovered; and the number is steadily increasing. For the origin of the art reference may be made to the article MOSAIC, where the reader will also find an explanation of the essential differences of principle between the arts of painting and mosaic. It is to the credit of the Roman artists that they were, generally speaking, alive to this distinction of method, and did not seek to produce the impres- sion of painting executed with a liquid medium by the use of solid materials. Indeed, it seems not improbable that in this respect they had a truer conception of the function of mosaic decoration than their Greek forerunners. Amongst the mosaics of Roman date which employ a large number of exceedingly minute cubes in order to produce an illusion akin to that of painting, the most conspicuous examples are the pavement in the Lateran Museum signed by the Greek Heraclitus, which appears to reproduce the " unswept hall " of Sosos of Per- gamum (see MOSAIC), and the Mosaic of the Doves from Hadrian's Villa, preserved in the Capitoline Museum, which may be supposed to have been inspired by the "drinking dove" of the same artist. The former of these contains about 1 20, the latter as many as 160 cubes to the square inch. As shown in the article MOSAIC, a distinction must be drawn between opus tessellatum, consisting of cubes regularly disposed in geometrical patterns, and opus vermiculalum, in which a picture is produced by means of cubes irregularly placed. The two methods were commonly used in conjunction by the Romans, who recognized that a pavement should emphasize the form of the room to which it belonged by means of a geometrical border, while figure-subjects should be reserved for the central space. A good example is furnished by a mosaic pavement discovered on the Aventine^in 1858, and preserved in the Museo delle Terme (Plate VI. fig. 29). Enclosed within a geometrical framework of guilloches and scroll-work, diversified with still- life subjects and scenic masks which break its monotony, we find a landscape evidently taken from the banks of the Nile, as the hippopotamus and crocodile, as well as the papyrus and lotus, clearly show. These Egyptian scenes are likewise found ROMAN ART 483 at Pompeii, and the celebrated pavement at Palestrina, with a bird's-eye view of the Nile and its surroundings, is the finest, as well as the latest, example of the class. The conclusion to be drawn is that the Roman mosaic-workers of the early Empire owed much to Alexandrian models. Their finer works, how- ever, were restricted in size, and formed small pictures isolated in geometrical pavements. Such mosaic-pictures were called emblemala, and were often transported from the great centres of production to distant provinces, where pavements were prepared for their reception. The subjects of these emblemata, like those of the wall-paintings of Pompeii, were, for the most part, taken from Greek mythology, and it is not easy to deter- mine what degree of originality is to be assigned to Roman artists. We note a certain interest in the great figures of literature and philosophy. A subject of which two somewhat different versions have been preserved, commonly known as " The Academy of Plato," shows us a group of Greek philosophers engaged in discussion. In provincial pavements it is not un- common to find portraits of poets or philosophers used to fill ornamental schemes of decoration, as in the famous mosaic at Trier signed by Monnus. And it is possible to trace the growth of interest in Roman literature at the expense of that of Greece. Fig. 31 (Plate VI.) shows a mosaic discovered in the tablinum of a villa at Sousse (Susa) in Tunis (the ancient Hadrumetum). It represents the poet Virgil seated, with a scroll on his knee, upon which is written Aen. i. 8; beside him stand the muses of tragedy and history. In one of the side-wings (alae) of the atrium was a mosaic representing the parting of Aeneas from Dido, and this was no doubt balanced by another scene from the Aeneid. It has also been shown that the mythological scenes depicted by the mosaic-workers of the later imperial period are frequently inspired, not by Greek poetry or even Greek artistic tradition, but by the works of Ovid; and the popularity of the legend of Cupid and Psyche is doubtless to be traced to its literary treatment by Apuleius. The mosaic shown in fig. 31 is notable for the simplicity of its composition; and it may be laid down as a general rule that the later workers in this field preferred such subjects, consisting of few figures on a neutral background, which lend themselves to broad treatment, and are best suited to the genius of mosaic. The finer pavements discovered in the villas of the landed proprietors of the African provinces, Gaul, and even Britain, are distinguished by the excellent taste with which ornament and subject are adapted to the space at the disposal of the artist. Beside a well-chosen repertory of geometrical patterns, the mosaic-workers make use of vegetable motives taken from the vine, the olive, the acanthus or the ivy, as well as conventional figures, such as the seasons,1 the winds, the months and alle- gorical figures of all kinds, forming elements in a scheme of decoration which, though often of great richness, is never lack- ing in symmetry and sobriety. It is much to be regretted that the destruction, partial or complete, of the great thermae and palaces of the early Empire has deprived us of the means of passing judgment on the opus musivum proper (see MOSAIC), i.e. the decoration of vaults and wall-surfaces with mosaics in glass, enamel or precious materials. Effective as are the pavements constructed with tesserae of marble or coloured stone, they must have been eclipsed by the brilliant hues of the wall-mosaics. We can form but little idea of these from the decoration of fountains at Pompeii and elsewhere, and must depend chiefly on the compositions which adorn the walls and apses of early Christian basilicas. An attempt has, indeed, been made to prove that one of these — the church of S. Maria Maggiore — is nothing else than a private basilica once belonging to a Roman palace, and that its mosaics date from the period of Septimius Severus;2 but it is impossible to accept this theory. The earliest monu- ment of the class which we are now considering is the baptistery of S. Costanza at Rome, built by Constantine in the early years 1 At least fifty examples of these have been found. 2 See Richter and Taylor, The Golden Age of Classic Christian Art (1904). of the 4th century A.D. Unfortunately the mosaics of the cupola were destroyed in the i6th century, and we derive our knowledge of them from drawings made by Francesco d'Olanda. The tambour was decorated with a maritime landscape diversi- fied with islands and filled with a crowd of pulti fishing; and the cupola itself was divided into twelve compartments, con- taining figure-subjects, by acanthus motives and caryatids. The mosaics of the annular vault which surrounds the baptistery are extant, though much restored, and purely pagan in design, showing that the decorative schemes (Eros and Psyche, vine- patterns, medallions, &c.), commonly found in pavements were also used by the musivarii. The mosaic-panels of the nave of S. Maria Maggiore already mentioned are (in the absence of earlier examples) very instructive as to the artistic quality of Roman opus musivum. Richter and Taylor's publication of some of the unrestored portions, which unfortunately form but a small fraction of the whole, serve to show that the musi- varii had an accurate conception of the true function of mosaic destined to be seen at a distance. Their effects are produced by a bold use of simple means; a few large cubes of irregular shape serve to give just the broad impression of a human face or figure which suits the monumental surroundings and subdued light. Very remarkable is the success with which the atmo- spheric backgrounds are treated. To seek delicate gradations of tint by elaborate means would be waste of labour for the mosaic-worker, but the artists of S. Maria Maggiore are able to produce sky and cloud effects (cf. Plate V. fig. 25) of great beauty, when seen from the floor of the church, with the aid of broad masses of colour. Their gamut of tones is of the richest; and it is to be remarked that no gold is used except in the restored parts. Doubtless gold was employed in decorative wall-mosaics before the Consfantinian period; but the Roman musivarius knew the secret of making a true mosaic picture with natural tints alone. (4) Work in Precious Metals. — In the article PLATE the history of this branch of art in ancient times is treated, and it is there shown that it continued to be a living art, capable of producing works of the highest merit, in Roman times. The sections of Pliny's Natural History (xxxiii. 154 sqq.) which treat of caelatura deal Only with the works of Greek artists, and Pliny ends with the statement that, as silver-chasing was in his time a lost art, specimens of embossed plate were valued according to their antiquity; but the extant remains of Roman plate suffice to disprove his statement, and hi a previous passage (xxxiii. 139) he names the principal ateliers where such works were produced. The famous treasure of Bosco Reale (see PLATE) comprises specimens of silver-work belonging to various dates, ^many of which bear the inscription " Maximae "; this doubtless gives the name of the owner of the objects, whose skeleton was found near the treasure. But some of them had passed through other hands; for example, four " salt-cellars," probably of pre-Roman date, are also inscribed with the name of " Pam- philus, the freedman of Caesar." Certain pieces, too, seem older and more worn than others; two ewers, decorated with Victories sacrificing to Athena, are probably of Alexandrian origin — the lotus-flower on their handles most probably points to their Egyptian provenance. On the other hand, the various decorative styles characteristic of Augustan art are well repre- sented,— not merely the elaborate and conventional plant - systems of the Ara Pacis Augustae, teeming with animal life, which adorn two splendid canthari, but also the naturalistic treatment of vegetable forms, of which a cup decorated with sprays of olive furnishes a good example (Plate VII. fig. 32). But the most important pieces in the collection are those which show the silversmith at work on specifically Roman subjects. Amongst the cups with emblemata (for the meaning of the term see PLATE) were two which originally contained small portrait- busts of the master and mistress of the house to which the collection belonged. One of these became detached, and is now in the British Museum; the other is in the Louvre in its original setting. The lady's coiffure resembles that of the empresses of the later Julio-Claudian period; but this is not 484 ROMAN ART conclusive as to date, and the style of the male portrait (which recalls the realistic bronze busts found at Pompeii) points rather to an early Flavian date. Amongst the finest pieces of this collection is a large bowl with an emblema in high relief (Plate VII. fig. 35), which was at first taken to represent the city of Alexandria, on account of the sistrum which appears amongst the attributes of the figure. It seems, however, to be a per- sonification of the province of Africa, which was conventionally represented with a headdress formed by an elephant's scalp with trunk and tusks. We have in this emblema the earliest example of the ideal types which the Roman artists of the Empire called into being to symbolize the subject-countries; the inexhaustible fertility of the African soil is indicated by the cornucopiae and the fruits carried in the bosom of the figure. But there is some trace of that overcharging of sym- bolism to which we drew attention in discussing the Prima Porta statue of Augustus; and, though the bowl was in a very fine state of preservation, there is little doubt that this was due to the care with which it had been kept — it was of course an ornament reserved for the table or sideboard — and that we should date it to the Augustan period. The same is clearly true of the most important pieces comprised in the treasure — the pair of cups reserved by Baron Edmond de Rothschild and forming part of his collection (Plate VII. figs. 33 and 34). In these we have examples of the crustae, or plaques decorated in repousse, which were mounted on smooth silver cups. The manufacture of these — or at least the designing thereof — was a special branch of caelatura, and Pliny mentions an artist named Teucer who achieved distinction therein; we may possibly identify him with the gem-engraver whose signature is read on an amethyst at Florence. Upon one of these (Plate VII. fig. 34), we see a seated figure of Augustus, approached by a processional group on both sides. To the left are three divinities, the foremost of whom presents a statuette of Victory to the emperor; to the right is Mars in full panoply, in whose train follow the conquered provinces, symbolized by female figures, amongst whom we recognize Africa with her elephant headgear (see above). On the other face of the cup we see Augustus again seated, receiving the homage of a group of barbarians ushered into his presence by a Roman commander. The schemes which are here found for the first time, became typical in Roman historical art, and thence passed into the service of Christianity to portray the homage of the Magi. The second cup celebrates the glories of Tiberius, whose triumphal procession appears on the one face, and a finely conceived scene of sacrifice on the other. For the occasion various dates have been suggested (13-12 or 8-7 B.C.); but it seems most likely that the return of Tiberius from Dalmatia in A.D. 9 is here commemorated. The fortunate preservation of the Bosco Reale treasure has enabled us to appraise Roman silverwork at its true value. It also affords some confirmation of the rapid decadence of the art, which Pliny laments. Amongst the cups are two decorated with still-life subjects and signed by an artist who writes a Roman name (Sabinus) in Greek characters, which clearly belong to the last years of Pompeii, and are coarser in execution than the earlier pieces. And the simple emblemata of the classical period, which stand out against the background of the bowl in which they are framed, give place to such a crowded group as we find on a gold patera1 found at Rennes and preserved in the Cabinet des Medailles, where the artist has surrounded the central emblema with a frieze which detracts from its effect. This and still later specimens of Roman silversmiths' work are described in the article PLATE. (5) Gem-Engraving and Minor Arts. — The art of the gem- engraver, like that of the silversmith, was naturally held in high esteem by the wealthy Romans both of the Republic and 1 Works of pure gold have but rarely survived to modern times ; but -traces of gilding remain upon many of the specimens of plate described above. In the law-books we have mention of cups adorned with golden crustae. Empire;2 and the period of its highest excellence coincides almost precisely with that which gave birth to the masterpieces of Roman silver-chasing. By far the greater part of the ancient gems which exist in modern collections belong to the Roman period; and the great popularity of gem-engraving amongst the Romans is shown by the enormous number of imitative works cast in coloured glass paste, which reproduce the subjects represented in more precious materials. Not only were intagli thus produced to suit the popular demand, but fine cameos were at times cut (not cast) in coloured glass; the most notable example of these is a portrait of Tiberius in turquoise-coloured glass bearing the signature of Herophilus (see below). In the style of Roman intagli we can trace each of the phases through which Roman plastic art has been shown to pass.3 A black agate in the Hague Museum (Furtwangler, pi. xlvii. 13) supplies a characteristic portrait of the Cicer- onian age; the splendid cornelian of the Tyszkiewicz collection (Furtwangler, pi. 1. 19) with the signature HOIIIA • AABAN • which portrays Augustus in the guise of Poseidon in a chariot drawn by four hippocamps, is doubtless (as Furtwangler showed) to be referred to the victory of Actium; the classicism of the early Empire is exemplified by a sardonyx in Florence (Furt- wangler, pi. lix. n), which probably displays an empress of the Julio-Claudian line with the attributes of Hera; a sardonyx in the hermitage at St Petersburg (Furtwangler, pi. Iviii. i) is noteworthy because the subject is borrowed from painting and occurs on a Pompeian fresco discovered in 1897; the portraiture of the Flavian epoch is seen at its best in the aquamarine of the Cabinet des Medailles signed by Euhodos, which represents Julia, the daughter of Titus (Furt- wangler, pi. xlviii. 8). Amongst later gems one of the finest is the "Hunt of Commodus " in the Cabinet des Medailles (Furt- wangler, pi. 1. 41), which is engraved in one of the stones most popular with the Roman artists — the " Nicolo," a sardonyx with a bluish-grey upper layer used as background and a dark brown under layer in which the design is cut. But the masterpieces of Roman gem-cutting are to be found in the great cameos, the finest of which no doubt belonged to the treasures of the imperial house. These were engraved in various materials, including single coloured stones such as amethyst or chalcedony; but the stone most fitted by nature for this branch of art was the sardonyx in its two chief varieties — the Indian, distinguished by the warmth and lustre of its tones, and the Arabian, with a more subdued scale of colour. As examples of these we shall take the two master-works of the art — the " Grand camee de France " (Plate VII. fig. 37), and the " Gemma Augustea " (Plate VII. fig. 36), preserved in the imperial collection at Vienna. The latter is attributed by Furtwangler to Dioscorides, the artist who, as Pliny tells us, enjoyed the exclusive privilege of portraying the features of Augustus. We possess several gems inscribed with his name, as well as with those of his sons and pupils — Eutyches, Hero- philus (see above) and Hyllos; and, though several of these are Renaissance forgeries, enough genuine material exists for an appreciation of his style. The Arabian sardonyx was amongst his favourite stones, and the Vienna cameo at least represents the work of his school. Blending the real with the ideal, the artist has represented in the upper zone Augustus and Rome enthroned. Behind them is a group of divine figures — the inhabited Earth, Time and Tellus, according to the most probable interpretation; to the left we see Tiberius descending from a chariot driven by Victory, before which stands a youth, probably Germanicus. We seem to have here, as in the Bosco Reale cup, a scene from the triumphal 2 We first hear of" collections of gems in the last century of the Republic. Pompey dedicated that which had belonged to Mith- ridates the Great on the Capitol; Julius Caesar placed six collec- tions in the temple of Venus Genitrix; and Marcellus dedicated another in the temple of Apollo on the Palatine. 3 The references given in the text are to Furtwangler' s great work, Die antiken Gemmen, in which all ancient gems of any con- siderable importance are reproduced. ROMAN ART PLATE VL AlOOOOOOOO By permission of the Italian Ministry of Public Instruction. FIG. 29— MOSAIC PAVEMENT (MUSEO DELLE TERME). Photo, Brogi. FIG. 30.— MEDEA. XXIII. 484. From Plot's Monuments, by permission of Ernest Leroux. FIG. 31.— THE VIRGIL MOSAIC. PLATE VII. ROMAN ART FIG. 32.— CUP DECORATED WITH SPRAYS OF OLIVE. FIG. 33-— CUP IN THE BARON ROTHSCHILD COLLECTION. FIG. 34.— CUP IN THE BARON ROTHSCHILD COLLECTION. EMBLEM A, IN HIGH RELIEF, PERSONIFICATION OF THE PROVINCE OF AFRICA. FIG. 35— SILVER BOWL (LOUVRE) FIG. 36— THE "GEMMA AUGUSTEA FIG. 37.— THE "GRAND CAMEE DE FRANCE." From Furtwangler, Die Antiten Cemmen, by permission of Gieselte and Devrient. ROMAN ART 485 procession of A.D. 12, in the course of which, as Suetonius tells us, Tiberius stepped down from his car and did homage to his stepfather. In the lower zone we find loosely composed groups of captives and Roman soldiers, some of whom are setting up a trophy. But the supreme triumph of imperial jewelry is attained in the Great Cameo of the Bibliotheque Nationale. This is an Indian sardonyx cut in five layers, the largest extant example of its class. There is a marked advance on the Vienna cameo in composition; the lower zone is reduced to the proportions of an exergue, whilst heaven and earth are kept clearly apart in the main subject, yet at the same time united in a single picture. In the centre are the living members of the Julio-Claudian house — Tiberius and Livia enthroned, together with Germanicus, his mother, and the rising generation — while above them hovers the deified Augustus, together with other deceased members of the family and an ideal figure in Phrygian garb bearing a globe, probably lulus (Ascanius), or even Aeneas himself. The moment depicted is the departure of Germanicus for the East in A.D. 17, and amongst the figures of the central group we note the muse of history, bearing a scroll upon which to record the hero's deeds, and a personification of Armenia. Engraved gems are not the only examples of Roman work in precious materials. Amongst the portraits of the first dynasty none is finer than a small head of Agrippina the younger (recently acquired by the British Museum) in plasma (root-of- emerald), a material much used by Roman gem-cutters. Vases, again, were carved in precious stones, such as the famous onyx vase at Brunswick (Furtwangler, Die antiken Gemmen, figs. 185-88), adorned with reliefs relating to the mysteries of Eleusis. A smaller, but finer, onyx vase in the Berlin Museum (Furtwangler, op. cit., figs. 183, 184) represents the infancy of a prince of the Julian line — a rock surmounted by a small temple recalls the sculptures of the Ara Pacis, and the work seems to be of Augustan date. It was mentioned above that coloured glass was used as a substitute for gems, and it is to the school which produced the cameos of the early Empire that we owe the exquisite vases in white and blue glass j of which the Portland vase is the most famous example.1 Pompeii furnishes a second in the amphora, decorated with vintage scenes, in the Naples Museum. We must also class amongst the fine arts that of the die- sinker. Not only are the imperial portraits found on coins worthy of a place beside the works of the sculptor, but in the " medallions " of the 2nd century A.D. we find figure- subjects, often recalling those of contemporary reliefs, treated with the utmost delicacy and finish. Of the purely industrial arts it is unnecessary to speak at length. The finds made in Gaul, Germany and Britain have enabled archaeologists to trace their history — particularly that of pottery — in some detail; but the chief importance of these discoveries lies in the fact that they prove the gradual diffusion of artistic talent throughout the provinces. In the last century of the republic a flourishing manufacture of red- glazed pottery was established with its chief centre at Arretium (Arezzo); the signatures of the vases enable us to distinguish a number of workshops owned by Romans who employed Greek or Oriental workmen. The repertory of decorative types used by these humble artists reflects the cross-currents of classicism and naturalism which were contending in the decadence of Hellenistic art; but, if we .cannot set a high substantive value on their works, it is important to note that in the ist century A.D. the Italian fabrics were gradually driven out of the market by those of Gaul, where the industry took root in the Cevennes and the valleys of the Rhone and the Allier; and before long north-eastern Gaul and the Rhineland became centres of production in the various minor 1 The tradition that this was found in the well-known sarcophagus of the early 3rd century now in the Capitoline Museum, formerly supposed to contain the ashes of Severus Alexander, is without foundation. arts,2 which continued to flourish until the .breakdown of the imperial system in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. (6) Summary: the Place of Roman Art in History. — Just as the establishment of the Roman Empire gave a political unity to the ancient world, and the acceptance of Christianity by its rulers assured the triumph of a universal religion, so the growth of a Graeco-Roman nationality, due to the freedom of intercourse between the subjects of the emperors, led to a unity of culture which found expression in the art of the time. Yet no sooner was the fusion of the elements which contributed to the new culture complete than the process of disruption began, which issued in the final separation of the Eastern from the Western Empire. In the first, the oriental factors, which produced a gradual transformation in Graeco-Roman art, definitely triumphed; and the result is seen in Byzantine art. But in the West it was otherwise. The realism native to Italy remained alive in spite of the conventions imposed upon it; the human interest asserted itself against the decora- tive. The Christian art of the West, therefore, is the true heir of the Roman, and, through the Roman, of the classical tradition. The mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore, already referred to, show how strongly this tradition was at work in the ist century of the Christian Empire; and monuments of the 5th century A.D., such as the consular diptychs of ivory and the carved doors of S. Sabina at Rome, tell the same tale. As we have seen, Roman art in its specific quality was an historical art; and it was for this reason eminently fitted for the service of an historical religion. The earliest Christian art whose remains are preserved is that of the catacombs; and this is not only devoid of technical merit, but is also dominated by a single idea, which governs the selection of subjects — that of deliverance from the grave and its terrors, whether this be conveyed by scriptural types or by representa- tions of Paradise and its dwellers.* Not until the church's triumph was complete could she command the services of the highest art and unfold her sacred story on the walls of her basilicas; but, when the time came, the monumental art created by the demands of imperial pride was ready to minister ad majorem gloriam Dei. BIBLIOGRAPHY. — F. Wickhoff's Roman Art (1900), translated by Mrs Strong from the author's Wiener Genesis, is well illustrated and indispensable to the student. A. Riegl's Spdtromische Kunst- industrie in Osterreich-Ungarn (1901) also repays close study. The views of Strzygowski are expressed in a large number of monographs and essays; the most important are Orient oder Rom (1901), Kleinasien, ein Neuland der Kunstgeschichte (1903), " Mschatta " (Jahrbuch der preussischen Kunstsammlungen, 1904), Der Dom zu Aachen und seine Entstellung (1904), and articles in Byzantinischc Zeitschrift, Byzantinische Denkmdler, and other periodicals. A summary of the debate raised by these writers will be found in the Quarterly Review, January 1906 (Stuart Jones). The controversy carried on by Furtwangler and Studniczka as to the date of the Trophy of Adam-Khssi is instructive. Furtwangler's articles appeared in the Transactions of the Munich Academy for 1903-4, Studniczka's (" Tropaeum Trajani ") in Abhandlungen der sacks. Gesellschaft der Wissenschajten, xxii. (1904). Of Roman sculpture Mrs Strong's handbook (Roman Sculpture, 1907), which has a great number of excellent illustrations, gives a general survey. Special branches are treated by E. Courbaud (Le Bas-relief remain a representations historiques, 1899), W. Altmann (Die rSmischen Graba.Ua.re der Kaiserzeit, 1905), A. J. Wace (" The Evolution of Art in Roman Portraiture," Transactions of the British and American Archaeological Society of Rome, 1906). _ There has been much recent discussion of historical monuments in Rome in the Papers of the British School at Rome, the Romische Milteilungen of the German Archaeological Institute, the Jahreshefte of the Austrian Archaeological Institute, and the Neue Jahrbucher fur Philologie. Important publications of single monuments are: O. Benndorf (and others), Das Tropaion von Adamklissi (\&)*>); E. Petersen, Ara Pacis Aueustae (1903; further discoveries since this date are discussed by the author in Jahreshefte des osterretch- ischen arch. Instituts (1906), 298 ff., and Sieveking in the same journal (1907), 175 ff.); C. Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Trajanssdule (1896-1900), criticized by E. Petersen, Trojans dakische Krtege 'For bronze- work see Willers in Rheinischti Museum (1907). • This principle is consistently applied by von Sybel, Christliche Antike (Marburg, 1907). 486 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH (1899-1903); E. Ferrero, L'Arc d'Aueuste d Suse (1901); E. Petersen (and others), Die Marcussdule (1896). For Roman portraits J. Bernoulli's Romische Ikonographie (4 vols., 1882-94) gives abundant material but little aesthetic criticism. Many of the finest portraits are included in Arndt- Bruckmann's series of Griechische und romische Portrdts, and Brunn-Bruckmann's Denkmaler griechisch-romischer Skulptur con- tain reproductions of several Roman reliefs. The monuments col- lected by T. Schreiber under the title of Hellenistische Reliefbilder (1894) are largely of Roman date. For Roman painting we have as yet no handbook; W. Helbig's Untersuchungen uber die campanische Wandmalerei (1873) are still of great value, though the theory advanced is overstated. His Campaniens Wandgemdlde (1868) gives a catalogue raisonnk of Pompeian paintings, and has been supplemented by A. Sogliano, Le pitlure murali Campane (1879). Those since discovered are de- scribed in the Notizie degli Scavi. A. Mau's Geschichte der Wand- malerei is also indispensable. Hermann-Bruckmann, Denkmaler der Malerei des Alterthums (1907- ), will give reproductions, partly in colour, of all important specimens of ancient painting. Le Nozze Aldobrandine, &c., by B. Nogara (1907), contains both coloured and photographic reproductions of the paintings preserved in the Vatican library. For the Fayum portraits see G. Ebers, Anlike Portrdts (Leipzig, 1893); F. Petrie, Hawara, ch. vii.; and C. Edgar, Catalogue des antiquites du musee du Caire, " Graeco- Egyptian Coffins, ' p. xi. ff. On the technique of ancient painting Otto Donner von Richter's introduction to Helbig's Campaniens Wandgemdlde should be consulted. P. Girard's sketch of ancient painting (La Peinture antique, n.d.) is slight. For the bibliography of mosaics see that article (especially Gauckler in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiques, s.v. " Musivum Opus"); for work in gold and silver see the article PLATE. For gem-engraving, A. Furtwangler's Die antiken Gemmen (3 vols., 1900) is the standard work. The history of Roman pottery is summarized by H. B. Walters, History of Ancient Pottery, vol. ii. 430 ff. ; the most im- portant works are J . Dechelette, Les Vases ornes de la Gaule romaine (1904), and H. Dragendorff's articles on " Terra sigillata " in the Banner Jahrbiicher. Sections on Roman art will be found in general handbooks, such as Springer- Michaelis, Handbuch der Kunsteeschichte (6th ed., 1904) ; L. von Sybel, Weltgeschichte der Kunst (2nd ed., 1902); and C. Gurlitt, Geschichte der Kunst, vol. i. (1902). (H. S. J.) ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, the name generally given to that great branch of the Christian Church which acknow- ledges the pope, or bishop of Rome, as its head, and holds as an article of faith that communion with and submission to the authority of the see of Rome is essential to effective membership of the Catholic Church as founded by Christ. This belief is based upon the commission given by Christ to Peter as " prince of the apostles," " Feed my sheep " (John xxi. 15-17); the saying, " Thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven; and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven " (Matt. xvi. 18, 19). The authority thus conferred upon St Peter is., held by Roman Catholics to be permanently vested in the bishop of Rome, as successor to Peter, first bishop of the imperial see. As such, the pope is regarded as " vicar of Christ, head of the bishops, and supreme governor of the whole Catholic Church, of whom the whole world is the territory or diocese." His peculiar powers as pope he exercises immediately on election. Thus he may grant indulgences, issue censures, give dispensa- tions, canonize saints, institute bishops, create cardinals — in short, perform all the acts of his jurisdiction, even though he be no more than a layman; but by custom certain of his more solemn acts are postponed till after the ceremony of his coronation, from which his pontificate is officially dated. To exercise the actus ordinis of a priest or bishop, however, he must, if not already in orders, be specially ordained and consecrated. Hence his office is a dignity, not of order, but of jurisdiction (see PAPACY and POPE). The most distinctive characteristic of the Roman Catholic Church, at least as contrasted with the various Protestant communions, is its vigorous insistence on the principle of ecclesiastical authority. Of this authority the pope is regarded as the centre and source, so far as the interpretation of the Divine Will to the world is concerned in matters of faith and morals. His pronouncements are held to be infallible when he defines a doctrine concerning faith or morals ex cathedra to be held by the universal church (see INFALLIBILITY and VATICAN COUNCIL). The government of the Roman Catholic Church being centred at Rome, an elaborate organization has been developed there for the administration of its affairs. At the head of this is the college of cardinals, who are the princes and senators of the Church, the counsellors of the pope, and his vicars in the functions of the pontificate. By those of them who are members of the various Congregations and other offices of the Curia the greater part of the government of the Church is directed. (For accounts of the organization of the ^oman Curia the reader is referred to the articles CARDINAL and CURIA ROMANA.) The characteristic note of the Roman Curia is its intense conservatism and its slowness to move, whether in approving or condemning new developments of opinion or action. This is explained by the nature of its organization and by the tradition on which it is based. For, just as the Roman Church as a whole preserves in the spiritual sphere the spirit and much of the organization of the Roman Empire, so the administration of the Curia carries on the tradition of Roman government, with its reverence for precedent and its practice of deciding questions, not on their supposed abstract merits, but in accordance with the rules of law as defined in the codes or by previous decisions. Thus the genius of Rome remains, as it always has been, administrative rather than speculative. The great dogmas of the Christian Church were shaped by the interplay of the subtle wits of the theologians of the Oriental Churches. The new dogmas promulgated by the Holy See from time to time have been the outcome of the slow growth of ages, built up from precedent to precedent, and only defined at last when the accumulated weight of evidence in their favour, or the necessity for precise definition to meet the contradictions of heretics, seemed to demand a decision. This temper and the process in which it finds expression are well illustrated in the case of the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (q.ii.) and in the authorization given to the cult of the Sacred Heart (q.v.). This conservative spirit and extreme reverence for authority pervades the whole Roman Catholic Church in exact proportion to the degree of effective control which the see of Rome has succeeded in obtaining over its branches in various countries. To pretend to an independent judgment in questions of faith or morals is for a Roman Catholic to commit treason against his Church; and even in the wide sphere of questions lying beyond the dogmas defined as de fide a too curious discussion is dis- couraged, if not condemned. As opposed to the critical and analytical tendencies of the modern world, then, the Roman Catholic Church assumes the function of the champion of moral and intellectual discipline, an attitude defined, in its extremest expression, by Pius IX. 's Syllabus of 1864 (see SYLLABUS), and the famous encyclical Pascendi of Pius X. in 1907. The de- velopment of this attitude, known — in so far as it depends on the full pretensions of the Papacy- — as Ultramontanism, since the definition of the Roman Catholic Church by the council of Trent in 1564, will be found sketched in the historical section attached to this article. The earlier history, which is that of the Latin Church of the West, will be found in the articles PAPACY, CHURCH HISTORY and REFORMATION. Under the supreme authority of the pope the Roman Catholic Church is governed and served by an elaborate hierarchy. This, so far as its polestales ordinis are concerned, is divided into seven orders: the three " major orders " of bishops and priests, deacons, and subdeacons (bishops and priests forming two degrees of the ordj) sacerdotium), and the four "minor orders " of acolytes, exorcists, readers, and door-keepers. These various orders do not derive their potestas ordinis from the pope, but from God, in virtue of their direct ministerial succession from the apostles.1 So far as jurisdiction is concerned, however, those 1 Thus sacraments administered by validly ordained or conse- crated priests and bishops are regarded as valid, even when those who administer them are heretics or schismatics. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 487 members of the hierarchy known as prelates (praelati), who possess this power (potcstasjurisdictionis inforo externo), whether bishops or priests, derive it from the pope. These jurisdictions are of very varied character, and in most cases are not peculiar to the Roman Catholic Church. They include those of patriarchs, archbishops, metropolitans and bishops in the first rank of the hierarchy, with their subordinate officials, such as archdeacons, archpriests, deans and canons, &c., in the lower ranks. All of these will be found described under their proper headings (see also ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION). The basis of the organization of the Church is territorial, the world being mapped out into dioceses or, in countries where the Roman Church is not well developed — e.g. missions in non- Christian lands — into Apostolic Vicariates. The dioceses are grouped in various ways; some are immediately dependent upon the Holy See; some are grouped in ecclesiastical provinces or metropolitanates, which in their turn are sometimes grouped together to form a patriarchate. According to the official Gerarchia Cattolica, published at Rome, there were in 1909 ten patriarchates, with fourteen patriarchal sees (including those of the Oriental rite, i.e. those Eastern com- munities which, though in communion with Rome, have been al- lowed to retain their peculiar ritual discipline). Of these the four greater patriarchates are those of Alexandria (with two p?triarchs, Latin and Coptic); Anticch (with four, Latin, Graeco-Melchite, Maronite and Syriac) ; Constantinople (Latin) and Jerusalem (Latin). The lesser patriarchates are those of Babylon (Chaldaic), Cilicia (Armenian), the East Indies (Latin), Lisbon (Latin), Venice (Latin) and the West Indies (Latin). (See PATRIARCH.) The archiepiscopal sees number 204. Of these 21 are immedi- ately subject to the Holy See, while those of the Latin rite having ecclesiastical provinces number 164. There are 19 of the Oriental rite : 3 with ecclesiastical provinces, viz. Armenian, Graeco- Rumanian and Graeco-Ruthenian respectively; the rest are subject to the patriarchates, viz. 2 Armenian, 3 Graeco-Melchite, 3 Syriac, 2 Syro- Chaldaic, 6 Syro-Maronite. Of episcopal sees of the Latin rite 6 are suburbican sees of the cardinal bishops, 85 are immediately subject to the Holy See, and 662 are suffragan sees in ecclesiastical provinces. Of those of the Oriental rite one (Graeco-Ruthenian) is immediately subject to the Holy See; 9 are suffragan sees in ecclesiastical provinces, viz. 3 Graeco- Rumanian and 6 Graeco-Ruthenian; the rest are subject to the patriarchates, viz. 15 Armenian, 2 Coptic, 9 Graeco-Melchite, 5 Syriac, 9 Syro-Chaldaic, 2 Syro-Melchite. The whole number of these residential sees, including the patri- archates, is 1023. Besides these there are 610 titular sees, formerly called sees in partibus infidelium, the archbishops and bishops of which are not bound to residence. These titles are generally assigned to bishops appointed to Apostolic Delegations, Vicariates and Prefectures, or to the office of coadjutor, auxiliary or adminis- trator of a diocese. (See ARCHBISHOP and BISHOP.) The dioceses are divided into parishes, variously grouped, the most usual organization being that of deaneries. In the parish the authority of the Church is brought into intimate touch with the daily life of the people. The main duties of the parish priest are to offer the sacrifice of the mass (q.v.), to hear con- fessions, to preach, to baptize and to administer extreme unction to the dying. It is true to say that in the " cure of souls " the confessional plays a larger part in the Church than the pulpit (see CONFESSION and ABSOLUTION). For the official costume of the various orders of clergy see the article VESTMENTS. The clergy of the Roman Catholic Church are furthermore divided into regular and secular. The regular clergy are those attached to religious orders and to certain congregations (see MONASTICISM). Of these the former are outside the normal organization of the Church, being exempt from the ordinary jurisdiction of the diocesan bishops, while the more recently formed congregations are either wholly or largely subject to episcopal authority. By far the most powerful of the religious orders are the Jesuits (q.v.). The secular clergy, on the other hand, are bound by no vows beyond those proper to their orders. Both regular and secular clergy (those at least in major orders) are under the obligation of celibacy, which, by cutting them off from the most intimate common interests of the people, has proved a most powerful disciplinary force in the hands of the popes (see CELIBACY). The more complete isolation of the regular clergy, however, together with their direct relation to the Holy See, has made them, not only the more effective instruments of papal authority, but more ob- noxious to the peoples and governments of countries where they have gained any considerable power. Their privileged position, moreover, leads everywhere to a certain amount of friction between them and the secular clergy. In doctrine the Roman Catholic Church is divided from the orthodox communions of the East mainly by the claims of the papacy, which the Orientals reject, and the question of the " Procession of the Holy Ghost " (see CHURCH HISTORY). From the Protestant communities which were the outcome of the Reformation the divergence is more profound, though the central dogmas of the faith are common to Roman Catholics and orthodox Protestants. The difference lies essentially in the belief held as to the means by which the truths denned in these dogmas are to be made effective for the salvation of the world. It was defined in the canons of the council of Trent, as promulgated by Pope Pius IV. in 1564, in which the main theses of the Reformers as to the character of the Church, the sufficiency of Holy Scriptures, the nature of the sacra- ments, and the like were finally condemned (see TRENT, COUNCIL OF). The Roman Catholic Church is by far the most widespread, numerous and powerful of all the Christian communions. It is the dominant Church in the majority of European states, in South and Central America and in Mexico; it is the largest single religious body in the United States of America, while in certain Protestant countries, e.g. Prussia and the United Kingdom, it has great religious and political influence. Any statistics of its membership, however, must necessarily be misleading. Those published are generally based on the principle of deducting the Protestant from the general popula- tion of " Catholic " countries and ascribing the rest to the Roman Church. This may be possible in Germany and other countries where there is a religious census; but it is, at best, a rough-and-ready method where, as in Italy or France, besides the class of " political " or " non-practising " Catholics, large numbers of the people are more or less actively hostile to Christianity itself. (For Roman Catholic missionary work see MISSIONS.) The Unial or United Oriental Churches. — The overwhelming majority of the adherents of the Roman Catholic Church throughout the world belong to the Latin rite, i.e. follow the usages and traditions of the Western Church.1 Ever since the schism of East and West, however, it has been an ambition of the papacy to submit the Oriental Churches to its jurisdiction, and successive popes have from time to time succeeded in detaching portions of those Churches and bringing them into the obedience of the Holy See. This has only been possible owing to the temper of the Oriental mind which, while clinging tenaciously to its rites, values dogma only in so far as it is expressed in rites. The popes, then, or at least the more politic of them, have been content to lay down as the condition of reunion no more than the acceptance of the distinctive dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church, especially the supremacy and infallibility of the pope; the ritus of the Uniat Oriental Churches — liturgies and liturgical languages, ecclesiastical law and discipline, marriage of priests, beards and costume, the monastic system of St Basil — they have been content for the most part to leave untouched. The attempts of Pius IX., who in 1862 established the Congregatio de propaganda fide pro ncgoliis ritus orientalis, to interfere in a Romanizing sense with the rites of the Armenians and Chaldaeans (by the bulls Reverstirvs of 1867 and Cum Ecclesiastica of i86g) led to a schism; and Leo XIII., who more than all his predecessors interested himself in the question of reunion, reverted to and developed the wiser 1 The Latin word ritus covers not only the ordinary meaning of the modern English word " rite," i.e. " a formal procedure or act in a religious or other solemn function," or any " custom or practice of a formal kind," but the sense in which it is now ob- solete in England — except in the religious connotation here used — of " the general or usual custom, habit or practice of a country, people, class of persons, &c." (New English Diet. s.v.). For the liturgies of the Latin and Oriental Churches see LITURGY. 488 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH principle of not aiming at any assimilation of rites, but only at " the full and perfect union of faith " (Encyclical Praeclara gratulationis of June 1804). This principle has even been carried to the extent of recognizing several bishops having jurisdiction over the adherents of various rites in the same see; thus there are three uniat patriarchs of Antioch (Graeco- Melchite, Maronite and Syrian). Exact statistics of the membership of the Churches of the Oriental rite are almost impossible to obtain; the numbers of their adherents, moreover, are apt to vary suddenly with the shifting currents of political forces in the East, for political factors have always played a considerable part in these move- ments towards reunion or the reverse. In 1908 their numbers were estimated at approximately 5,500,000. The Churches of the Oriental rite fall under four main divisions: Greek, Armenian, Syrian, Coptic; and — with the exception of the Armenian — these are again subdivided according to nationality or to peculiarities of cult or language. The Churches may be further grouped according to the character of their constitu- tion, i.e. (i) those having their own rite only in a restricted sense, since they have no hierarchy of their own but are sub- ordinate to Latin bishops, i.e. the Greeks in Italy (Italograeci) , the scattered Bulgarian Uniats, the Abyssinians, some of the Armenians and the "Christians of St Thomas"; (2) those having their own bishops and sometimes their own metro- politans, as in Austria- Hungary; (3) the Eastern patriarchates. Geographically, the Uniat Churches may be grouped as follows: — (A) EUROPE, where their association with the Roman Church is at once the oldest and the most intimate. (1) The Italograeci. These are distributed in scattered groups throughout Italy, but are most compact in Apulia and Sicily, and number in all some 50,000. They are under the jurisdiction of the Latin diocesan bishops, but their priests are ordained by bishops of their own rite specially appointed by the pope. (2) The Uniat Churches of Austria-Hungary. With the excep- tion of the Armenian, these are all of the Greek rite, but are divided according to nationality and ritual language intothefollowinggroups: — -(a) Ruthenian Church. — This, though still the most important numerically of all the Uniat Churches, is but a fragment of the Church which proclaimed its union with Rome at the synod of Brest in Lithuania in 1596, a union which, after long and bitter resistance, was completed by the submission of the dioceses of Lemberg and Luzk in 1700 and 1702. The Church was broken up by the successive partitions of Poland, and those parts of it which fell to Russia were, notably under Catherine II. and Nicholas I., forcibly absorbed into the Orthodox Church. The Church, however, still numbers some 3,000,000 adherents in Galicia, and 500,000 in Hungary. In Galicia it has an independent organization under the Greek-Catholic archbishop of Lemberg, with two suffragan sees: Przemysl, for West Galicia, and Stanislawov for East Galicia. In Hungary there are two bishoprics, Munkacz and Eperies, under the Latin primate of Hungary, the archbishop of Gran. The Serb bishopric of Kreutz in Croatia, under the Latin archbishop of Agram, may be also grouped with the Ruthenian Church, since the rite is identical. Its adherents number from 15,000 to 20,000. The liturgical language of the Uniat Slav Churches is Old Slavonic, and, so far as their rite is concerned, they differ from the Orthodox Slav Churches only in using the Glagohtic instead of the Cyrillic alphabet. (b) Rumanian Church. — This numbers about 1,000,000 adherents and has its own organization under the metropolitan of Fogairasch or Alba Julia, with 'three suffragan sees: Lugos, Gross- Wardein and Szamos-Uvj ar. It has had its own ritual" language since the I7th century, (c) Armenian Church. — This numbers in Austria-Hungary only some 4000 to 5000 members. It has an archbishopric at Lemberg, which has jurisdiction also over the Uniat Armenians at Venice. (3) Uniat Churches in Russia and Turkey in Europe, (a) In Russia the Uniat Ruthenian Church (see above) ceased to exist with the incorporation of the little Polish diocese of Chlem in the Orthodox Russian Church under Alexander II. in 1875. The Holy See, however, has never withdrawn its claim to jurisdiction over it, nor have the Ruthenians ever been wholly reconciled to their absorption in the Russian Church. The ukaz of Nicholas II. (Easter, 1905), granting liberty of worship, produced a movement in the direction of Rome; but this appears to have been checked by the refusal of the government, even now, to recognize in Russia a Roman Catholic Church of the Greek rite. Converts to Rome have, therefore, to accept the Latin rite (see Prince Max of Saxony, Vorlesungen uber die orientalischen Kirchenfragen, 1907). The scattered communities of the Uniat Armenian Church in Russia are subordinate to Latin vicars apostolic. The Uniat Armenian Church in the Caucasus, however, is under the jurisdiction of the patri- archate of Cilicia. (6) In European Turkey the Uniat Churches are represented by tiny groups, scattered about the Balkan Peninsula, attached to Latin " missions." The movement in favour of the union of the Bulgarian Church with Rome, which grew up in 1860, was the outcome of the national opposition to the Greeks, and with the establishment of the Bulgarian exarchate in 1872 it died away. There are not more than 10,000 to 15,000 Uniat Bulgarians, who have been ruled since 1 88;} by three vicars apos- tolic. The Uniat Armenians and Melchites in Constantinople belong to the Eastern patriarchates. (B) ASIA AND AFRICA. — The Uniat Churches in Asia and Africa occupy a peculiar position in so far as Rome has recognized the traditional rights of the patriarchates (see, e.g., Leo XIII. 's en- cyclical Praeclara gratulationis of June 1894), and they therefore enjoy almost complete autonomy; thus the patriarchs nominate their own suffragans and have the right to summon synods for specific purposes (see PATRIARCH). There are six Uniat Patriarchates : — (1) The Patriarchatus Ciliciae Armenorum. The Armenian patriarch, whose jurisdiction embraces the Catholic Armenians in the Balkan Peninsula, in Russian Armenia and in Asiatic Turkey, formerly resided in Lebanon, but has had his seat since 1867 at Constantinople. Under him are 19 dioceses, including a small one in Persia. The number of Catholic Armenians under his juris- diction is, roughly, 100,000 (see ARMENIAN CHURCH). (2) The three patriarchates of Antioch. (a) The Melchite (Patri- archatus Antiochenus Graeco-Melchitarum). The patriarch resides in the monastery of Ain-Traz in the Lebanon and has jurisdiction over all the Uniats of Greek nationality in the Turkish Empire, who number about 120,000. Under him are 3 archbishops and 9 bishops (see MELCHITES). (b) The Marpnites (Patriarchatus Antiochenus Syro-Maronitarum), whose seat is in the Lebanon. The patri- arch has jurisdiction over about 500,000 people (see MARONITES). (c) The Syrian (Patriarchatus Antiochenus Syrorum). The patriarch, who resides at Mardin near Diarbekr on the upper Tigris, is obeyed by from 15,000 to 20,000 people, who represent a secession from the Jacobite Church (see JACOBITE CHURCH). He has 3 archbishoprics and 5 bishoprics under his jurisdiction. (3) The Chaldaeans (Patriarchatus Chaldaeorum Babylonensis) . The patriarch has jurisdiction over the Uniat Nestorian Church, which numbers, roughly, about 50,000 adherents, and is divided, under the patriarch, into 1 1 dioceses (see NESTORIANS). (4) The Coptic (Patriarchatus Alexandrinus Coptorum). This was founded on the 26th of November 1895 by Pope Leo XIII. The patriarch, who was given two suffragan bishops, has his seat at Cairo. The number of Uniat Copts is nominal. (5) The Uniat Abyssinian Church. This has scaracely any ad- herents. Such as there are are under the authority of a vicar apostolic residing at Keren. (6) The Christians of St Thomas (Malabar coast). For these Leo XIII. established in 1887 three special vicariates apostolic ( Vicariatus apostolici Syro-Malabarorum) ; the vicars apostolic are Latins, but have the right to pontificate and to confirm accord- ing to the Syrian rite. The number of Christians of St Thomas in the obedience of Rome is said to be about 100,000.'- (W. A. P.) The Church in Europe since the Reformation. The term " Romish Catholique " is as old as the days of Queen Elizabeth.2 It is not happily chosen, for catholic means universal, and what is universal cannot be peculiar to Rome. But the term is inoffensive to Roman Catholics, since it advertises their claim that communion with the see of Rome is of the essence of Catholicity, and to Protestants, since it serves to emphasize the fact that the religion of modern Rome differs widely in many important respects from that of the undivided medieval Church. The change has brought both good and evil. Protestant controversialists have some show of reason on their side when they argue that Luther saved the Roman Church by forcing it to put an end to many intolerable abuses. On the other hand, under stress of his revolt the papacy could not but develop in a strongly anti-Protestant direction, laying exaggerated emphasis on every point he challenged. The more fiercely he denounced infallibility, the confessional, the sacramental system, the larger these things bulked in the eyes of Rome. Not that this cqnsequence showed itself at once. The Refor- mation was well established before it attracted any serious 1 This account of the Uniat Churches is largely condensed from the excellent article " Unierte Orientalen," by F. Kattenbusch in Herzog-Hauck Realencyklopadie (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1908), where numerous authorities are given. 2 It was officially adopted in the Relief Act of 1791 in place of the designation " Protesting Catholic Dissenters," to which the vicars apostolic objected. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 489 notice at Rome. The popes of the Renaissance were profoundly uninterested in theology; they were far more at home in an art gallery, or in fighting to recover their influence as temporal Italian princes, gravely shattered during the long residence of the papal court at Avignon in the I4th century. But these secular interests came to an end with the so-called sack of Rome in 1527, when Charles V. turned his arms against Clement VII., and made the pope a prisoner in his own capital. Thence- forward there was no more thought of territorial aggrandise- ment. The popes, as the phrase went, became Spanish chap- lains, with a fixed territory guaranteed to them by Spanish arms; apart from the addition of Ferrara and one or two other petty principalities on the extinction of the reigning house, its boundaries remained unchanged till Napoleonic times. Under Clement's successor, Paul III., a new state of things began to dawn. Hitherto the way had been blocked by a horde of protonotaries, dataries and other officials — purveyors of in- dulgences, dispensations and such-like spiritual favours — to whom reform spelt ruin. Even the Reformation did not move them; if less money came in from Germany, that was all the more reason for leaving things unchanged in France and Spain. But among Paul's cardinals were three remarkable men, the Italians Contarini and Sadolet, and the Englishman Reginald Pole, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury under Mary. All three were disciples of Erasmus, the great apostle of a new, tolerant, scholarly religion very different from the grimy pedantry of the medieval doctors. It was better, he said, to be weak in Duns Scotus, but strong in St Paul — than to be crammed with all the learning of Durandus, and ignorant of the law of Christ. Men trained in this school were not likely to be tender towards vested interests in darkness, least of all when they stood in the way of a reconciliation with the Protestants: for the cardinals thought that the strength of the Reformation lay much less in the attractiveness of Luther's doctrines than in his vigorous denunciations of the vices of the clergy. Once root out abuses with a firm hand, and they believed that a few timely con- cessions on points of doctrine would tempt most Protestants back within the Roman pale. This belief was shared by The Charles V. Together they persuaded the unwilling Council pope to call a general council. It met in December of Trent, j^ at tj,e Tirolese city of Trent, with Pole as one of the three presidents (see TRENT, COUNCIL OF). As a means of reconciliation the council was a signal failure. The Protestants refused to attend an assembly where even the most conciliatory prelate could hardly condescend to meet them on equal terms. Nor was Pole allowed to use the only possible means of overcoming their reluctance. He had wished to begin by reforming abuses before proceeding to sit in judgment on doctrinal errors. But this arrangement was cried down as a revolutionary departure from all established precedent; and he had much ado to secure the compromise that doctrines and practical reforms should be simultaneously discussed. But in the midst of its labours the council was prorogued (March 1547) in consequence of a quarrel between the pope and emperor. In 1551 it met again, only to be again prorogued in 1552. Ten years later it met again for a third and final session, lasting throughout 1562 and 1563. During those ten years great changes had taken place. Charles V. had followed Pole and his peace-loving colleagues to the grave; in his place stood his son, Philip II. of Spain, while the intel- lectual leadership of the council fell to Jaime Laynez, general of the newly founded Society of Jesus. There was no longer any question of ' reconciliation with the Protestants. North Germany, England, Scandinavia were irretrievably lost to Rome; wars of religion had broken out in France. Clearly the one hope was to enter into a desperate struggle for the possession of such countries as still hung in the balance; and that could best be done by striking at the heart of the Reforma- tion. Protestantism centred — or was by Catholics supposed to centre — in a mysterious "right of private judgment"; the council accordingly retorted by hymning the praises of obedience, of submitting to authority and never thinking for oneself. To waverers it held up an absolutely sure and uniform Rule of Faith, contrasting impressively with the already mul- titudinous variations of the Protestant Churches. Moreover, thanks to Laynez, it accomplished this task without running the obvious danger of tying itself hand and foot to the past. When old-fashioned theologians talked about the canons and .councils of antiquity, Laynez answered that the Church was not more infallible at one time than another; the Holy Ghost spoke through the decrees of Trent quite as plainly and directly as through the primitive Fathers.. Thus the council's authority became at once peremptory and elastic. But the real gainer was the pope. Hitherto infallibility had been thought of as the supreme weapon of the Church's armoury, destined only for use at some extraordinary crisis; hence it was naturally con- ceived of as residing only in the extraordinary authority of a general council presided over by the pope. Since the outbreak of the Reformation, however, extraordinary crises, calling for immediate decision, might arise at any moment. It was no longer possible to wait for the assembling of a general council; stronger and stronger grew the tendency to ascribe infallibility to the pope alone, as being always on the spot. Doctrine and discipline once settled at Trent, the work of counter-reformation could begin. Rebels were won back by force wherever force could be applied. In Spain fbe the Inquisition soon snuffed out the few Reformers. Counter- In Italy, though declared Protestants were few, there Kttormm- was widespread sympathy with some of Luther's a°"' ideas; a committee of cardinals at Rome was accordingly organized into an Inquisition, with branches at the chief Italian towns. For half a century trials were many at Venice and elsewhere, but actual executions were only common at Rome; the most illustrious victim was the philosopher Giordano Biuno, burnt in 1600. In the imperial dominions, however, there could be no recourse to the stake. The peace of Augsburg (1555) forbade the German princes to persecute, though it recognized their right to determine to what religion their subjects should belong, and to banish nonconformists. At first this compro- mise had worked in favour of the Reformation, but presently the Catholic princes began to turn it against their Protestant subjects. " Governments learned to oppress them wisely, depriving them of church and school, of pastor and school- master; and by those nameless arts with which the rich used to coerce the poor in the good old days. Fervent preachers came amongst them, widely differing in morality, education, earnestness and eloquence from the parish clergy, whose de- ficiencies gave such succour to Luther. Most of those who, having no taste for controversy, were repelled by scandals were easily reconciled. Others, who were conscious of dis- agreement with the theology of the last thousand years, had now to meet disputants of a more serious type than the adversaries of Luther, and to meet them unsupported by experts of their own. Therefore it was by honest conviction, as well as by calculated but not illegal coercion, that the Reformation was driven back " (Acton, Lectures on Modern History, p. 123). This system was not an unmixed success; for its extension to Bohemia early in the I7th century brought about the Thirty Years' War. But it obliged the authorities to pay anew atten- tion to the training of the clergy. The " seminary system " came into being— that is, the custom of obliging candidates for ordination to spend several years in a theological college, whence lay influences were carefully excluded. But ecclesi- astical learning of a wider type was also promoted. Gregory XIII. (1572-85) and Sixtus V. (1585-90) dreamed of making Rome once more the capital of European culture. Gregory re- formed the Calendar, and founded the university that bears his name. Five years of power were enough for Sixtus to reform the central government of the Church and the administration of the Papal States, to set on foot the Vatican press and issue an official edition of the Vulgate. Their efforts bore fruit in many quarters. In Rome arose Cardinal Baronius, first of 49° ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH modern Church historians; Spain produced Suarez, most philosophical of divines. A generation later the French Oratory became the home of Malebranche and of Richard Simon, father of Biblical criticism. Mabillon and his Benedictines of Saint- Maur paved the way for the systematic investigation of his- torical records. The Flemish Jesuit Bolland brought the light of criticism to bear on the legends of the saints (see BOL- LANDISTS). His French colleague, Petau, better known under his latinized surname of Petavius, opened still wider floodgates when he taught that theological dogmas, like everything else, have a history. Lastly, the Jansenkt " hermitage " at Port Royal contributed the historian Tillemont, whose bigotry Edward Gibbon declares to be overbalanced by his erudition, veracity and scrupulous minuteness. Other such communi- ties and " congregations " — semi-monastic bodies standing in closer touch with the world than did the medieval orders — undertook the diffusion of knowledge. Wherever they went the Jesuits opened grammar-schools, which had the double advantage of being excellent and cheap. An Italian sisterhood, the Ursulines, was founded for the higher instruction of girls; late in the lyth century a French priest started the Christian Brothers, pioneers of elementary education. Other com- munities again devoted themselves to parochial work. Such were the Oratorians of St Philip Neri, founded to evangelize the middle classes of Rome. Such, again, were the Lazarists of St Vincent de Paul, whose duty was to preach in neglected country districts. But the most interesting of all these new foundations was the Sisters of Charity, also founded by St Vincent de Paul. This admirable body represents a signifi- cant departure from medieval ideals. The old-fashioned nun had spent her time behind high walls in prayerful contempla- tion; the one object of the Sister of Charity was the service of her neighbour. Not that medieval ideals were by any means dead; they never burned more brightly than in the Spain of St Teresa (1515-82). Her first idea had been to combat alike the heresies and the worldliness of her time by a return to the austerities of a more heroic age. With this object she founded her order of " Discalced " or barefooted Carmelites; it presently became the refuge of Louise de la Valliere and many another penitent of rank. But mere bodily rigours were not enough for Teresa; she felt the need of rising to a state of complete detachment from all earthly interests and ties. Her whole theology centres in the lines — " The love of God flows just as much As that of ebbing self subsides; Our hearts, their scantiness is such, Bear not the conflict of these rival tides." How, then, subdue the rivalry? Teresa turned to the mystical writers, and learnt from them how to root out the last relics of self-love from the mind by a long discipline of mystical trance and " contemplation." These ideas, in a very modified form, were introduced into France by the great devotional writer, St Francis of Sales; in the latter half of the i7th century they were pushed to the extravagant length known as Quietism by Fenelon, and especially by -Madame Guyon and Michel de Molinos. Meanwhile, the leading conception from which St Teresa started had developed along characteristically different lines in the mind of her compatriot and contemporary, Ignatius Loyola. He quite agreed that self-will was the enemy; but was there no quicker way of checkmating it than an interminable course of ecstasies and austerities? The thoughts of the converted soldier flew back to the military virtue of obedience. In the long-run no self- imposed hardships could prove quite as disagreeable as always being under the orders of some one else. Obedience accordingly became the typical virtue of Ignatius's society (see JESUITS). The individual Jesuit obeyed his superior, who obeyed the rector, who obeyed the provincial, who obeyed the general, who obeyed the pope, who took his orders straight from God Al- mighty. Such a theory was of untold practical value to the Church of Rome, more especially during the era of the Reforma- The Jesuits. tion. Laynez at the council of Trent has given one signal instance of its working, but its operations were by no means confined to the abstract field of dogma. If men were really to be made obedient, it could only be by stopping them from thinking for themselves about the everyday problems of conduct; and the best way to do this was to furnish them beforehand with a ready-made code of answers to such problems, warranted to meet all needs. Hence casuistry and the confessional Casulst loomed large on the Jesuit horizon. The casuist's duty was to apply the general precepts of the Church to par- ticular cases. He explained, for instance, when a man was strictly bound to tell the truth; when he might avail himself of the mild licence of an equivocation; and when the Church placed at his service the greater indulgence of a mental reserva- tion. The confessor brought the casuist's principles to bear on the conscience of his penitents, and thus saved them from the danger of acting on their own responsibility (see CASUISTRY). In its origin this system was a perfectly honest attempt to widen the sphere of obedience by making morality wholly objective and independent of the vagaries of the individual conscience. But what was begun in the interest of obedience was carried on in those of laxity. Experts proverbially differ, and the casuists were no exceptions to the rule. But when great authorities were at variance, it ill became an average priest or penitent to decide. Whatever a grave doctor said must have some solid reasons behind it — aliqua niti pro- babilitate — and humble lay-folk could act upon it without a twinge of conscience. Thus arose lax casuists of the type of Antonio Escobar (1589-1669), the central figure of Pascal's Provincial Letters. Their whole business was to hunt through the older authorities in search of " benign " decisions. Their temptation is easy to understand. Half Europe was full of waverers between Protestantism and Catholicism tolerably certain to decide for the Church that offered them the cheapest terms of salvation; and even in wholly Catholic countries many, especially of the upper class, might easily be scared away from the confessional by severity. Thereby their money and influence would be lost to the Church, and their souls robbed of the priceless benefit of priestly absolution. On the other hand, these " Escobarine morals " by no means passed unchallenged; ever since the foundation of the society the aims and methods of the Jesuits had called forth lively opposi- tion in many parts of Catholic Europe, and not least in Loyola's native land of Spain. But the most effective protest against them was a movement which began when Michel de Bay, a professor at the Flemish university of Louvain, put forward certain theories on grace and free-will in the latter part of the i6th century. In 1640 a much more elaborate statement of the same ideas appeared in a posthumous treatise on the theology of St Augustine from the pen of Cor- nelius Jansen, also a Louvain professor (see JAN- SENISM). Into the technical detail of the controversy there is no need to enter. It is enough to say that two rival doctrines of grace and free-will were struggling for mastery in the Roman Church. One theory emphasized the necessity of grace; having been put together by St Thomas Aquinas, it was known as Thomism, and was especially championed by the Dominicans. The other laid the chief stress on free-will; it was known as Molinism from its inventor, the Jesuit Louis de Molina, and was in great favour with the society. The two orders came into violent collision at Rome between 1588 and 1606. But the quarrel, known as the controversy de auxiliis gratiae, was brought to an end by Pope Paul V., who closed the debates and adjourned his decision sine die. At first sight this abstract question seemed endlessly remote from the practical policy of Escobar; really there is a close connexion between the two. The whole system of the Jesuits rested on a basis of free-will. Their quarry was the average man; and the best way of impressing the average man is to set before him duties that he feels himself fully capable of performing. Then he will really feel morally responsible if he leaves them undone, hence the necessity of free-will. .On ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 49 the other hand, as Jansen pointed out, free-will tends to make the average man's estimate of his own powers into the supreme criterion of all that is good and right. God must perforce be satisfied with whatever common sense thinks it fair and reasonable that He should expect. Jansen accordingly de- nounced free-will as dishonouring to God, and destructive of the higher interests of morality. But, if men threw over common sense, what was to be their guide in life? Jansen answered with his doctrine of Irresistible Grace. This was simply a cumbrous way of saying that God awakens in the righteous heart an intuitive faculty of discerning right from wrong. " This holy taste or relish, " says a follower of Jansen, " distinguishes between good and evil without being at the trouble of a train of reasoning; just as the nature and tendency of a heavy body, let fall from a height, shows the way to the centre of the earth more exactly in a moment than the ablest mathematician could determine by his most accurate observa- tions in a whole day." That being so, the Jansenist obeyed his Inner Light, and paid little heed to the earth-bound standards of unregenerate common sense. Nor was he much more respectful towards the official standards of the Church. Why should he consult a casuist rather than his Inner Light? Thus the Jesuits saw themselves menaced by a grave revolt. What would become of the confessional if penitents were allowed to act on what they fondly took to be a heaven-sent inspiration? In a twinkling they would be off to some spiritual Wonderland, where no confessor could bring them to book. On the other hand, only preach to them a strong doctrine of free-will, and all these dangers vanished. They would feel bound to disregard their sporadic intuitions, and act only for reasons that would be clearly set out in black and white. Their past performances could then be checked, and their future actions forecast by the priest; and there was small danger of their straying beyond the limits marked out by authority. Thus within the spiritual sphere free-will led up to Jesuit obedience. But in the secular world this paradox failed to obtain; there free-will was only too ready to come into conflict with the Church. The isth and i6th centuries had seen the final break-up of the medieval system of reverence for authority and tradition. In art and learning, morals and government, the old wails came crashing down; in the general bankruptcy of authority men were forced to depend on them- selves. And the contemporaries of Machiavelli soon learned to take the fullest advantage of this liberty to pursue their own best interests in the way that pleased them best. But if individuals might be guided by self-interest, why should that privilege be denied to associations of men? On the The ruins of a medieval Christendom, hierarchically Papacy organized under the pope, grew up the " new mon- andthe archy, " or modern state, owning no law but its NewMon- Qwn wjjj Yet the popes laid aside none of their medieval claims, or even their traditional weapons. In 1606 Paul V. laid Venice under an interdict, on the ground that the republic had infringed the immunities of the clergy; the doge replied by threatening with death any one who took any notice of the papal thunders. Thenceforward the thunders continued chiefly on paper. In 1625 Catholic Europe was scandalized by the De Schismate of the Jesuit Santarelli, in which he claimed for the pope an absolute right to interfere in the concerns of secular princes, whenever he chose to declare that the interests of religion were in any way concerned. He could dictate their policy at home and abroad, revise their statute-book, upset the decisions of their law-courts. If they refused to listen he could punish them in any manner he thought fit; in the last resort he could release their subjects from allegiance and head a crusade of Catholic powers against them. These pretensions roused a special burst of indignation in France. There, on the divisions of the wars of religion, had followed an irresistible reaction towards patriotism and national unity. France had suddenly grown to her full stature; like the contemporary England of John Milton, she was become a " noble and puissant nation, rousing herself like a strong man after sleep." Even the clergy were swept away by the current, and meant to be patriots like every one else. " Before my ordination, " said the eminent theologian Edmond Richer, " I was a subject of the king of France: why should that ceremony make me a subject of the pope? " Subjection to the pope implied an Italianization of French religion; and most Frenchmen looked on the Italians as an inferior race. Why, then, should the right to decide ecclesiastical disputes be taken away from their own highly competent fellow-countrymen, and reserved for a set of incapable judges in a foreign land? Germany and Spain might let themselves be bitted and bridled if they chose, but for centuries France had prided herself that, thanks to her Gallican liberties, she stood on a different footing towards Rome. The Liberties in question were certain ancient rights, whose origin was lost in the mists of time. One forbade papal bulls to be published in France without the consent of the crown. Another exempted French subjects from the jurisdiction of the Inquisition and other Roman tribunals — such as the Index of Prohibited Books. In the 1 7th century such immunities were all the more valuable since French statesmen found themselves in an awkward position. The great aim of Henry IV. and Richelieu was to exalt France at the expense of Vienna and Madrid. But Madrid and Vienna were the official champions of the papacy; hence to make war on them was indirectly to make war on the- pope. This was enough to trouble the consciences of many excellent men; and it became necessary to devise a compromise that should set their minds at rest, by showing them that they could be at once good citizens and good Catholics. This compromise is known as Gallicanism. In the hands of Bossuet and other eminent divines it was developed along both theological and political lines. Theological Gallicanism refused to recognize papal decisions on questions of doctrine, until they had been ratified by the bishops of France. Political Gallicanism main- tained that lawful sovereigns held their power directly of God, and not mediately through the pope. Hence no amount of misgovernment, or neglect of Catholic interests, could justify Rome in interfering with them. In other words, Bossuet only answered Santarelli by setting up the divine right of kings. However, this dogma by no means scandalized the subjects of Louis XIV., for the worship of the sovereign was one of their most cherished instincts. And Louis's ecclesiastical policy flattered their national pride. He introduced no theological novelties; all he did was to insist that, in matters of administra- tion, he would be master in his own house. He supported pope and bishops so long as they took their marching orders from him. If they refused he was perfectly ready to make war on the one and send the others to the Bastille. It is eminently characteristic of his methods that, just at the same time as he was turning loose dragoons on his Protestant subjects after the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685), he was employing other dragoons to invade the papal territory at Avignon, to punish Innocent XI. for' having refused institution to some of his nominees to bishoprics. The revocation of the edict of Nantes owes quite as much to the dream of political absolutism, inherited from Richelieu, as to religious bigotry. In the words of Saint-Simon, the Huguenots were " a sect that had become a state within the state, dependent on the king no more than it chose, and ready on the slightest pretext to embroil the whole country by an appeal to arms." So long as they were powerful, the crown had treated with them; but when once their power began to dwindle, it was certain that the crown would crush them. But during Louis's latter years, when the War of the Spanish Succession had brought a rain of disasters thickly upon him, bigotry got the upper hand. The broken old man became feverishly anxious to propitiate offended Heaven, and save himself another Blenheim or Malplaquet, by exterminating the enemies of the Church. And his Jesuit confessors had no doubt 492 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH that the first and foremost of those enemies were the Jansenists. Not only did their doctrine of grace defy the favourite Jesuit principle of obedience to authority, but it bade fair to set aside the whole Catholic machinery of infallibility and sacraments. If God spoke directly to the individual conscience, what was the use of intermediaries? Led by his Jesuits, Louis wrung The Bull from the unwilling Clement XI. the Bull Unigenitus Uaigeal- (1713), which was intended to deprive believers in in- *"•• dividual inspiration of all possible foothold within the Roman Church. The bull caused a violent uproar. Fenelon, although personally an admirer, admits that public opinion credited it with " condemning St Augustine, St Paul, and even Jesus Christ "; and the few Jansenist bishops appealed and " re-appealed " against it. But the government was inexor- able; in 1730 the Unigenitus became part and parcel of the law of the land. Still, to make a law is one thing; to get it administered is quite another. The parlement of Paris was a strongly Galilean body, and had many grievances to avenge on Louis XV. and his ministers. To annoy them, it put every possible difficulty in the way of an execution of the bull. Under the fostering care of the judges, a belief sprang up that to call oneself a " Jansenist, " and oppose the Unigenitus, was to show oneself a lover of civil and religious liberty. This feeling was intensified by the conviction that every blow struck against the bull was a blow against the Jesuits, its authors. For the Society, as befitted the great exponent of authority and the keeper of the consciences of many kings, had always been on the side of political autocracy; and therefore it became in- creasingly unpopular, when once the tide of French intelligence began to set in the direction of revolutionary reform. Nor were the Jesuits in much better odour among other nations. Their perpetual meddling in politics, and even in speculation and finance, stank in the nostrils of every government in Europe; while their high-handedness and corporate greed in the matter of ecclesiastical privileges and patronage alienated the clergy. Their reform was more than once discussed; and death alone prevented Benedict XIV. (1740-58) the most remarkable of the iSth-century popes, from taking some very stringent measures. A year after Benedict's death the Suppres- fifst kl°w feN- P°mbal, the great reforming minister sloa of in Portugal, expelled them from that country on a *Ae charge of having conspired against the life of the Jesuits. king. Two years later the Paris parlement had its chance. La Valette, superior of the Jesuit missions in Marti- nique, had set up as a West-India merchant on a large scale. His enterprises were unsuccessful; in 1761 he became insolvent, and the Society refused to be responsible for his debts. The French courts made the consequent bankruptcy proceedings the excuse for a general inquiry into the Society's constitution, and ended by declaring its existence illegal in France, on the ground that its members were pledged to absolute obedience to a foreigner in Rome. Louis XV. now proposed that the French Jesuits should be placed under some special organiza- tion, less obnoxious to his parlement. The general only made the famous reply: " Sint ut sunt, aut non sint." Thereupon Louis let the judges have their way. In 1762 the Society was suppressed in France; in 1767 it was also declared illegal by Spain, Naples and other Italian powers. Pressure was now put on Clement XIII. to dissolve the Society altogether. He refused; but his successor, Clement XIV., was more pliable, and in 1773 the Jesuits ceased to be. In France the philosophes and the quarrels over the Unigenitus had effectually killed the spirit of religion; nor was the Christi- anity of other countries at a much higher ebb. Spain was utterly dumb; Italian fervour could only boast the foundation of two small orders of popular preachers — the Passionists (i737), and the Redemptorists, instituted in 1732 by St Alfonso Liguori (q.v.), who also won for himself a dubious reputation on the unsavoury field of casuistry. German Catholicism was still in a very raw, unsophisticated state. It is character- istic that, while Paris had its Bossuets and Bourdaloues, Vienna was listening to Abraham a Sancta Clara, the punning Capuchin whom Schiller, regardless of dates, introduces into the opening scene of his Wallenslein. However, from Germany was to come a serious attempt at reform. There the vision of a reunion with the Protestants had haunted many Catholic brains ever since Bossuet and Leibniz had corresponded on the subject. Faithful to the ancient tradition of Contarini and Pole at Trent, these good men persisted in supposing that the Reformation was nothing more than a protest against practical abuses: remove the abuses, and the rest would follow of itself. And, inasmuch as they held that most abuses were due to the slippery and procrastinating greed of Roman officials, the first step should be ruthlessly to curtail the power of Rome and extend that of local Churches. Such was the theme of a book, De statu Ecclesiae, ad reuniendos dis- sidentes in religione Christianas composilus, published by one Justinus Febronius in 1763. The author was Johann Nikolaus von Hontheim (q.v.), suffragan in partibus to the elector- archbishop of Treves. Hontheim's theories could not but prove attractive to the local Churches, more especially when they were governed by bishops who were also temporal great lords. The three ecclesiastical electors and the prince-archbishop of Salzburg met in congress at Ems in 1786, and embodied Hon- theim's proposals, though in a very modified form, in a docu- ment known as the " punctuation of Ems " (see FF.BRONIANISM). Meanwhile, their overlord, the emperor Joseph II. (1780-90), was dealing with the question of a much more radical spirit, and actually abolishing abuses wholesale. The reign of " Brother Sacristan, " the nickname given to Joseph by Frederick the Great, was one continual suppression of superfluous abbeys, feast-days, pilgrimages. More dignified were his attempts to broaden the minds of the clergy. Instead of being brought up in diocesan seminaries, centres of provincial narrowness, candidates for ordination were to be collected into a few large colleges set up in university towns. Still, Joseph only touched the surface; his brother, the grand-duke Leopold of Tuscany, aspired to cut deeper, and provoke a religious revival on the lines of Jansenism. His plans, which made a great stir at the time, were outlined at a synod held at Pistoia in 1786 (see PISTOIA, SYNOD OF). Three years later, however, the world had more important things to think of than Leopold's ecclesiastical reforms. At first the French Revolution was by mo means anti- Ttle Catholic — though the Constituent Assembly remem- Preach bered too much of the quarrels about the Unigenitus Revoiu- not to be bitterly hostile to Rome — and its great aim was to turn the French Church into a purely national body. Hence it decreed the " civil constitution of the clergy. " Bishops and rectors were made elective, with salaries paid by the state; and all priests were required to take an oath of fidelity to the government: those who refused the oath rendered themselves liable to banishment. Three years later the triumph of the Jacobins brought with it the " abolition of Christianity," and a spell of violent persecution, which gradually slackened under the Directory (1795-99). In J799 Napoleon became First Consul, and at once set himself to deal with the ecclesi- astical problem. There must clearly be a Church, and the small success of the Civil Constitution made clear that public opinion would not put up with a Church practically detached from Rome. On the other hand, Napoleon quite agreed with Louis XIV. in wishing to be master in his own house, and to turn the clergy into a supplementary police. Accordingly, in 1801 he negotiated with Pius VII. a Concordat, which remained in force till 1905 (see CONCORDAT). The state undertook to pay the bishops and parochial clergy; it was directly to Prance appoint the one, and to have a veto on the appoint- and the ment of the other. " But for the religious orders no P*P*een Practically settled in favour of the pope, no lafaiii- council had yet formally acknowledged its defeat. binty. Indeed, many prominent French and German divines still denied papal infallibility altogether; and Louis Napoleon had regularly fallen back on Richelieu's old device of stirring up the embers of Gallicanism, whenever the French clergy grew restive about his alliance with Victor Emmanuel. And even the more moderate believers in the pope's infallibility maintained that it was merely negative, a heaven-sent im- munity against falling into error. But Pius and his immediate circle argued that this was not enough. The great need of the age was authority; and authority was most likely to strike the imagination of the faithful if it found a vivid concrete embodi- ment in the person of the pope. He must not simply be immune from error; truth must stream down on his head from heaven, and on his head alone. " We all know only one thing for certain," wrote the great Catholic pamphleteer, Louis Veuillot, " and that is that no one knows anything, except the man with whom God is for ever, the man who carries the thoughts of •God." But this view was too extreme for the council; the most Pius could hope for was to be declared immune from error, instead of positively inspired. Even this negative in- fallibility was stoutly contested by the French and German bishops during the eight months that the council lasted (De- cember 1869 to July 1870). But they were richer in talents than numbers: out of six hundred prelates they only com- manded eighty votes. Most left Rome before the final session ; only two — one from Naples, one from the United States — con- tinued their protest up to the end. On the i8th of July the pope's decrees were declared " irreformable of themselves, irrespectively of the consent of the Church," always provided that they dealt with doctrines of faith and morals, and were delivered ex cathedra — that is, with the intention of binding the consciences of all Catholics. These limitations were the work of the moderate infallibilists, but the real hero of the day was Pius. Theologians might draw their fine-spun dis- tinctions between realms where the pope was actually infallible and realms where he was not; but Pius knew well that loyal Catholic common sense would brush their technicalities aside and hold that on any conceivable question the pope was fifty times more likely to be right than any one else (see VATICAN COUNCIL and INFALLIBILITY). So absolute became the papal sovereignty over conscience that more than one government took alarm. While the council was still sitting the Bavarian minister, Prince Chlodwig zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst, suggested to Bismarck that the Powers would do well to bring its deliberations to an end; and immediately after the publication of its decrees Austria notified the pope that so vast an extension of the Church's claims would necessitate a revision of the concordat. And when the ex- communication of Dollinger and other anti-infallibilist divines (1871) led to the formation of an independent Old ou Catholic Church (see OLD CATHOLICS) Bavaria, c*ttioU- Switzerland and other countries gave it a warm wel- **"*• come. So also did Berlin. The new German empire, con- solidated through wars with Catholic Germany and Catholic France, was of all countries least likely to tolerate Roman attempts to dictate to its subjects. Tension was increased by the fact that the Centre, or Catholic, party in the Reichstag was led by Windhorst, formerly prime minister to the dis- possessed king of Hanover, and thus naturally became identi- fied with the opposition of the smaller German states to the supremacy of Prussia. The quarrel began in 1871 when the Prussian government supported some teachers in state-aided Catholic schools whom the bishops wished to dismiss on account of their anti-infallibilist opinions. A year later, under the ministry of Falk, it developed into what the great scientist, Rudolf Virchow, called a Kidturkampf,oi conflict of civilizations. The famous May laws (1873) were a determined at tempt The to bring the literary education, appointment and dis- KuHur- cipline of the clergy under state control, and to regulate t"apt. the use of such spiritual penalties as deprivation and excom- munication. When the bishops refused to obey, Falk fell back on force. The Jesuits were banished from the German Empire, and most of the other orders from Prussia. The archbishops of Gnesen and Cologne and many minor dignitaries were im- prisoned (1874); and the so-called "Bread-basket Law" was passed to coerce the parish clergy by suspending the salaries of the disobedient. The result of these severities was exactly the opposite of what Falk intended. He had meant only to lop off a few ultramontane extremists; he succeeded in send- ing Catholics of every shade and colour pell-mell into the arms of Rome. And the effect remained long after the cause had died away. On the death of Pius IX. (February 1878) his successor, Leo XIII., at once showed himself willing to come to terms. Negotiations were long and difficult; for Bismarck would not abolish the May laws outright, and Leo had much ado to hold in check the zelanti of the Vatican. But Falk retired in 1879; various mutual concessions were made which led to a gradual abrogation of the May laws. Yet — thanks to its organization, its press, and the elaborate network of alliances spun by Windhorst — the Ultramontane Centre still remains a powerful force in German politics. This conciliatory policy towards Berlin was the first-fruits of a new regime; Leo XIII. was in every way a complete contrast to Pius IX. Pius had fed on inspirations; Leo was a man of calm, deliberate judgment, little likely to '^xill yield to the promptings of his mvnsignori. He was a polished scholar of the old-fashioned type; early in his reign he threw open the Vatican Archives to the students of the world. Having spent his youth in the papal diplomatic service — he was nuncio at Brussels from 1843-46 — he had a certain knowledge of the workings of parliamentary institutions, while the years immediately before his accession had been spent as archbishop of Perugia, so that he was not closely identified with any of the Vatican parties. The results of a change of master were soon seen. Pius IX. had died at war with almost every country in Europe. He had quarrelled with Austria; Russia was persecuting its Catholic subjects; France was under the spell of Gambetta and his doctrine that clericalism was the enemy; Spain and Belgium followed France; even Switzerland was waging a Kulturkampf on a small scale. In a few years Leo had made peace with Austria, pacified Switzer- land and Belgium, opened up negotiations with Russia; while his elevation of Newman to the cardinalate (1879) made a great impression in Great Britain. About 1886 hopes even ran high that he was on the eve of a reconciliation with King Hum- bert at the Quirinal. These hopes were vain. Leo was abso- lutely convinced that a territorial sovereignty was required to 496 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH ensure the moral independence of the papacy; and he believed that the new Italian kingdom was a mushroom growth, that might fall in pieces at any moment. Hence he followed in the steps of Pius IX. and refused to recognize the existence of the de facto government in any way whatsoever; he would not accept the subsidies it offered him, or allow Catholics to take any part in political life. During the earlier years of his reign he undoubtedly had hopes of recovering his lost dominions with the help of Germany, and Bismarck was not the man to discourage such expectations. They were suddenly blasted when Germany, Italy and Austria entered into a Triple Alliance at the end of 1887. Thereafter Leo turned to France. Already in 1884 he had warned the French clergy against meddling in royalist intrigues; in 1892 he issued a much more stringent exhortation to French Catholics to rally to the Republic. An idea got abroad that he was looking to the time when the old dream of Lamennais and Gioberti might become a reality, and Italy would split up into a number of republics, amongst which the temporal power of the pope might find a place. Certainly his public pronouncements took on an increasingly democratic tone. From the first he had shown great interest in social questions; and his encyclicals deal much Socialism ^ess with theology than with citizenship, socialism, labour, the marriage-laws. Under his influence a Christian Socialist movement sprang up in France and Belgium, and soon spread to Italy, Germany and Austria. It had un- doubtedly done much to awaken interest in social problems, and to call forth philanthropic zeal; but the movement soon travelled far beyond the limits that Leo would have set to it. In Germany, in particular, it has grown into a political party connected with the Social Democrats; nor have the democratic socialists been slow to exploit their Christian allies for their own ends. And in other countries the attempt to bring re- ligion into politics has sometimes had the effect of lowering religion, rather than ennobling politics. In an age of universal suffrage public men cannot afford to appeal to pure reason, or even to pure sentiment. Christian socialism becomes a real force when it translates itself into anti-Semitism; and anti-Semitism is at its strongest when it is pursuing one par- ticular Jewish captain in the French artillery. Much on the same lines stands the Italian Catholic attempt to show that the Freemasons are the real founders of Italian independence, and to take the field against them with the help of Leon Taxil and " Diana Vaughan." And, quite apart from their political colouring, such attempts to meet the devotional tastes of the masses as the miracles of Lourdes, or the modern French religious press, lie well within the range of criticism. Nor have they even had the dubious merit of success. Dying in 1903, Leo XIII. was spared from seeing the failure of his policy of reconciliation with the French Republic; for the " de- nunciation of the concordat " (December 1903) and consequent p, x separation of Church and State took place under his successor, Pius X. What results this measure may have on France it must be left to the future to decide. Nor is it yet possible to forecast the result of the only other sensational event that the reign of Pius X. has yet produced— his con- demnation in 1907 of the complex movement known as Modernism. This began as an attempt to break loose from the neo-Scholasticism so ardently patronized both by Pius IX. and Leo XIII., and to supplant the critical methods of the medieval doctors by those of modern scholarship; and its leaders have won special distinction in the fields of Biblical criticism and ecclesiastical history. But Modernism soon broadened into a thoroughgoing revolt against the modes of thought and methods characteristic of the latter- day Vatican; its motto is that Catholicism is the strength of popery, but popery the weakness of Catholicism. By "popery " must here be understood the belief that spiritual doctrines always lend themselves to a precise embodiment in black and white, and can thereafter be dealt with like so many clauses of an act of parliament. Modernists deny that the spirit of religion can be thus imprisoned in an unchangeable formula; Modern- ism. they hold that it is always growing, and therefore in continual need of readjustment and restatement. On the other hand, they maintain that the present always has its roots in the past, and therefore they are opposed to any violent change; they consider, for instance, that northern Europe would have done better to listen to Erasmus than to Luther. But progress can leave little room to individual initiative, if it must always be orderly and systematic; and the Modernists accordingly show little sympathy with Protestantism. The core of their creed is a fervid belief in the infallibility of Catholic instinct, if only Catholic theology can be induced to leave it to develop in peace. Hitherto the theologians have shown small dis- position to hold their hand; and several of the leading Modern- ists have been excommunicated (see especially the article LOISY, A. F.), while the whole movement was condemned in bitter and scathing language by Pius X.'s encyclical (Pascendi gregis) against the Modernists. But ideas are difficult to kill, and it is possible that the Modernist movement may yet prove to be the opening chapter of a mighty revolution within the Church of Rome.1 BIBLIOGRAPHY. — The literature on the Roman Catholic Church is, of course, vast. Many works will be found in the lists of authorities appended to the articles to which cross-reference is made above, notably PAPACY. Here it is only possible to give a few outstanding books of reference. The most compendious of all works of reference on the subject, though partly antiquated, is the Encyclopedic theologique of the Abb6 Migne (1844-^66), Ser. I. 50 vols., Ser. II. 52 vols., Ser. III. 66 vols. This is a series of dictionaries, and contains Fr. P6rinne«'s Dictionnaire de bibliographie catholique, 5 vols. (Paris, 1858-60). A useful systematized bibliography is also given in the Subject Index of the London Library (1909), pp. 945-51. Other encyclopaedias are Watzer and Welter's Kirchenlexikpn, 13 B. (2nd ed., Hergenrother, &c., 1882-1903), Roman Catholic (there is a French translation of the ist edition, ed. T. Goschler, 1870); Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie fur Protestantische Theologie und Kirche (3rd «d., Leipzig, i896_-i9O9), Protestant, but containing articles of universally recognized scientific authority on many aspects of the Roman Catholic Church; the Catholic Encyclopaedia (London and New York, 1907 ff.), invaluable as an authoritative account of Roman Catholicism in all its phases, by eminent Catholics of all nations. All these encyclopaedias are also bibliographies. (ST C.) The Church in England. The origin of the English Roman Catholics as a community separated from the National Church is generally held to date from the accession of Queen Elizabeth in 1558. In the following year was passed an Act of Supremacy, whereby all public officials, clerical and lay, were required to acknow- ledge the supremacy of the queen " as well in spiritual things or causes as temporal." This declaration all the existing bishops, with two exceptions, refused to make; some fled the country, some were imprisoned, others simply deprived and placed under surveillance.8 To the parish clergy the declaration was not systematically tendered; of those deprived of their livings a large number were allowed to remain on as chaplains in private families. From laymen, unless they happened to hold some public office, no declaration was expected; and during the earlier years of Elizabeth's reign most of them continued to attend at their parish church. The line of division became much more acute when Pius V. deposed Elizabeth from her throne (1570); thenceforward her government looked on every Catholic as a potential rebel. Already it had passed a severe act against the Catholics in 1562; this was followed by other measures in 1571, 1580, 1584, 1585, 1593. During the forty-five%years of Elizabeth's reign, however, only about 180 persons suffered death' — less than half the number of those whom the Catholic zeal 1 For a criticism of the modern tendencies of the Roman Catholic Church from an outside point of view see ULTRAMONTANISM. 2 From the Roman- Catholic point of view the ancient English hierarchy came to an end with the death of Thomas Goldwell, some time bishop of St Asaph, at Rome on the 3rd of April 1585. Some six months previously Thomas Watson, formerly bishop of Lincoln, had died in prison in England. 1 Not as heretics, by burning, but as traitors, by hanging, drawing and quartering. But, since to say or hear mass was constructive treason, the distinction was, in many cases, without a difference. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 497 of her sister, Queen Mary, had burnt in one-ninth of the time. Under James I. an attempt was made to distinguish between the loyal and disloyal Catholics, the latter comprising all those who maintained the pope's right to depose sovereigns from their throne. This led to a violent division among the Catholics themselves. Many forswore the deposing power; the majority, acting under imperative orders from Rome, refused to deny it. The government retorted by adding several new penal laws to the statute-book, though less than thirty Catholics were brought to the scaffold during James's reign. Under Charles I. the position of the Catholics was greatly im- proved, largely owing to the king's marriage with a French princess. Although not actually repealed, the penal laws were seldom put in force, and mass was openly celebrated in London and elsewhere. On the outbreak of the Civil War the Catholics naturally sided with the king, and a great many fell fighting for the royalist cause; towards the survivors Cromwell was unexpectedly merciful. Very few were put to death, though a number of estates were confiscated. Under Charles II. came a new period of prosperity; two Catholics, Lords Arlington and Clifford, were admitted to the inner circles of the govern- ment. Protestant suspicion was excited; in 1673 was passed the Test Act, obliging all office-holders to receive the sacrament in the Established Church, and to declare their disbelief in transubstantiation.1 Five years later (1678) popular exaspera- tion found a more savage outlet, and greedily swallowed the tales of Titus Gates about a mythical " popish plot." A number of victims were brought to the scaffold, and Catholics were declared incapable of sitting in either house of parliament. James II., however, was utterly indifferent to the feelings of his subjects. He packed the privy council, the army and the universities with Catholics, and tried to legalize the exercise of their religion by an utterly unconstitutional Declaration of Indulgence. Three years were enough to convince the nation that he was " endeavouring to subvert and extirpate the Protestant religion, and the laws and liberties of this kingdom"; and on his deposition in 1688 Roman Catholics, or persons married to Roman Catholics, were declared incapable of succeeding to the throne. A new oath of allegiance was imposed on all holders of civil or military office; they were required to swear that no foreign prelate had, or ought to have, any jurisdiction, whether civil or ecclesiastical, within the realm. Further, a number of statutes were passed with the object of putting every possible obstacle in the way of Catholics educating their children in their own creed, or of inheriting or buying land. That they remained so long " utterly disabled from bearing any public office or charge " was due to the participation of many of their number in the Jacobite revolts of 1715 and 1745. After Culloden, however, it was seen that all serious danger of a Stuart restoration was passed; and in 1778 Catholics who abjured the Pretender and denied the civil authority of the pope were relieved from their most pressing disabilities. A proposal to extend this measure to Scotland led to violent agitation in that country. Feeling soon spread to England, and culminated in the Gordon riots of 1780. Meanwhile, however, strenuous efforts were being made by the Roman Catholics to obtain relief by establishing a reasonable modus vivendi with the government. Within the Catholic body itself there was even at this time a more or less pronounced anti-Roman movement, a reflection of the Gallican and Febronian tendencies on the continent of Europe, and the " Catholic Committee," consisting for the most part of influential laymen, which had been formed to negotiate with the government, was prepared to go a long 1 This declaration, which denounced the mass as " idolatrous and superstitious," was taken by all office-bearers, including bishops on taking their seats in the House of Lords, until the Relief Act of 1829. It was imposed by the Act of Settlement on the sovereign also, in ofder to make impossible any repetition of the policy of James II. This " Declaration of the Sovereign " formed the subject of heated debate on the accession of kings Edward VII. and George V., and in August 1910 parliament substituted for it a simple declaration of adhesion to the Protestant religion. way in repudiating the extreme claims of the Holy See, some even demanding the creation of a national hierarchy in merely nominal dependence on Rome, and advocating the substitution of English for Latin in the services. This attitude led to a somewhat prolonged conflict between the Committee and the vicars apostolic, who for the most part represented the high ultramontane view. The outcome of the Committee's work was the great Protest, signed by 1500 bishops, priests and leading laymen, in which the loyalty of Catholics to the crown and constitution was strenuously affirmed and the ultramontane point of view repudiated in the startling declara- tion, " We acknowledge no infallibility in the pope." As the result of the negotiations preceding and following this action, the government in 1791 passed a bill relieving from all their more vexatious disabilities those Roman Catholics* who rejected the temporal authority of the pope; and during the first quarter of the ipth century a series of attempts was made to abolish Catholic disabilities altogether. To this, however, George III. and his successors were bitterly opposed; only in 1829 did George IV. give way, and allow the passage of the Catholic Relief Act. This virtually removed all restric- tions on Catholics, except that it left them incapable of filling the offices of Regent, Lord Chancellor, or Lord Lieutenant of Ireland; and it expressly debarred their priests from sitting in the House of Commons. Ecclesiastical Administration. — During the reign of Elizabeth this was necessarily in a chaotic state. As the Marian clergy died out, their place was taken by priests trained at theological colleges established for this purpose at Douai, Rome, Valladolid and other places. These were the " seminary priests," objects of great suspicion to the government. About 1580 Jesuit missionaries began to come, and soon became involved in bitter quarrels with the secular missionaries already at work. Mutual jealousies were only increased when the seculars were grouped together under an arch-priest in 1599. Nor were matters much bettered when* the papacy took advantage of the presence of a Catholic queen in England, and sent over in 1625 a vicar- apostolic3 — that is, a prelate in episcopal orders, but without the full authority of a diocesan bishop. He was soon compelled to withdraw, and the direction of affairs fell to an intermittent series of papal envoys accredited to Henrietta Maria or Catherine of Braganza. On the accession of James II. a new vicar- apostolic — John Leyburne, bishop of Adrumetum in partibus — was at once appointed (1685); three years later England was divided into four districts — the London, Midland, Northern and Western — each under a vicar-apostolic. This arrangement lasted till 1840, when the number of vicariates was doubled by the addition of the Welsh, Eastern, Lancashire and Yorkshire districts. In 1850 came the " restoration of the hierarchy " by Pope Pius IX., when England was mapped out into an arch- bishopric of Westminster4 and twelve suffragan sees, since in- creased to fifteen (sixteen including the Welsh see of Menevia). This " papal aggression " caused great excitement at the time, and an Ecclesiastical Titles Act was passed in 1851, though never put in force, forbidding Roman Catholic prelates to assume territorial designations.* * They were described in the first draft of the bill as " Protesting Catholic Dissenters," but this was changed, in deference to the strenuous remonstrances of the vicars-apostolic, into " Roman Catholics." 3 Richard Smith, bishop of Chalcedon in partibus (d. 1655). 4 Cardinal Wiseman (q.v.) was the first archbishop of Westminster. It was on his advice that Pope Gregory XVI. increased the number of English vicariates-apostolic in 1839, and from 1840 onward, as vicar-apostolic first of the Midland and afterwards of the London district, he was mainly instrumental in bringing the English Roman Catholic Church into closer touch with " the spirit of Rome." .The outward sign of this was the substitution of the Roman ritual for the English ore-Reformation use hitherto followed in the ser- vices, while English Roman Catholicism became increasingly ultra- montane in temper, a tendency much strengthened under Cardinal Manning. 6 The titles of the sees could not by law be the same as those of the Established Church. In several cases, however (e.g. Birmingham, Liverpool, Southwark, Newcastle), sees have since been created by ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH Population. — No trustworthy figures are forthcoming as to the numbers of the English Roman Catholics at the different stages of their history. At the accession of Elizabeth they undoubtedly formed a large proportion of the population. During her reign they greatly decreased, and the decrease continued during the I7th century. A return, made with some apparent care soon after the accession of William III., estimates their total number at barely 30,000. During the i8th century they began to increase; a return presented to the House of Lords in 1780 estimates their number at nearly 70,000. Joseph Berington, himself a distinguished Catholic priest, considers that this number was above the mark; he reports that his co-religionists were most numerous in Lancashire and London; next came Yorkshire, Northumberland and Stafford- shire. In many of the southern counties there were scarcely any Catholics at all. Even in Berington's time, however, there was a certain tendency to increase; and the great number of conversions that followed the Relief Act of 1791 was a stock argument of opponents of the act of 1829. Of late years, notably since the Oxford Movement within the Established Church, the number of converts has been much increased ; for some time past it has aver- aged about 8000 souls a year. But a far more potent factor in swelling the numbers of the Catholics has been the immigration of the Irish, which began early in the igth century, but was enormously stimulated by the famine of 1846. In 1870 Mr Ravenstein reckoned the total number of Roman Catholics in England as slightly under a million, of whom about 750,000 were Irish, and 50,000 foreigners. By 1910 the general total is considered to have risen to about a million and a half. (Sx C.) AUTHORITIES. — Alphons Bellesheim, Cardinal Allen und die Eng- lischen Seminare (Mainz, 1885); Katholische Kirche in Schottland (Mainz, 1886; translated and enlarged by D. O. Hunter-Blair, O.S.B., Edinburgh, 1887); Katholische Kirche in Irland (1890); Charles Dodd (a pseudonym of Hugh Tootell), Church History of England (1737); edited by M. A. Tierney, London, 1839); Joseph Berington, State and Behaviour of the English Catholics (1780); Charles Butler, Historical Memoirs respecting the English, Irish and Scottish Catholics (London, 1819) ; T. F. Knox, The Douay Diaries (1878) and Letters of Cardinal Allen (1882); j. Morris, Catholic England in Modern Times (1892); T. Murphy, Catholic Church in England during the Last Two Centuries (1892); W. J. Amherst, History of Catholic Emancipation (2 vols., London, 1886); F. C. Husenbeth, Life of John [Bishop\Milner (Dublin,l862) ; Wilfrid Ward, Life and Times of -Cardinal Wiseman (2 vols., London, 1897); E. S. Purcell, Life of Cardinal Manning (2 vols., London, 1895); Bernard Ward, Dawn of the Catholic Revival in England, 1781-1803 (2 vols., 1909). For the sufferings under the penal laws see, for general reference, R. Stanton, A Menology of England and Wales (with supplement, London, 1892), and Bishop Challoner's Missionary Priests (1741 ff.), which still remains the standard work on the subject. English Law relating to Roman Catholics. — The history of the old penal laws against Roman Catholics in the United Kingdom has been sketched above and in the article IRELAND, History.1 The principal English acts directed against " popish recusants"2 will be found in the list given in the acts repealing them (7 & 8 Viet. c. 102, 1844; 9 & 10 Viet. c. 59, 1846). The principal Scottish act was 1700, c. 3; the principal Irish act, 2 Anne c. 3. Numerous decisions illustrating the practical operation of the old law in Ireland are collected in G. E. Howard's Cases on the Popery Laws (1775). The Roman Catholic Eman- cipation Act 1829 (10 Geo. IV. c. 7), although it gave Roman Catholic citizens in the main complete civil and religious liberty, at the same time left them under certain disabilities, trifling in comparison with those under which they laboured before 1829. Nor did the act affect in any way the long series of old statutes directed against the assumption of authority by the Roman see in England. The earliest of these which is still law is the Statute of Provisors of 1351 (25 Edw. III. st. 4). The effect of the Roman Catholic Charities Act 1832 is to place Roman Catholic schools, places of worship and education, and charities, and the property held therewith, under the laws applying to Protestant nonconformists. The Toleration Act act of parliament bearing the same titles, so that there are now often two bishops bearing the same style. From the point of view of the State, that of the Roman Cathclic bishop is, of course, only a title of courtesy, the Anglican bishop alone having the legal right to bear it. 1 See also Stephen's History of the Criminal Law, vol. ii. p. 483 ; Anstey, The Law affecting Roman Catholics (1842); Lilly and Wallis, Manual of the Law specially affecting Catholics (1893). 1 A recusant signified a person who refused duly to attend his parish church. does not apply to Roman Catholics, but legislation of a similar kind, especially the Relief Act of 1791 (31 Geo. III. c. 32), exempts the priest from parochial offices, such as those of church- warden and constable, and from serving in the militia or on a jury, and enables all Roman Catholics scrupling the oaths of office to exercise the office of churchwarden and some other offices by deputy. The priest is, unlike the nonconformist minister, regarded as being in holy orders. He cannot, there- fore, sit in the House of Commons, but there is nothing to prevent a peer who is a priest from sitting and voting in the House of Lords. If a priest becomes a convert to the Church of England he need not be re-ordained. The remaining law affecting Roman Catholics may be classed under the following five heads: — (1) Office. — There are certain offices still closed to Roman Catholics. By the Act of Settlement a papist or the husband or wife of a papist cannot be king or queen. The act of 1829 provides that nothing therein contained is to enable a Roman Catholic to hold the office of guardian and justice of the United Kingdom, or of regent of the United Kingdom; of lord chancellor, lord keeper, or lord commissioner of the great seal of Great Britain or Ireland or lord lieutenant of Ireland; of high commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, or of any office in the Church of England or Scotland, the ecclesiastical courts, cathedral founda- tions and certain colleges. The disability in the case of the lord chancellor of Ireland was removed by statute in 1867, with necessary limitations as to ecclesiastical patronage. The act of 1829 pre- served the liability of Roman Catholics to take certain oaths of office, but these have been modified by later legislation (see 29 & 30 Viet. c. 19; 30 & 31 Viet. c. 75; 31 & 32 Viet. c. 72; 34 & 35 Viet. c. 48). Legislation has been in the direction of omitting words which might be supposed to give offence to Roman Catholics. The only offices which Roman Catholics are not legally capable of holding now are the lord chancellorship of England and the lord lieutenancy of Ireland (see, however, Lilly and Wallis, pp. 36-43). (2) Title. — The act of 1829 forbids the assumption by any person, other than the person authorized by law, of the name, style or title of an archbishop, bishop or dean of the Church of England. The Ecclesiastical Titles Act 1851 went further, and forbade the assump- tion by an unauthorized person of a title from any place in the United Kingdom, whether or not such place were the seat of an archbishopric, bishopric or deanery. This act was, however, repealed in 1867, but the provisions of the act of 1829 are still in force. (3) Religious Orders. — It was enacted by the act of 1829 that " every Jesuit and every member of any other religious order, community or society of the Church of Rome bound by monastic or religious vows " was, within six months after the commencement of the act, to deliver to the clerk of the peace of the county in which he should reside a notice or statement in the form given to the schedule to the act, and that every Jesuit or member of such religious order coming into the realm after the commence- ment of the act should be guilty of a misdemeanour and should be banished from the United Kingdom for life (with an exception in favour of natural-born subjects duly registered). A secretary of state, being a Protestant, was empowered to grant licences to Jesuits, &c., to come into the United Kingdom and remain there for a period not exceeding six months. An account of these licences was to be laid annually before parliament. The admission of any person as a regular ecclesiastic by any such Jesuit, &c., was made a misdemeanour, and the person so admitted was to be banished for life. Nothing in the act was to extend to religious orders of females. These provisions exist in posse only, and have, it is believed, never been put into force. (4) Superstitious Uses. — Gifts to superstitious uses are void both at common law and by statute. It is not easy to determine what gifts are to be regarded as gifts to superstitious uses. Like con- tracts contrary to public policy, they depend to a great extent for their illegality upon the discretion of the court in the particular case. The act of 23 Hen. VIII. c. 10 makes void any assurance of lands to the use (to have obits perpetual) or the continual service of a priest for ever or for threescore or fourscore years. The act of I Edw. VI. c. 14 (specially directed to the suppression of chantries) vests in the crown all money paid by corporations and all lands appointed to the finding or maintenance of any priest, or any anniversary or obit or other like thing, or of any light or lamp in any church or chapel maintained within five years before 1547. The act may still be of value in the construction of old grants, and in affording ex- amples of what the legislature regarded as superstitious uses. Gifts which the courts have held void on the analogy of those mentioned in the acts of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. are a devise for the good of the soul of the testator, a bequest to certain Roman Catholic priests that the testator may have the benefit of their prayers and masses, a bequest in trust to apply a fund to circulate a book teaching the supremacy of the pope in matters of faith, a bequest to maintain a taper for evermore before the image of Our Lady. The court may ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 499 compel discovery of a secret trust for superstitious uses. Since 2 & 3 Will. IV. c. 115 gifts for the propagation of the Roman Catholic faith are not void as made to superstitious uses. It should be noticed that the doctrine of superstitious uses is not confined to the Roman Catholic religion, though the question has generally arisen in the case of gifts made by persons of that religion. The Roman Catholic Charities Act 1860 enables the court to separate a lawful charitable trust from any part of the estate subject to any trust or provision deemed to be superstitious. It also provides that in the absence of any written document the usage of twenty years is to be conclusive evidence of the application of charitable trusts. (5) Patronage. — A Roman Catholic cannot present to a benefice, prebend, or other ecclesiastical living, or collate or nominate to any free school, hospital or donative (3 lac. I. c. 5). Such patronage is by the act vested m the universities, Oxford taking the City of London and twenty-five counties in England and Wales, mostly south of the Trent, Cambridge the remaining twenty-seven. The principle is affirmed in subsequent acts (l Will, and Mary, sess. I, c. 26; 12 Anne, st. 2, c. 14; n Geo. II. c. 17). If the right of presentation to an ecclesiastical benefice belongs to any office under the crown, and that office is held by a Roman Catholic, the archbishop of Canter- bury exercises the right for the time being (10 Geo. IV. c. 7, s. 17). No Roman Catholic may advise the crown as to the exercise of its ecclesiastical patronage (Ibid. s. 18). A Roman Catholic, if a number of a lay corporation, cannot vote in any ecclesiastical appointment (Ibid. s. 15). Grants and devises of advowsons, &c., by Roman Catholics are void, unless for valuable consideration to a Protestant purchaser (n Geo. II. c. 17, s. 5). Where a quare impedit is pending before any court, the court may compel the patron to take an oath that there is no secret trust for the benefit of a Roman Catholic. (J.W.) The Church in the United Stales. The history of Roman Catholicism in the New World begins with the Norse discoveries of Greenland and Vinland the Good. In the former the bishopric of Gardar was established in 1112, and extinguished only in 1492. To the latter (the coast of New England), the Northmen during the same period made " temporary visits for timber and peltries, on missionary voyages to evangelize for a season the natives." Beyond these facts, the Norse sagas and chronicles contribute little that is certain (cf. " The Norse Hierarchy in the United States," Amer. Cath. Quart. Review, April 1890). Although a bishop was appointed by the pope for the vaguely defined territory of Florida so early as 1528, the oldest Catholic community in what is now the United States dates from 1565, when the Spanish colony of St Augustine was founded. Hence the aboriginal tribes of the South were evangelized. In 1582 the missions of New Mexico were undertaken, and from 1601 Catholic missionaries were at work along the Pacific coast, especially in California. Early in the iyth century trading posts and mission centres were established on the coast of Maine, and during the same century French priests laboured zealously in northern New York, along the entire coast of the Mississippi from Wisconsin to Louisiana, and around the Great Lakes. Their principal concern was for the savages, over whom they acquired an extraordinary influence. Political jealousies, human avarice and treachery arrested the progress of most of their missions. The English colony of Maryland, planned by the Catholic George Calvert (ist Lord Baltimore), and founded (1634) by his son the Catholic Cecilius Calvert (2nd Lord Baltimore), and Pennsylvania, founded (1681) by the tolerant Quaker William Penn, first permitted the legal existence of Catholicism in English-speaking communities of the New World. It is from these centres that it spread during the i8th century. In 1784 the Rev. John Carroll was appointed prefect-apostolic for the Catholics of the English colonies hitherto dependent on the vicar-apostolic of London. In 1790 Father Carroll was made bishop of the see of Baltimore, and given charge of all the Catholic interests in the United States. There were then about 24,500 Catholics in the land, of which number 15,800 were in Maryland, and 7000 in Pennsylvania, 200 in Virginia and 1 500 in New York. In 1807 they had grown to 150,000 with 80 churches. In the following year Baltimore found itself the first metropolitan see of the United States, with New York, Philadelphia, Boston and Bardstown as suffragans. The growth of the Catholic population by decades since 1820 was calculated by a competent historian, the late John Gilmary Shea, as follows: — 1820 . . 244,500 1870 1880 1830 1840 1850 361,000 1,000,000 1,726,470 1890 3,000,000 4,685,000 7,067,000 10,627,000 The number in 1906 was 12,079,142 (U.S. Census, Special Report, 1910). The main source of this growth has been immigration. Originally the Irish and the Germans furnished the greater quota. Later the French-Canadians, Italians, Poles and Bohemians added notably to the number; an appreciable percentage of Oriental Catholics is also found, — Greeks, Syrians, Armenians, &c. Natural increase, especially among the first Catholic immigrants, and a certain per- centage of conversions from Protestantism, are contributory sources. Being under the protection of the constitution, and enjoying the advantages of the common law, Catholicism could not meet with any official opposition; such few outbursts of fanaticism as there have been were but temporary or local, and did not represent the true feelings of the country. As to the future of the Church in the United States, all Catholics feel, with their latest historian, that " the Catholic Church is in accord with Christ's revelation, with American liberty, and is the strongest power for the preservation of the Republic from the new social dangers that threaten the United States as well as the whole civilized world. She has not grown, she cannot grow so weak and old that she may not maintain what she has produced — Christian civilization." Internally, Catholicism in the United States has been free from any noteworthy schisms or heresies that might impede its development — its doctrinal history offers nothing of im- portance. The discipline differs little from that of the other churches of Catholicism. The unity of doctrine, liturgy and moral ideals is preserved by an intimate union with the see of Rome. The general canonical legislation of the Church, the legislation by papal rescript and the Congregation of the Propaganda, the decisions of the Apostolic Delegation at Washington, and a certain amount of immemorial custom and practice, form the code that governs its domestic relations. Decennially each bishop of the United States is expected to pay a visit to Rome (Ad Limina Apostolorum), and to make a report of the spiritual condition of religion within his diocese. In addition a system of synods provides for local unity among bishops, priests and laity. Thus each province or body of bishops under a metropolitan holds provincial councils, while at greater intervals a plenary or national council is held. Of these last three have taken place — their decrees, when approved at Rome, are binding on all Catholics in the United States. In education the Catholic Church endeavours to keep abreast with the best. There are, according to Hoffmann's Directory (Milwaukee, 1907), 4364 parochial schools, in which 1,006,842 children of both sexes receive instruction. The total number of children in Catholic institutions is given as 1,266,175. There are 198 colleges for boys and 678 academies for girls. This system of education is crowned by the Catholic University of America at Washington, established by Leo XIII. and the American hierarchy, and endowed with all the privileges of the old pontifical universities of Europe. In addition there are several other schools that rank as universities. The education of the clergy is provided for by 86 seminaries, in which there are 5697 students. The chari- table institutions in the Church are very numerous. There are 255 orphan asylums, with 40,588 inmates. The other charitable institutions are 992 in number, and include every form of public and private charity; no diocese is without one or more such estab- lishments. The actual government of the Church in the United States is represented by one cardinal, 14 archbishops, 89 bishops, 11,135 diocesan clergymen, under the sole and immediate direction of their bishops, 3958 members of religious orders subject to epis- copal supervision — in all 15,093 clergymen. There are .8072 churches with resident priests, and 4076 mission churches — in all 12,148. to which must be added 3358 chapels. Several hundred weekly publications are printed in English and foreign tongues, to minister to the needs of the Catholic population. There exist also several literary and academical magazines and reviews of a high order of merit. The principal religious events in the recent history of the C were the holding of the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore (1884), 500 ROMANCE the Catholic Congress (1889), the opening of the Catholic University (1889), the Columbian Educational Exhibit at Chicago (1893), the establishment of the Apostolic Delegation at Washington (1893). The Catholic Church in the United States conducts no foreign missions, but takes care of its own percentage of Jndians and Negroes. Of the Indian population of the United States about 48,194 are Catholics, and they are attended by 65 priests, who look after 96 churches or chapels; there are 50 schools conducted by members of 16 sisterhoods, in which 4430 children are educated. The Catholic negroes are about 138,573 in number. They have 47 churches conducted by 43 white clergymen; 114 schools, in which 6294 children are educated by 31 sisterhoods, who also conduct ii charitable institutions. The expenses of these missions are borne by private charity, and by a general annual collection. AUTHORITIES. — General History: John Gilmary Shea, Life and Times of Archbishop Carroll (New York, 1888) ; The Catholic Church in Colonial Days (New York, 1886) ; The Hierarchy of the Catholic Church in the United States (New York, 1886). — Bishop O'Gorman, A History of the Catholic Church in the United States (1895). This work contains a useful bibliography. — Clarke, Lives of the Deceased Bishops (1872). Statistics: The Annual Directory of the Catholic Clergy. Of these, two are published; one by D. & _f. Sadlier, New York, the other (Hoffmanns') by M. Wiltzius & Co. of Milwaukee. The Catholic general statistics of the eleventh (1890) census may be found in The Religious Forces of the United States, by H. K. Carroll (New York, 1893). See also U.S. Census, Special Report on Religious Bodies in 1900 (1910). Legislation: Acta et Decreta Concilii Plenarii Baltimorensis, iii. (Baltimore, 1886). This is illustrated and brought into relation with the general laws of the Church in Smith's Elements of Ecclesiastical Law (New York). In connexion with this may be read Humphrey's Urbs et Orbis (London, 1899), an account of the general government of Roman Catholicism. <* J- G.) ROMANCE, originally a composition written in " Romance" language: that is to say, in one of the phases on which the Latin tongue entered after or during the dark ages. For some centuries by far the larger number of these compositions were narrative fictions in prose or verse; and since the special " Romance " language of France — the earliest so-called — was the original vehicle of nearly all such fictions, the use of the term for them became more and more accepted in a limited sense. Yet for a long time there was no definite connotation of fiction attached to it, but only of narrative story: and the French version of William of Tyre's History of the Crusades, a very serious chronicle written towards the close of the I2th century, bears the name of Roman d'Erade simply because the name of the emperor Heraclius occurs in the first line. But if the explanation of the name " Romance " is quite simple, certain and authentic, the same is by no means the case with its definition, or even with the origin of the thing to which that name came mostly to be applied. For some centuries an abstraction has been formed from the concrete examples. " Romance," " romanticism," " the romantic character," " the romantic spirits," have been used to express sometimes a quality regarded in itself, but much more frequently a differ- ence from the supposed " classical " character and spirit. The following article will deal chiefly with the matter of Romance, excluding or merely referring to accounts of such individual romances as are noticed elsewhere. But it will not be possible to conclude without some reference to the vaguer and more con- tentious signification. Speculations on the origin of the peculiar kind of story which we recognize rather than define under the name of romance have been numerous and sometimes confident; but a wary and well-informed criticism will be slow to accept most of them. It is certain that many of its characteristics are present in the Odyssey; and it is a most remarkable fact that these characteristics are singled out for reprehension — or at least for comparative disapproval — by the author of the Treatise on the Sublime. The absence of central plot, and the Romance prolongation rather than evolution of the story; /nan- the intermixture of the supernatural; the presence tiquity. an(j mdeed prominence of love-affairs; the juxta- position of tragic and almost farcical incident; the variety of adventure arranged rather in the fashion of a panorama than otherwise: all these things are in the Odyssey, and they are all, in varying degrees and measures, characteristic of romance. Nor are they absent from the few specimens of ancient prose fiction which we possess. If the Satyricon was ever more than a mass of fragments, it was certainly a romance, though one much mixed with satire, criticism and other things; and the various Greek survivals from Longus to Eustathius always and rightly receive the name. But two things were still wanting which were to be all-powerful in the romances proper — Chivalry and Religion. They could not yet be in- cluded, for chivalry did not exist; and such religion as did exist lent itself but ill to the purpose except by providing myths for ornament and perhaps pattern. A possible origin of the new romance into which these elements entered (though it was some time before that of chivalry de- finitely emerged) has been seen by one of the least hazardous of the speculations above referred to in the hagiology or " Saint's Life," which arose at an early though uncertain period, developed itself pretty rapidly, and spreading over all Christendom (which by degrees meant all Europe and parts of Asia) provided centuries with their chief supply of what may be The called interesting literature. If the author of On "Saiat't the Sublime was actually Longinus, the minister of Lite." Zenobia, there is no doubt that examples both sacred and profane ofthekindof "fiction " ("imitation "or "representation") which he deprecated were mustering and multiplying close to, perhaps in, his own time. The Alexander legend of the pseudo-Callis- thenes is supposed to have seen the light in Egypt as early as A.D. 200, and the first Greek version of that " Vision of Saint Paul," which is the ancestor of all the large family of legends of the life after death, is pretty certainly as old as the 4th century and may be as old as the $rd. The development of the Alexan- dreid was to some extent checked or confined to narrow channeb as long as something like traditional and continuous study of the classics was kept up. But hagiology was entirely free from criticism; its subjects were immensely numerous; and in the very nature of the case it allowed the tendencies and the folk- lore of three continents and of most of their countries to mingle with it. Especially the comparative sobriety of classical literature became affected with the Eastern appetite for marvel and unhesitating acceptation of it; and the extraordinary beauty of many of the central stories invited and necessitated embroidery, continuation, episode. Later, no doubt, the adult romance directly reacted on the original saint's life, as in the legends of St Mary Magdalene most of all, of St Eustace, and of many others. But there can be very little doubt that if the romance itself did not spring from the saint's life it was fostered thereby. Proceeding a little further in the cautious quest — not for the definite origins which are usually delusive, but for the tendencies which avail themselves of opportunities and the opportunities which lend themselves to tendencies — we may notice two things very important to the subject. The one is that as Graeco-Roman civilization began to spread North and East it met, to appearance which approaches certainty, matter which lent itself gladly to " romantic " treatment. The That such matter was abundant in the literature gathering and folk-lore of the East we know: that it was even ' more abundant in the literatures and folk-lore of the North, if we cannot strictly be said to know, we may be reason- ably sure. On the other hand, as the various barbarian nations (using the word in the wide Greek sense), at least those of the North, became educated to literature, to " grammar," by classical examples, they found not a few passages in these examples which were either almost romances already or which lent themselves, with readiness that was almost insistence, to romantic treatment. Apollonius Rhodius had made almost a complete romance of the story of Jason and Medea. Virgil had imitated him by making almost a complete romance of the story of Aeneas and Dido: and Ovid, who for that very reason was to become the most popular author of the middle ages early and late, had gone some way towards romancing a great body of mythology. We do not know exactly who first applied to the legendary tale of Troy the methods which the ROMANCE pseudo-Callisthenes and " Julius Valerius " applied to the histori- cal wars of Alexander, but there is every reason to believe that it was done fairly early. In short, during the late classical or semi-classical times and the whole of the dark ages, things were making for romance in almost every direction. It would and did follow from this that the thing evolved itself in so many different places and in so many different forms that only a person of extraordinary temerity would put his finger on any given work and say, " This is the first romance," even putting aside the extreme chronological uncertainty of most of the documents that could be selected for such a position. Except by the most meteoric flights of " higher " criticism we cannot attain to any opinion as to the age and first developed form of such a story as that of Weland and Beadohild (referred to in the Complaint of Dear), which has strong romantic pos- Uncer- sibilities and must be almost of the oldest. The taiaty of much more complicated Volsung and Nibelung story, its order, though we may explore to some extent the existence backwards of its Norse and German forms, baffles us beyond certain points in each case; yet this, with the exception of the religious element, is romance almost achieved. And the origin of the great type of the romance that is achieved — that has all elements present and brings them to absolute perfection — the Arthurian legend, despite the immense labours that have been spent upon it and the valuable additions to particular knowledge which have resulted from some of them, is, still more than its own Grail, a quest unachieved, probably a thing unachievable. The longest and the widest inquiries, provided only that they be conducted in any spirit save that which deter- mines to attain certainty and therefore concludes that certainty has been attained, will probably acquiesce most resignedly in the dictum that romance " grew " — that its birthplace is as unknown as the grave of its greatest representative figure. But when it has " grown " to a certain stage we can find it, and in a way localize it, and more definitely still analyse and comprehend its characteristics from their concrete ex- pressions. Approaching these concrete expressions, then, without at first too hard and fast requirements in regard to the validation of the claims, we find in Europe about the nth cen- fooreef turv (tne time k designedly left loose) divers classes of what we should now call imaginative or fictitious literature, nearly all (the exceptions are Scandinavian and Old English) in verse. These are: (i) The saints' lives; (ii) the Norse sagas, roughly so-called; (iii) the French chansons de geste; (iv) the Old English and Old German stories of various kinds; (v) perhaps the beginning of the Arthurian cycle; (vi) various stories more or less based on classical legend or history from the tales of Alexander and of Troy down to things like Apollonius of Tyre, which have no classical auth- ority of either kind, but strongly resemble the Greek romances, and which were, as in the case named, pretty certainly derived from members of the class; (vii) certain fragments of Eastern story making their way first, it may be, through Spain by pil- grimages, latterly by the crusades. Now, without attempting to fence off too rigidly the classical from the romantic, it may be laid down that these various classes possess that romantic character, to which we are, by a process of netting and tracking, slowly making our way, in rather different degrees, and a short examination of the differ- ence will forward us not a little in the hunt. With i. (the saints' lives) we have least to do: because by the time that romance in the full sense comes largely and clearly into view, it has for the most part separated itself off — the legend of St Eustace has become the romance of Sir Isumbras, and so forth. But the influence which it may, as has been said, have originally given must have been continually re-exerted; the romantic-dynamic suggestion of such stories as those of St Mary of Egypt, of St Margaret and the Dragon, of St Dorothea, and of scores of others, is quite unmistakable. Still, in actual result, it works rather more on drama than on narrative romance, and produces the miracle plays. In ii. (the sagas), while a large part of their matter and even not a little of their form are strongly romantic, differences of handling and still more of temper have made some demur to their inclusion under romance, while their final ousting in their own literatures by versions of the all-conquering French romance itself is an argument on the same side. But the Volsung story, for instance, is full of what may be called " undistUled " romance the wine is there, but it has to be passed through the still — and even in the most domestic sagas proper this characteristic is largely present. It is somewhat less so in iii. (the chansons de geste), at least in the apparently older ones, though here again the com- parative absence of romantic characteristics has been rather exaggerated, in consequence of the habit of paying dispro- portionate and even exclusive attention to the Chanson de Roland. There is more, that is, of romance in Aliscans and others of the older class, while Amis and A miles, which must be of this class in time, is almost a complete romance, blending war, love and religion — salus, venus, virtus — in full degree. The other four classes, the miscellaneous stories from classical, Eastern and European sources, having less corporate or national character, lend themselves with greater ease to the conditions of romantic development; but even so in different degrees. The classical stories have to drop most of their original character and allow something very different to be superinduced before they become' thoroughly romantic. The greatest success of all in this way is the story of Troilus andCressida. For before its develop- ment through the successive hands of Benolt' de Sainte-More, Boccaccio (for we may drop Guido of the Columns as a mere middleman between Benoit and Boccaccio) and Chaucer, it has next to no classical authority of any kind except the mere names. In the various Alexandreids the element of the marvellous — the Eastern element, that is to say — similarly overpowers the classical. As for the Eastern stories themselves, they are particularly difficult of certain unravelment. The large moral division — such as Barlaam and Josaphat, the Seven Wise Masters in its various forms, &c., comes short of the strictly romantic. We do not know how much of East and how much of West there is in such things as Flare et Blanchefleur or even in Huon of Bordeaux itself. Contrariwise we ought to know, more certainly than apparently is known yet, what is the date and history of such a thing as that story of Zumurrud and Ali Shahr, which may be found partly in Lane and fully in the complete translations of the Arabian Nights, though not in the commoner editions, and which is evidently either copied from, or capable of serving as model to, a Western roman d'avenlures itself. We come, however, much closer to the actual norm itself — closer, in fact, than in any other place save one — in the various stories, English, French, and to a less extent German,1 which gradually received in a loose kind of way the technical French term just used, a term not to be translated without danger. Nearly all these stories were drawn, by the astonishing centri- petal tendency which made France the home of all romance between the nth and the I3th centuries, into French forms; and in most cases no older ones survive. But it is hardly possible to doubt that in such a case, for instance, as Havelok, an original story of English or Scandinavian origin got itself into existence before, and perhaps long before, the French version was retransferred to English, and so in other cases. If, once more, we take our existing English Havelok and its sister King Horn, we see that the latter is a more romanced form than the former. Havelok is more like a chanson de geste — the love interest in it is very slight ; while in King Horn it is much stronger, and the increased strength is shown by the heroine being in some forms promoted into the title. If these two be studied side by side the process of transforming the mere story into the full romance is to no small extent seen in actual 1 Italian romance seems to have modelled itself earjy on French, and it is doubtful, rich as is the late crop of Spanish romances, whether we have any that deserve the name strictly and are really early. 502 ROMANCE operation. But neither exhibits in any considerable degree the element of the marvellous, or the religious element, and the love interest itself is, even in Horn, simple and not very dramatically or passionately worked out. In the later roman d'aventures, of which the I3th century was so prolific (such as, to give one example out of many, Amadas and Idoine), these elements appear fully, and so they do in the great Auchinleck collection in English, which, though dating well within the I4th, evidently represents the meditation and adaptation of French examples for many years earlier. The last of our divisions, however, exhibits the whole body of romantic elements as nothing else does. It is not our business in this place to deal with the Arthurian legend generally as regards origin, contents, &c., nor, in the present division of this actual article, to look at it except for a special purpose and in connexion with and contradistinction to the other groups just surveyed. Here, however, we at last find all the elements of romance, thoroughly mixed and thoroughly at home, with the result not merely that the actual story becomes immensely popular and widely spread; not only that it receives the greatest actual development of any romantic theme; but that, in a curious fashion, it attracts to itself great numbers of prac- tically independent stories — in not a few cases probably quite independent at first — which seem afraid to present themselves without some tacking on (it may be of the loosest and most accidental description) to the great polycentric cycle, the stages of which gather round Merlin, the Round Table, the Grail and the Guinevere-Lancelot-Mordred catastrophe. All the elements, let it be repeated, are here present: war, love and religion; the characteristic extension of subject in desultory adventure- chronicles; the typical rather than individual character (though the strong individuality of some of the unknown or half-known contributors sometimes surmounts this); the admixture of the marvellous, not merely though mainly as part of the religious element; the presence of the chivalrous ideal. The strong dramatic interest of the central story is rather superadded to than definitely evolved from these elements; but they are still present, just as, though more powerfully than, in the weakest of miscellaneous romans d'aventures. A further step in the logical and historical exploration of romance may be taken by regarding the character-and-story classes round which it instinctively groups itself, sto/yf ° and which from the intense community of medieval literature — the habit of medieval writers not so much to plagiarize from one another as to take up each after each the materials and the instruments which were not the property of any — is here especially observable. Prominent above every- thing is the world-old motive of the quest; which, world-old as it is, here acquires a predominance that it has never held before or since. The object takes pretty various, though not quite infinitely various, forms, from the rights of the dis- inherited heir and the hand or the favour of the heroine, to individual things which may themselves vary from the Holy Grail to so many hairs of a sultan's beard. It may be a friendly knight who is lost in adventure, or a felon knight who has to be punished for his trespasses; a spell of some kind to be laid; a monster to be exterminated; an injured virgin, .or lady, or an infirm potentate, to be succoured or avenged; an evil custom to be put an end to; or simply some definite adventure or exploit to be achieved. But quest of some sort there must almost certainly be if (as in Sir Launfal, for instance) it is but the recovery of a love forfeited by misbehaviour or mishap. It is almost a sine qua non — the present writer, thinking over scores, nay hundreds, of romances, cannot at the moment remember one where it is wanting in some form or another. It will be observed that this at once provides the amplest opportunity for the desultory concatenation or congregation of incident and episode which is of the very essence of romance. Often, nay generally, the conditions, localities and other circumstances of the quest are half known, or all but unknown, to the knight, and he is sometimes Of loci' deat. intentionally led astray, always liable to be incidentally called off by interim adventures. In many (perhaps most) cases the love interest is directly connected with the quest, though it rnay be in the way of hindrance as well as of furtherance or reward. The war interest always is so connected; and the religious interest commonly — almost universally in fact — is an in- separable accident. But everything leads up to, involves, eventuates in the fighting. The quest, if not always a directly warlike one, always involves war; and the endless battles have at all times, since they ceased to be the great attraction, continued to be the great obloquy of romance. It is possible no doubt that reports of tournaments and single combats with lance and sword, mace and battle-axe, may be as tedious to some people as reports of football matches certainly are to others. It is certain that the former were as satisfactory in former times to their own admirers as the latter are now. In fact the variety of incident is almost as remarkable as the sameness. And the same may be said, with even greater confidence, of the adventures between the fights in castle and church and monastery, in homestead or hermitage. The actual stories are not much more alike than those who have read large numbers of modern novels critically know to be the case with them. But the absence, save in rare cases, of the element of character, and the very small presence of that of conversation, show up the sameness that exists hi the earlier case. This same deficiency in individual character-drawing, and in the conversation which is one of its principal instruments, brings out in somewhat unfair relief some other F ii_ t » Of per- cases of apparent sameness — the common forms soaages. of story and of character itself. The disinherited heir, the unfaithful or wronged wife, the wicked stepmother, the jealous or wrongly suspected lover, are just as universal in modern fiction as they are in medieval — for the simple reason that they are common if not universal in nature. But the skeleton is more obvious because it is less clothed with flesh and garments over the flesh; the texture of the canvas shows more because it is less worked upon. Some of these common forms, however, are more peculiar to medieval times; and some, though not many, allow excursions into abnormalities which, until recently, were tabooed to the modern novelist. Among the former the wickedness of the steward is remarkable, and of course not difficult to account for. The steward or seneschal of romance, with some honour- able exceptions, is as wicked as the baronet of a novel, but here the explanation is not metaphysical. He was constantly left in charge in the absence of his lord and so was exposed to temptation. The extreme and almost Ephesian consolable- ness of the romance widow can be equally rationalized — and in fact is so in the stories themselves — by the danger of the fief being resumed or usurped in the absence of a male tenant who can maintain authority and discharge duties. While such themes as the usually ignorant incest of son with mother or the more deliberate passion of father for daughter come mostly from very popular early examples — the legend of St Gregory of the Rock or the story of Apollonius of Tyre. The last point brings us naturally to another of considerable importance — the singular purity of the romances as a whole, if not entirely in atmosphere and situation, yet in charac- language and in external treatment. It suited the ters of purposes of the Protestant controversialists of the Renaissance, such as our own Ascham, to throw discredit upon work so intimately connected with Catholic ceremony and belief as the Morte d' Arthur; and it is certain that the knights of romance did not even take the benefit of that liberal doctrine of the Cursor Mundi which regards even illicit love as not mortal unless it be " with spouse or sib." But if in the romances such love is portrayed freely, and with a certain sympathy, it is never spoken of lightly and is always punished; nor are the pictures of it ever coarsely drawn. In a very wide reading of romance the present writer does not remember more than two or three passages of romance proper romance proper. ROMANCE 503 (that is to say before the later part of the isth century) which could be called obscene by any fair judge. And the term would have to be somewhat strained in reference even to these. The contrast with the companion divisions of fabliaux and farces is quite extraordinary; and nearly as sharp as that between Greek tragedy on the one hand and Greek comedy or satiric play on the other. It is brought out for the merely English reader in Chaucer of course, but in him it might have been studied. In the immense corpus of known or unknown French and English writers (the Germans are not quite so particular) it comes out with no possibility of deliberation and with unmistakable force. The history of the forms in which romance presents itself follows a sufficiently normal and probable course. The oldest Develo • &K always — save in the single case of part of the meoLP" Arthurian division, in which we probably possess none of the actually oldest, and in some of the division of Antiquity which had a long line of predecessors in the learned languages — the shortest. They become lengthened in a way continued and exemplified to the present moment by the tend- ency of writers to add sequels and episodes to their own stories, and made still more natural by the fact that these poems were in all or almost all cases recited. " Go on " is the most natural and not the least common as well as the most complimentary form of " Bravo !" and the reciter never seems to have said " no " to the compliment. In not a few cases — Huon of Bordeaux, Ogier the Dane, Guy of Warwick, are conspicuous examples — we possess the same story in various stages; and can see how poems, perhaps originally like King Horn of not more than a couple of thousand lines or even shorter in the i3th century, grew to thirty, forty, fifty thousand in the I5th. The transference of the story itself from verse to prose is also— save in some particular and still controverted instances — regularly traceable and part of a larger and natural literary movement. While, also naturally enough, the pieces become in time fuller of conversation (though not as yet often of conversation that advances the story or heightens its interest), of descriptive detail, &c. And in some groups (notably that of the remark- able Amadis division) a very great enlargement of the pro- portion and degradation of the character of the marvellous element appears — the wonders being no longer mystical, and magical only in the lower sense. And so we come to the particular characteristics of the kind or kinds in individual examples. Of these the English reader charac- has a matchless though late instance in the Morte teristic d' Arthur of Malory, a book which is at once a corpus examples. ancj a pattern of romance in gross and in detail. The fact that it is not, as has been too often hastily or ignorantly asserted, a mere compilation, but the last of a singular series of rehandlings and redactions — conducted with extra- ordinary though for the most part indistinctly traceable instinct of genius — makes it to some extent transcend any single example of older date and more isolated composition. But it displays all the best as well as some of the less good characteristics of most if not all. Of the commonest kind — the almost pure roman d'aventures itself — the Gareth-Beaumains episode (for which we have no direct original, French or English, though Lybius Disconus and Ipomedon come near to it in different ways) will give a fair example; while its presentation of the later chapters of the Grail story, and the intertwisted plot and continuing catastrophe of the love of Lancelot and Guine- vere, altogether transcend the usual scope of romance pure and simple, and introduce almost the highest possibilities of the romantic novel. The way in which Malory or his immediate authorities have extruded the tedious wars round the " Rock of the Saxons," have dropped the awkward episode of the false Guinevere, and have restrained the uninteresting exuberance of the continental wars and the preliminary struggles with the minor kings, keeps the reader from contact with the duller sides of romance only. Of the real variety which rewards a persistent reader of the class at large it would be impossible to present even a miniature hand-index here; but something may be done by sample, which will not be mere sample, but an integral part of the exposition. No arbitrary separation need be made between French and English; because of the intimate connexion between the two. As specially and symptomatically noteworthy the famous pair — perhaps the most famous of all — Guy of Warwick and Bevis of Hampton, should not be taken. For, with the ex- ception of the separation of Guy and Felise in the first, and some things in the character of Josiane in the second, both are some- what spiritless concoctions of stock matter. Far more striking than anything in either, though not consummately supported by their context, are the bold opening of Blancandin et I'orgueilleuse d'amour, where the hero begins by kissing a specially proud and prudish lady; and the fine scenes of fight with a supernatural foe at a grave to be found in Amadas et Idoine. Reputation and value coincide more nearly in the charming fairy story of Parthenopex de Blois and the Christian-Saracen love romance of Flare (Florice and other forms) et Blanchcfleur. Few romances in either language, or in German, exhibit the pure adventure story better than Chrestien de Troyes's Chevalier au Lyon, especially in its English form of Ywain and Gawain; while the above-mentioned Lybius Disconus (Le Beau Dtconnu) makes a good pair with this. For originality of form and phrase as well as of spirit, if not exactly of incident, Gawain and the Green Knight stands alone; but another Gawain story (in French this time), Le Chevalieur aux deux fpies, though of much less force and fire, exceeds it in length without sameness of adven- ture. Only the poorest romances — those ridiculed by Chaucer in Sir Thopas — which form a small minority, lack striking individual touches, such as the picture of the tree covered with torches and carrying on its summit a heavenly child, which illuminates the huge expanse of Durmart le Gallois. The various forms of the Seven Wise Masters in different European languages show the attitude of the Western to the Eastern fiction interestingly. The beautiful romance of Emare is about the best of several treatments of one of the exceptional subjects classed above — the unnatural love of father for daughter, while if we turn to German stories we find not merely in the German variants of Arthurian themes, but in others a double portion of the mystical element. French themes are constantly worked up afresh — as indeed they are all over Europe — but the Germans have the advantage of drawing upon not merely Scandinavian traditions like those which they wrought into the Nibelungen Lied and Gudrun, but others of their own. And both in these and in their dealings with French they some- times show an amount of story-telling power which is rare in French and English. No handling of the Tristan and Iseult story can compare with Gottfried's; while the famous Der arme Heinrich of Hartmann von Aue (the original of Longfellow's Golden Legend) is one of the greatest triumphs and most charm- ing examples of romance, displaying in almost the highest degree possible for a story of little complexity all the best characteristics of the thing. What, then, are these characteristics? The account has now been brought to a point where a reasoned resume of it will give as definite an answer as can be given. Even yet we may with advantage interpose a consideration of the answer that was given to this question universally (with a few dissidents) from the Renaissance to nearly the Sum -nary end of the i8th century and not infrequently since; of opinion while it is not impossible that, in the well-attested re- "a luct~ volutions of critical thought and taste, it may be given again. This is that romance on the whole, and with some flashes of better things at times, is a jumble of incoherent and mostly ill-told stories, combining sameness with extravagance, out- raging probability and the laws of imitative form, childish as a rule in its appeal to adventure and to the supernatural, immoral in its ethics, barbarous in its aesthetics, destitute of any philo- sophy, representing at its very best (though the ages of its lowest appreciation were hardly able even to consider this) a necessary stage in the education of half-civilized peoples, and embodying some interesting legends, much curious folk- lore and a certain amount of distorted historical evidence. On 504 ROMANCE LANGUAGES the other hand, for the last hundred years .and more, there have been some who have seen in romance almost the highest and certainly the most charming form of fictitious creation, the link between poetry and religion, the literary embodiment of men's dreams and desires, the appointed nepenthe of more sophisticated ages as it was the appointed pastime of the less sophisticated. Between these opposites there is of course room for many middle positions, but few of these will be occupied safely and inexpugnably by those who do not take heed of the following conclusions. Romance, beyond all question, enmeshes and retains for us a vast amount of story-material to which we find little corre- sponding in ancient literature. It lays the foundation of modern prose fiction in such a fashion that the mere working out and building up of certain features leads to, and in fact involves, the whole structure of the modern novel (q.v.). It antiquates (by a sort of gradual " taking for granted ") the classical assump- tion that love is an inferior motive, and that women, though they " may be good sometimes " are scarcely fit for the position of principal personages. It helps to institute and ensure a new unity — the unity of interest. It admits of the most extensive variety. It gives a scope to the imagination which exceeds that of any known older literary form. At its best it embodies the new or Christian morality, if not in a Pharisaic yet in a Christian fashion, and it establishes a concordat between religion and art in more ways than this. Incapable of exacter definition, inclining (a danger doubtless as well as an advantage) towards the vague, it is nevertheless comprehensible for all its vagueness, and, informal as it is, possesses its own form of beauty — and that a precious one. These characteristics were, if perceived at all by its enemies in the period above referred to, taken at their worst; they were perceived by its champions at the turn of the tide and perhaps exaggerated. From both attitudes emerged that distinction between the " classic " and the " romantic " which was referred to at the beginning of this article as requiring notice before we conclude. The crudest, but it must be remembered the most intentionally crude (for Goethe knew the limitations of his saying), is that "Classicism is health; Romanticism is disease." In a less question-begging proposition of single terms, classicism might be said to be method and romanticism energy. But in fact sharp distinctions of the kind do much more harm than good. It is true that the one tends to order, lucidity, proportion; the other to freedom, to fancy, to caprice. But the attempt to reimpose these qualities as absolutely distinguishing marks and labels on particular works is almost certain to lead to mistake and dis- aster, and there is more than mere irony in the person who defines romance as " Something which was written between an unknown period of the Dark Ages and the Renaissance, and which has been imitated since the later part of the i8th century." What that something really is is not well to be known except by reading more or less considerable sections of it — by exploring it like one of its own forbidden countries. But something of a sketch-map of that country has been attempted here. To illustrate and reinforce the above, see in the first place articles on the different national literatures, especially French and Ice- landic; as also the following: — Classical or Pseudo-Classical Subjects. — APOLLONIUS OF TYRE; LONGUS; HELIODORUS; APULEIUS; TROY; THEBES; CAESAR, JULIUS; ALEXANDER THE GREAT; HERCULES; JASON; OEDIPUS; VIRGIL. Arthurian Romance. — ARTHUR; GAWAIN; PERCEVAL; LANCE- LOT; MERLIN; TRISTAN; ROUND TABLE; GRAIL; and the articles on romance writers such as Malory, Wolfram von Eschen- bach, Chretien de Troyes, Gottfried of Strassburg, &c. French Romance. — CHARLEMAGNE; GUILLAUMED'ORANGE; DOON DE MAYENCE; OGIER THE DANE; ROLAND; RENAUD DE MONT- AUBAN (Quatre fils Aymon); HUON OF BORDEAUX; GIRART DE ROUSSILLON; AMISETAMILES; MACAIRE; PARTONOPEUSDEBLOIS; ROBERT THE DEVIL; FLORE AND BLANCHEFLEUR; GARIN LE LOHERAIN; RAOUL DE CAMBRAI; GUILLAUME DE PALERME; ADENES LE Roi ; BENotT DE SAINTE-MORE, &c. - Anglo-Norman, Anglo-Danish, English Romance. — BEVIS OF HAMP- TON; HORN; HAVELOK; GUY OF WARWICK; ROBIN HOOD; MAID MARIAN. German. — NIBELUNGENLIED ; ORTNIT ; DIETRICH OF BERN ; WOLF- DIETRICH; HELDENBUCH; WALTHARIUS; GUDRUN; HILDEBRAND, LAY OF; RUODLIEB. Northern. — SIGURD; WAYLAND; HAMLET; EDDA. Spanish. — AMADIS DE GAULA. Various. — REYNARD; ROMAN DE LA ROSE; GRISELDA and kindred stories; GENEVIEVE OF BRABANT; GESTA ROMANORUM; BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT; SEVEN WISE MASTERS; MAELDUNE, VOYAGE OF. AUTHORITIES. — The first modern composition of importance on romance (putting aside the dealings of Italian critics in the 1 6th century with the question of romantic ». classical unity) is the very remarkable dialogue De la Lecture des vieux remans written by Chapelain in mid-i7th century (ed. Feillet, Paris, 1870), which is a surprising and thoroughgoing defence of its subjects. But for long afterwards there was little save unintelligent and mostly quite ignorant depreciation. The sequence of really important serious works almost begins with Kurd's Letters on Chivalry and Romance (1762). In succession to this may be con- sulted on the general subject (which alone can be here regarded) the dissertations of Percy, Warton and Ritson; Sir Walter Scott, " Essay on Romance " in the supplement to the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1816-24); Dunlop, History of Fiction (1816, to be usefully supplemented and completed by its latest edition, 1888, with very large additions by H. Wilson); Wolff, Allgemeine Geschichte des Romans (Jena, 1841-50); Ward, Catalogue of Romances in the British Museum (vol. i. 1883, vol. ii. 1893) (the most valuable single contribution to the knowledge of the subject) ; G. Saintsbury, The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of Allegory (Edinburgh, 1897), and its companion volumes in Periods of European Literature [W. P. Ker, The Dark Ages (1904); Snell, The Fourteenth Century (1899); Gregory Smith, The Transition Period (1900); Hannay, The Later Renaissance (1898)]; W. P. Ker, Epic and Romance (1897). (G. SA.) ROMANCE LANGUAGES, the name generally adopted for the modern languages descended from the old Roman or Latin tongue, acted upon by inner decay or growth, by dialectic variety, and by outward influence, more or less marked, of all the foreign nations with which it came into contact. During the middle ages the old Roman Empire or the Latin- speaking world was called Romania, its inhabitants Romani (adj. Romanicus), and its speech Romsncium, Vulgar Romancio, Italian Romanzo, from Romanics loqui — to speak Romance; in Old French nominative romanz, objective roman(t), Modern French roman, " a novel." originally a composition in the vulgar tongue. In English some moderns use Romanic (like Germanic, Teutonic) instead of Romance; some say Neo-Latin, which is frequently used by Romance-speaking scholars. By successive changes Latin, a synthetical language, rich in in- flexions, was transformed into several cognate analytical tongues of few inflexions, most of the old forms being replaced by separate foim-words. As the literary language of the ancient Roman civilization died out, seemingly extinguished by the barbarism ot the middle ages, all the forms of the old classical language being confounded in the most hopeless chaos, suddenly new, vigorous and beautiful tongues sprang forth, ruled by the most regular laws, related to', yet different from, Latin. How was this wonderful change brought about? How can chaos produce regularity? The explanation of this mystery has been given by Diez,' the great founder of Romance philology. The Romance languages did not spring from literary classical Latin, but from popular Latin, which, like every living speech, had its own laws, not subject to the changing literary fashions, but only to the slow process of phonetic change and dialectic variety. It is interesting to observe that much that is handed down to us in the oldest Latin literature (notably in the voca- bulary) reappears in the most recent phase of Latin — the Romance languages. Thus, a verb nivire, " to snow," is known to Pacuvius, but does not again appear until the time of Venantius Fortunatus, and then with a change of conjugation — nivere, while it has now a new term of life in French and Rhaeto-Romanic dialects. It is obvious that there was no break of continuity^ in the vulgar language, for if in the later imperial ages a verb had been formed from nix, nivis, it must have been nivare, or niviare (Fr. neiger). Here especially the words of Horace come true: — " Multa renascentur, quae jam cecidere, cadentque Buae nunc sunt in honore vocabula, si volet usus, uem penes arbitrium est et jus et norma loquendi." ROMANCE LANGUAGES The present article, embracing all the Romance languages, aims at tracing on the one hand their common origin and their common development, on the other hand at pointing out the peculiarities of the individual languages and the possible explanations of the growth of these peculiarities. Their common development is mainly dealt with under LATIN LAN- GUAGE. The relation of the early vulgar Latin to the literary language, the spread of Latin following the spread of Roman rule, the prevalence of Latin over Oscan, Umbrian, Etruscan, and late Iberian and Gallic— all these matters concern rather the history of Latin than of the Romance languages. But we may say broadly that the language spoken throughout the Roman Empire at the time of Augustus was fairly uniform, and that naturally differentiations took place (varying according to regions) which were not, however, strongly marked, and which even tended to be obliterated in later times. The main causes of these variations were twofold, (i) The process of Romanizing the various districts took place at epochs far remote one from the other, and between the earliest and the latest of these epochs Latin itself was modified.1 (2) We have the reaction on Latin of the languages of the pre-Roman populations. Applying this first point of view, we should find that the oldest form of Latin (oldest, that is, for our present purposes) was intro- duced into Sardinia (238 B.C.) ; next comes Spain (197 B.C.), Illyria (167 B.C.), South Gaul (120 B.C.), North Gaul (50 B.C.), Raetia (15 B.C.), Dacia (A.D. 107). And we can actually trace some of the results of these differences in date, chiefly perhaps in the vocabulary and morphology of the Romance languages. When, for example, we find the dative illui (Ital., Fr., Rum. lui) missing in the Iberian peninsula, we may infer that it was unknown to the Latin intro- duced there, and conversely that Latin still used the ancient cova (Sp. cueva, " caya ") and not the more recent coxa (Ital. cava), also demagis or gumia, which we only know from Lucilius, Sp. demas, gomia. We may be justified in assigning to these historic causes the beginnings of the divergence from the original uniformity. Neither active intercourse, nor the dislocations of tribes and populations brought about by the exigencies of military or colonizing enterprise, ever effected a complete fusion of these divergences. To this we must add, as a second element, ethnic considerations. To begin with, we seem to find in Italy itself, among the Italic population in country districts, the survival of isolated forms which had been discarded by the literary language with its levelling tendencies, and in consequence also by what may be called " Average Latin " (Durchschnittslatein). In early Latin d becomes r before labials, e.g. ar me advenias occurs in Plautus; arvorsus, arger from *arfger are the ancient forms. Only arbiter has survived as a word of the official language and because in general feeling the noun was consciously connected with the verb baetere, though it was soon dis- carded. Arger, under the influence of aggerere, aggestus, became agger, and arvorsus was displaced by advorsus. I n Abruz. we have arbendd, " to repose," beside Sicil. abbintari which suppose *arventare beside adventari; Abruz. armuri, " to put out the fire," represents Lat. *armoriri instead of admoriri; arbukkd is found beside Ital. abboccare. All these forms are only attested in Italy, and they might by reason of their prefix be classed as Umbrian, since in Umbrian ar for ad is even commoner, cf. the place-name Arestajfele in Molise, which in Latin would be ad Stabula, save that the limitation to the cases that are in line with the Latin rule prove precisely that this is not a case of Umbrian influence, but of a preservation of ancient and popular forms. Beyond the limits of Italy arger has been preserved, e.g. Sp. arcen, and not only Ital. argine; further armissarius, " stallion," in the Lex Salica and in Rum. armesariu; perhaps Sp. almuerzo, " breakfast," for *armuerzo beside Lat. admorsus. In the second place we have, especially in Italy, clearly Umbro- Oscan forms. Contrary to Latin use, these two dialects, the most important in ancient Italy, have / between vowels from an early bh, dh, as against Latin b, d; and Umbrian, Paelignan, &c., e, d, from an early ei, ou, as against Latin I, u. Thus crefrat (in the glosses), as against Latin cribrat, is both by right of its vowel and consonant, an Umbrian form. And with this we must compare Ital. bifolco beside Lat. bubulcus; Ital. taffiari, "to feast," beside tabulari; tafano, "horsefly," beside Lat. tabanus; bufalo, beside Lat. bubalus. Further, Neap. Ottufro, " October," morfende, " eye- teeth," Lat. mordente, &c. There is a special interest in cases like the French mandrin beside Ital. manfano. What has come down to us is manphur, which is not Greek, its ph notwithstanding, but which owing to its_f we must take to be Osco-Umbrian ; while the corre- sponding Latin form would be "mandar. The Latin supplies the French, the Osco-Umbrian the Italian form. As to the other 1 Cf. G. Grober,.Archiv fur lot. Lexicographie, i. 35 ff. 505 instance, Varro points to veUa beside villa as rustic, and to this we must add Ital. stegola, Sardin. isteva, Sp. and Port, esleva ('sleva for sttva), " plough tail "; Ital. dee, Sardin. elige, Fr. yeuse. " holly " ( ilex for Vex), or Ital. pommice, FT. ponce, Sp. pomet, " pumice- stone ('pomice for pumice). It must not be overlooked that the last word denotes an object found chiefly in Sicily and near Naples, that is, in the ancient seat of the Oscans. It will be clear that we are dealing chiefly with words connected with agriculture, and it is remarkable that those of our second category spread all over the empire, while those of the first were entirely, or almost entirely, limited to Italy. As a parallel we may cite the vocabulary of North and South Gaul, which yields a number of Gallic elements, and one may safely infer that in the first few centuries after the Roman conquest these elements were more numerous than at a later stage, and there is in fact a definite justification for this inference. The so- called Km Midicrs glossary of the 5th century is a compilation, by a native of South Gaul, of Gallic words which were clearly at that time still current in the south of France.1 And in this we have not only dunum, " monlem," cambiare, " pro re dare " (Fr. changer); caio, " breialo sive bigardio " (Fr. quai); nanto " voile," Savoy. na, " stream," but also avallo, " poma," which was lost in later times but is preserved in its derivative amtlanche, " medlar." Another Gallic word recorded by ancient tradition — tegia, " hut " — still exists to-day with this meaning in the Venetian and Raetic Alps, and moreover plays an important part in toponomy — Fr. Arthies from Gall, are Tegias, " at the huts," N. Ital. Tetze; but in the oldest Gallo-Romance it may have been in use as an appel- lative, and thence have passed into Basque — e.g. Basq. tegi, " hut." The permeation of the Latin vocabulary by Gallic elements dates from the time of the contact of Gauls and Roman forces. Many of these elements — e.g. bracae, camisia — were widely used at so early a stage as to have penetrated into Rumania (Rum. tmbrdcd, " put on," cdmeafd, "chemise"); others again have scarcely, if at all, passed beyond their ancient limits, even those that Roman litera- ture has preserved for us. It is true that Martial says — " Barbara de pictis veni bascauda Britannia Sed me jam mavult dicere Roma sibi," but only in France has bachoue been preserved up to the present, while so far no traces of bascauda have been established for Italy. Glancing over the Gallic contributions to the Gallo-Romance vocabulary, we see at once that they belong to a considerable extent to the sphere of agriculture, and that among the implements mentioned it is chiefly vehicles of all kinds which have Gallic names. The record of Roman times supplies us with henna, carpentum, carrum, caruca, agredum, petorritum, rheda, but carrum alone gained a firm footing; caruca in the form of charrue, " plough," survives in France, and benna (Fr. banne, Ital. henna) in its ancient home. Under this heading we may perhaps add taratrum, " gimlet," in Isidore, Fr. tariere, Engad. tareder, Sp. taladro. Port, trado; Fr. janle, " felloe of a wheel " (Bret. Kammed), Fr. taranche, Gall, tarinca. With caruca we may class soc, " plough-share," and O. Fr. raie, Mod. Fr. rayon, " furrow," Gallic *rica (cf. Cyrnr. rhych). A further group is formed by cervoise, " beer," from Gall, ctre- visia, O. Fr. braiz. Mod. Fr. brai, " malt," brasser, " to brew," Gall, brace; lie, "yeast." Among the names of plants Gallic betulla has survived wherever the tree is common. Within narrower bounds we find Fr. »/, " yew," Gall, "ivum (cf. Ir. ee); probably also *cas'sanus, "oak," Fr. chine, Prov. easier; Fr. verne, Balder (cf. Ir. fern and the Gall, place-name Vernodubrum, " alderwater ") ; belpce, " sloe," bulluca, and S. Fr. aranhon, " sloe " (Ir. airne). Pliny mentions marga, " marl," as being in use among the Gauls as manure for soil, from the diminutive 'margtia, Fr. marne. An agricultural measure was called arepennis, Fr. arpent. Fields were separated by a hedge — Prov. gorce (cf. O. Fr. gort, "fence"); a tiedged-round piece of land is called in French lande, Ir. land. Another method of demarcation was by means of hurdles, Fr. claie, Piedm. cia (cf. Ir. cliath) ; or of barricades, Fr. combre (whence the verbs encombrer, -decombrer), which corresponds to a Gallic *comboros. Inside the hurdles the sheep and cows were kept whose milk yielded meeues, " whey " (Ir. medg). The wood needed for the erection of fences was cut with the "wood-knife," Gall, ridu- WttfH, Fr. vouge. We may notice further the group broga, " en- closure," " preserve," Prov. brogo and the diminutive brogilo, Fr. breuil. In north Italy we find fruda, " torrent " (cf. Cymr. fruith), which i a parallel to no mentioned above; also Comasc. dren, " black- jerry," Ir. dren, " thorn," and (over a large part of north Italy) lar, "bunch," " tuft," O. Ir. barr. To single out a few words, there is Prov. ban, "horn," Cymr. ban; Piedm. vinverra, from a word that has come down to us as Latin, but is really Gallic: vt- lerra, Cymr. gwywer, Gaelic feoragh, " weasel," and in the Rhaeto- Rom. dialect in Switzerland carmun, from a Gallic cannon, which is cognate with O.H.G. harmo. Mod. H.G. hermelin, " ermine." * Cf. H. Zimmer Kuhn'sZeitsch.furvergl. Sprachforschunf, 32, 230. 506 ROMANCE LANGUAGES In this way we might amplify examples, and it should not escape notice that we have to deal chiefly with substantives, with few adjectives and hardly any verbs.1 In precisely the same way the Spanish vocabulary must have been seamed with traces of Iberian elements. But the process of elimination took place more rapidly and thoroughly in this case, so that the number of Iberian or Celtic-Iberian words that have resisted time and change is small. On a Latin inscription from Spain we find paramus, " plain," and paramo occurs to this day in this sense. As the Iberian does not know the sound p, the word cannot be Iberian, and must be Celtic. In Isidore we find baia, " bay," which should be read baia, as Sp. and Port, bahia prove — doubtless an Iberian word, since Fr. baie and Ital. baia are forms quite recently borrowed from Spanish. This baia is perhaps somehow connected with the place-name Bayona. Again, the lapides lausiae of the Lex Metalli Vipascensis are Celtic rather than Iberian (cf. Sp. losa, Port, lousa, as well as Prov. lausa, Piedm. losa). Considering our ignorance of Iberian, and the pronounced colouring of Basque by Spanish words, it is not often easy to decide on which side the indebtedness lies when we meet with a word in Spanish and Basque whose etymology is still uncertain. Much discussion centres round the question as to how far the pre-Romanic nations influenced the phonology of the Romans in the process of their assimilation. Opinions are strongly diver- gent. While G. I. Ascoli has repeatedly assumed influences of this kind on a large scale, the present writer is very sceptical.2 It may be well to give the essential points. Plautus uses distennite and dispennite instead of distendite and dispendite — forms he imported from his native Umbria. And like the Umbrians, the Oscans too pronounced nn instead of nd. Later we find this same change throughout the whole of south and central Italy, and even in Rome, whereas it is not observed in Tuscany, north Italy and other Romanic countries. We may therefore confidently assume that this is due to a reaction of the Oscan-Umbrian dialects. Similarly it is in accordance with Umbrian pronunciation to convert breathed plosives into voiced after nasals, e.g. iuenga = L,a.t. iuvenca; and similarly we have cingue in central and south Italy beside Tusc. cinque (quinque). But even in this particular the change affects not only the regions of ancient Umbria, but also those of the Oscans and Messapians, though again it must be admitted that we do not know what the pronunciation of the ancient Messapians was. And finally, we find the Latin d represented in Umbrian between vowels by a sound which has a separate sign in the national alphabets and which in Latin is reproduced as -rs. And since the Paelignan alpha- bet too has a sign for a modified d, one may perhaps assume that in these districts d had a specialized sound as Ih, or r; and this view agrees with the fact that in the dialects of central and southern Italy d was pronounced sometimes like r, sometimes like th. And probably this sums up all we can say with certainty. It has always been maintained that French u (pronounced as German «), derived from «, is due to the influence of Gallic. The u (with modern sound) is identified with the whole area of the French language except part of the Walloon, part of French Switzerland, and Piedmont, Genoa, Lombardy, the Grisons, Tirol and the northern part of the Emilia, but not Friuli, Venetia and I stria. On the other hand, the ancient ii became i in Cymric, to which u must be regarded as an intermediary step, that may there- fore have existed in Gallic. But in the first place we must observe that Greek writers always render the Gallic u by ov, never by v; that the Romans too write u, never y; and further, that over a large part of the area u came in comparatively recently. Secondly, in Gallic in- scriptions the combination CT is frequently replaced by XT, so that the Irish pronunciation cht (Ir. nocht, " night ") is as old as Ancient Gallic. And since the preliminary stage of the Fr. fait from faclum, nuit from node, is likewise cht, it is natural to suppose a relation between these facts, and all the more because the Iberian Peninsula on the one hand, and a large part of the western and central area of upper Italy on the other, show an identical process; but in Venetian, central and southern Italy ct became U. Thirdly, nasalized vowels are in evidence chiefly in the ancient seats of the Celts — in northern and southern France, in Piedmont, Genoa, Lombardy and partly in Raetia, also in Portugal, but not as far as southern Emilia. At this point again evidence from the Gallic fails completely. Finally, an attempt has been made to trace back the general characteristics of the French and the Gallo-Romanic dialects of Italy to the peculi- arities of the Gallic accent. It is assumed that there was a decided stress-accent, which brought about an over-emphasis of the stressed syllable at the expense of the unaccented ones, with the result of a marked weakening of the unaccented vowels, and particularly of those following the stressed syllable. Here again we can only 'Cf. R. Thurneysen, Keltoromanisches (Halle, 1885); W. Meyer- Liibke, Einfuhrung in die romanische Sprachwissenschaft, p. 38 ff. 2 G. I. Ascoli, Una Lettera glottologica (1880); Archivio glottologico ilaliano, x. 260; Sprachwissenschaftliche Brief e (1887; cf. H. Schuchardt, Zeitschrift fiir rom. Phil. iv. 140 and elsewhere); and Meyer-Lubke, loc. cit. 205 ff. say that Gallic itself affords no evidence for this assumption, and that, on the contrary, this peculiar accentuation maybe due to other reasons, unknown to us. To turn to morphology, the method of enumerating — as we find it, for example, in Fr. qualre-vingts, &c. — would seem to be Gallic, since it is common to all the Celts. But even if we admit certain regional variations, all these were overlaid by an " Average Latin " which presents a number of essen- tial features uniformly over the whole area, and which differed from the literary language. These characteristics (in historical sequence) are as follows: (l) Loss of final m in polysyllabic words (which we find exemplified in the very oldest inscriptions) ; (2) loss of the h- sound, a loss which outside the towns was of great antiquity (cf. anser), and at the beginning of imperial times was fairly common ; (3) loss of n before i coupled with the lengthening of the vowel, for which Varro is evidence in his alternations of mensa and mesa; (4) the assimilation of rs to ss — e.g. sussum from sursum (Ital. suso, O. Fr. sus, Mod. Fr. dessus). Toward the end of the Republic v is lost before u — e.g. iiius instead of vivus, rius instead of rivus (Ital. Sp. no), anticus instead of antiquus (Ital. anlico). In the first century A.D. b became t> between vowels, thus merging itself into the latter sound, so that in examining the Romance languages it is impossible to decide whether the original was v or 6. And this change spreads in sentences to the initial b (as in the inscription manduca vibe lude e beni at me), which leads in some cases to some uncertainty in the use of v and ft. And lastly, we have the case of cl and // — e.g. veclus (Ital. vecchio, Fr. vieil, Sp. viejo, Port, velho, Rum. viechiu) instead of vetulus-, the reduction of di before vowels, of j, g before e, i, and of z to a single sound j, or rather dj, in consequence of which we have diurnum (Ital. giorno, Fr. jour) ; juvenis (Ital. giovane, Fr.jeune); gener (Ital. genera, Fr. gendre) • zelosus '(Ital. geloso, Fr. jaloux), all represented by the same initial. To turn to vowels, we must first notice that, according to Varro, ae was pronounced e in the country, but that in the cities the diphthong was maintained at first, while the simple sound was only admitted during the course of the 1st century A. p. If this is an instance of an early spreading of a rustic pronunciation, we have in another case a victory for that of the bourgeoisie and aristocracy. O for au belongs to Umbrian, Volscian and vulgar Latin, which explains why Appius Claudius Pulcher changed his name to Clodius when he deserted the patricians and went over to the plebeians. And there is other evidence of this change of sound. But in the inscriptions of the Empire o for au is very rare, save in proper names, and the Romance languages have partly preserved the au to this day with little or no change (cf. Rum. auzi, Prov. auzir, Port. ouvir from audire), or only changed it to o at a later stage (cf. Fr. chose, where ch could only have arisen before a, not o), so that one may assume that the " Average Latin " always preserved the au. Then, without entering into detail, we must mention the pro- thesis of i before st, sp, sc, a phenomenon which arose, judging from the inscriptions, in the 2nd century A.D. We find it at the beginning of the sentence, and also within it after consonants, but not after vowels; e.g. ilia spata, but ittas ispatas; istdre, istd, but tu istds, &c. Most important of all are the modifications that affect the accented vowels, which give a new look to the language as a whole. In Old Latin and even towards the end of the Republican age, vowels varied solely according to their quantity, e.g. a was longer than a, e longer than e, but the vowel sound was the same, or at any rate the difference in quality between long and short must have been quite insignificant, seeing that Cicero and Quintilian wished the word divisio to be avoided in speech from motives of decorum, because of the likeness in sound to vissio. Quantity was not influenced by the number of the consonants following: actus was pronounced with a, factus with d, &c. In the course of the 1st century approximately quality was differentiated in addition to quantity in all vowels except a — short vowels being pronounced with an open, long ones with a close, sound. The written language expresses this change by writing ae for e, i for e,e for i, u for 5,0 for«. In addition there are statements of the grammarians, though they mention only the double pronunciation of e and o, not that of i and u. It was probably in the course of the 4th century that the further change took place, by which all vowels were lengthened before a single consonant, and shortened before two or more, e.g. silis became sltis, while tectum became tectum. But the older qualitative variations were maintained so that even now sltis and vitis, or tectum and l^ctum did not contain the same vowel-sound, the former Having a close, the latter an open, vowel. (Cf. Ital. sete, vite, Fr. soif, vis, Sp sed, vid; or Ital. t$tto and letto, Fr. toil and lit.) It is at the end of the 4th century that Augustine says: " Afrae aures de corruptione vocalium vel productione non judicant," and the uncertain practice of the poets in the matter of quantity points to the breaking down oPthe old conditions. This was not the end of the process of development; but the most important stages were already accomplished. In this, too, we are concerned with changes affecting the whole Romance region. The final step was taken when open i and close e, open «and close o, were reduced to one sound which may be called close e (or o). This step was not taken by the eastern regions, excepting as to e, and Sardinia remained completely unaffected (u. infra). ROMANCE LANGUAGES 507 The vowel-system that developed in course of time is thus as follows : — 6 e I i u u6 6 -i V -i V J, . r € ? » "before I const. "before l const. "before 2 consts. "before 2 consts. I I In the department of flexion we find less radical changes. The genitive was the first case to disappear. In general its functions were usurped by the preposition de. But for the possessive sense the dative was adopted, cf. Hie REQUIESCUNT MEMBRA AD Duos FRATRES, in an inscription from Gaul. The accusative serves for the case after prepositions under all circumstances, and therefore even in places where the older language used the ablative, e.g. magister cum suos discentes in a Pompeian inscription. Nouns of the third declension with monosyllabic nominative, e. g. lens, slirps, ars, &c., form a dissyllabic nominative, e.g. lentis, stirpis, &c. The dividing line between masculine and neuter, at all times doubtful, is frequently broken down, especially in the singular, e.g. cubiium instead of cubitus, and there are converse cases. The absorption of the fourth declension by the second is almost complete. In the declension of the pronouns the genitives ipsuius, illuius, dat. ipsui, illui, fem. illaeius, illaei, are found in several inscriptions, but do not belong to the common language, since, as we have already said, they are not at home in the Iberian peninsula. On the other hand, all the Romance languages show that *eo took the place of ego. The use of ille as personal pronoun, and also of ipse, and of both these forms as articles, dates from ancient times. We find a par- allel to the weakening of these demonstratives in the amalgama- tion of the pronominal combinations to be found as early as Plautus with ecce, eccum, which results in new forms, e.g. eceeille (O. Fr. cil, Mod. Fr. celui) or eccuille (Ital. quegli, Sp. aquel) ; ecceiste (Fr. ce- (I) ) ; eccuiste (Ital. questo, Sp. aqueste). In the verb-system, a character- istic change is the disappearance of the future and passive forms, the explanation of the phenomenon in both cases being psychological rather than formal. Popular language is not familiar with the future, and replaces it by the present — or, more strictly speaking, the vulgar person deals only with the present or the past. The case of the passive is similar. The transposition of active into passive is too complicated a process for the simple mind. The object of the action remains the object; when the subject of the action is not known, they resorted to the indefinite third person plural, e.g. vendunt casam is the popular mode of expressing domus venditur. And further, the perfect amatus sum was replaced by amatus fui, since fui was a perfect and could now take over the function of a present. For the moment, all other tenses and moods of the verb were preserved, only of the infinite forms, the gerundive, perfect infinitive and the two supines disappeared. Of the gerund nothing remained but the ablative. In compensation, however, we soon find a form habeo cantalum springing up beside canton in use_as perfect, e.g. litteras scriptas habeo meant in the first instance, possess written letters," with nothing implied as to who wrote the letters; 'but later this usage is limited to cases where the owner is also the originator of the state of things expressed in the parti- ciple, and thus it attains to the force of a perfect. There is little change in the formation of individual verb-lorms. It is natural that the infinitives esse, velle, posse, being exceptional, should have been brought into line with all the rest. This was done by simply adding -re on to esse (Ital. essere, Fr. etre), while the other two were constructed from the forms of the verb whose ending was accented, or from the perfect, e.g. volebam, potebam, volut,potui, gave rise to *volere, *potere, on the analogy of docebam, docui, monebam, monui, nocebam, nocui, &c. ; with infinitives, docere, monere, nocere, &c. (cf. Ital. volere, potere, Fr. vouloir, pouvoir, Sp. and Port, poder, Rum. vrea, putea). In other infinitives there is much confusion, especially as between -ere, and -ere verbs, noticed by the Latin grammarians themselves; we have evidence, too, that at an early stage the present forms in -io, -iam led to a confusion of the -ire and -ere conjugation, e.g. Plautus has morire (Ital. monre, Fr. mourir, Sp. morir, Rum. muri); Lucretius has cupire; Cato has fodire, &c. For the rest we may note as important that perfect-forms without «-, such as -asti, -astis, -arunt, infected the first person singular, e.g. -ai instead of -aw. A new type in -idi arose on the model of vendidi, and then affected other verbs in -ndere, e.g, descendidt (in Gelhus), prendidi (in the grammarian Probus) and in general verbs ot t third conjugation. But its spread was slow, so that it can scarcely be said to have been common to all the languages. In the formation of words the popular language probably had lar greater freedom than the written language. We find not only a marked preference for diminutives in -ulus and -ellus, but many other types are established, or new ones created. And as the chiet ones we must mention the post-verbalia (nouns constructed out of verb*). Thus pugnare, being itself derived from pugnum, then produces pugna (on the pattern of planta, plantare), and these formations soon became extremely common, and not only in a- verbs, but also in Ore-verbs, cf. in particular dolus, " grief " (not to be confused with the ancient dolus, " craft "), C.I.L. x. 4510 (Rum. dor, Ital. dvolo. Fr. deuil, Sp. duelo). As examples of other types we have -ttra beside -or, which we can trace back to ardura, a contamination of ardor and arsura, which extended to fereura ; also to strictura beside strictus; direclura beside directus, when the old participles had separated both in form and in meaning from the verbal-system and had become adjectives, whose / was felt to be part of the stem. Another feature of the verb is the gradual retreat of old simple formations in favour of derivatives from the participle, e.g. cantare, adjutare, ausare, &c., in place of canere, adjuvare, audere; then for denominatives -icare and the Gr. -izare (Ital. -eggiare, Fr. -oyer, Sp. -ear) which, coming in with Christianity, was soon added on to Latin stems, e.g. (in Fulgentius) citherizantium aul tibizantium. Among points of syntax we may single out the replacing of in- finitival sentences (following verbs oT feeling, seeing, hearing, wishing) by clauseswith ut, quod or quia, whence' Ital. che, Fr. que. The latter particle spread most rapidly, and soon took precedence over the other conjunctions, not only in the cases just mentioned, but in introducing object-, subject-and final-clauses. It is in the vocabulary that it is most difficult to define the relations of the common and the literary language. So much of the Latin vocabulary as appears over the whole Romance area comes of course from the everyday language which was used from the mouth of the Ebro to that of the Danube, but it is by no means all. It is more interesting to inquire whether anything can be reconstructed from Romance, and, if so, how much? The exist- ence of a form aiutare, for example, mentioned above (Ital. ajvtare, Fr. aider, Sp. ayudar, Rum, aiuta) and appearing in all the Romance languages, is indisputable. Between Fr. grotte (" crow "), Lyon. grata, Gascon, agraulo, Tirol, grolo, and (with ehange of gender) Apul. raulu, Rum. graur, the connexion, both in form and meaning, is so close that one is led to assume a common basis for all these words. This basis is *graulus, -a, and it is safe to assume that such a word goes back to Latin, though remembering that it was not found in the western regions. Rum. afld. Sic. asciari, Sp. hollar, Port, achar, Gris. afldr, Dalm. afludr, " to find," all point to afflare, and in this case, too, the change in meaning may be safely ascribed to Latin, only in this case Gaul is not included. Rum. arip&, Fr. aube, Prov. aubo, Sp. alabe, " paddle-board," in Rum. meaning also " wing," and in Sp. also " the wickerwork on both sides of a vehicle," in Port. " the wing of a parapet," point to a form *alapa, which meant " wing " and which must have belonged to the vulgar language, even though no trace of it survives in Italy. Many other points could be enumerated, but problems are involved which have as yet hardly been taken up.1 In dealing with the division of this common language jnto a number of individual languages there are still further points of view to be considered. Before we can touch upon these, we must first take a general survey of these languages. There are altogether nine — Rumanian, Dalmatian, Sardinian, Italian, Raeto-Rpmanic, French, Provencal, Spanish and Portuguese. Of these nine lan- guages, Dalmatian is now extinct, and even what we learn of it from the ancients is very meagre. On the one hand, Ragusa and the plains of Dalmatia never attained the degree of independence in literature which would have brought about a floruit in the language such as Provencal has to show. Neither, on the other han a, was its political independence stable enough, nor was it sufficiently remote to escape intercourse with the rest of the world, like the Raeto-Romanic dialects. The hordes of Slavs pressing forward from the inner regions of the hinterland soon put an end to the Romanic civilization, first in the country and then ir the towns. And when the Venetians, who were, both in point of culture and of commerce and of politics, on a higher level, regained their power over the Dalmatians by occasional conquests, chiefly over the cities, the result was of course all in favour of the Venetian dialect. On the island of Veglia alone there were still living about the middle of the igth century a few people who still spoke Old Dalmatian. The last 'of these is now dead. Our approximate notions of this language are gleaned from the speech of these natives of Veglia, from a few more ancient notes, place-names, proper names and from the Romance elements in the Servo-Croatian dialect of Ragusa.2 We may begin by reducing these nine languages to seven groups — Dacian, Dalmatian, Sardinian, Italic, Ractic, Gallic and Iberian. The most striking peculiarity of the first three of these groups is the absence o_f Germanic words in_the vocabulary. In other words, they were withdrawn from the influence of the general " Average-Latin " before the beginning of the more decided permeation of Latin by Germanic elements. There are other signs of their antiquity. In Central Sardinian c before e, «, and •Cf. G. Gr6ber, Archiv.J. lot. Lexirograpkie, \. 204 ff. «Cf. M. G. Bartoli, "Das Dalmatische " (1906), (Schriften der Balkan-Kommission der K. A kademie der Wissenschaften, linguistische Abteilung, Bd. iv. and v.). 5o8 ROMANCE LANGUAGES in Dalmatian c before e are always preserved as velars, and in south Sardinian and in Rumanian the palatalization is more recent, and secondary. The preservation of the tenues between vowels as breathed fortes is peculiar to Rumano-Dalmatian, but as north Sardinian used breathed lenes in their place, while the dialect of Nuoro, in Sardinia, preserved the fortes, we have every ground for assuming that central and south Sardinia also possessed either fortes or lenes in earlier times. Moreover, south Italy, Sicily and a large part of central Italy as far as the Apennines replace the old Latin tenues either with breathed fortes or breathed lenes, in marked contrast to the regions of the Po, to Gallic and the Iberian group. All these phenomena may perhaps be explained in con- junction with two historical events. By the abandonment of the province of Dacia (in A.D. 270), Rumanian lost its close touch with the languages of nearest affinity; and the division of the empire under Diocletian and Constantino necessarily entailed a linguistic division. At that epoch the linguistic conditions were roughly as , follows : — The principal changes in the vowel-system, especially the develop- ment of qualitative beside quantitative variations, had been accom- plished, but there was still a difference between I and f, u and p. The old future had disappeared, and no tendency to produce a substitute had as yet appeared. The Latin pluperfect subjunctive still maintained its old usage, probably also the imperfect sub- junctive and the future perfect. In declensions the tyrje membrum, -a, had begun to spread; but corpus, -ora, was still in existence. Sardinia seems to have been, perhaps owing to its isolation, the first to have detached itself from this group. For it was not con- tent with differentiating e and 1, but it also retains -s, whereas the East-Rumanian and an Italian group suppressed -s, and in consequence also the difference between the nominative and the accusative singular. This and the levelling of neuters in -us and masculines in -u made it possible for the types membra and corpora to spread at the expense of the type loci,— a. possibility of which South Italian and Rumanian made the fullest use. On the given basis the various languages carried on their various developments, influenced partly by contiguity of other idioms, partly by causes unknown to us. Among neighbouring idioms, Greek had by right of its degree of civilization and its political power great influence in giving Rumanian and South Italian a similar direction, and that at a time when every trace of a geo- graphical connexion between these two language-groups had long vanished. Thus, the replacing of the construction " I will come " by " I will that I come " took its rise in Greece and was passed on to Rumania and Apulia. The rise of the new future voiu cantd, " I will sing," in Rumanian is probably due to Greek influence. In Latin itself both itte caballus and caballus ille are found, the position depending on the accentual conditions of the sentence. Then the loss of s made room for the form caball[u\ ille with a victory for the inverted order. In Rumania alone this was the actual process, under the influence of the surrounding speech — Illyrian or Bulgarian, or perhaps independently of them, in this latter case serving as prototype to these languages. Dalmatian and South Italian, on the other hand, were so closely connected with the languages that preserved s and therefore prefixed the article that in this particular they separated from Rumanian. This is not the place to show how the Rumanian vocabulary and the structure of words was permeated markedly by elements from Slav, less markedly by elements from Turkish, Mod. Greek and Hungarian, which gave the language an alien appearance in point of vocabulary. In its consonants, and, as far as one can judge, in its morphology, Dalmatian has preserved the stamp of antiquity. But in its vowel- system there are marked changes, especially in the substitution of diphthongs for close vowels, e.g. changing a to e, u through the u stage to oi, i to ei, o to au, e to ai. Diphthongs such as they appear also in Istrian and Abruzzian, so that we must presuppose some sort of connexion. It may be that Sardinian took another course of development because (A.D. 458) the island was rent from Rome and incorporated in the African empire of Genseric, king of the Vandals. Therefore the sympathies of Sardinia were alienated from Italy, and turned on the one hand towards Africa (and unfortunately we have no information as to the " latinity " of this region), on the other to- wards the Iberian peninsula. These conditions lasted for a while, but later we find Genoa and Pisa fighting at intervals for supremacy in Sardinia, their organization being in many points identical with that of the island. On the whole, this new combination has not materially affected the language, especially in Logodoro. The vowel system (of great antiquity), as well as the velar pronunciation of c before e, i, remained unchanged, neither did they get as far as to adopt the future-forms current on the mainland ; on the contrary, the Sardinians arrived independently and later at their usage of depo cantare or haia a cantar. But the use of ipse as an article in Sardinia, Mallorca, and in the earliest times also in the Catalanian- Gascon area, clearly proves the linguistic connexion which for a time covered this area, and we may also see some connexion in the fact that the lenes became voiced between vowels. On the whole, and in spite of everything, Sardinian is the most archaic of the Romance languages. Owing to its retaining s, it has failed to extend the membra-tempora types of formation, indeed it has almost re- jected them entirely. It has retained the imperfect subjunctive to this day, and as a corollary it has lost the pluperfect of that mood. And though every Romance language has a number of Latin words that are not common to the rest, yet in this language the number of these Siro£ \tj6iifva. is greater than in others, and it is noteworthy that these have here survived such common expressions as domo, " house," mannu, " great," with other examples. The East-Rumanian group (coupled with Sardinia) finds its counterpart in the great group based upon the Latinity of Gaul, the Iberian peninsula, and north Italy. This group contains a considerable number of fundamental peculiarities in phonology, morphology and vocabulary which prima facie lead us to assume a fairly long period of contact. The chief of these peculiarities is the final change of the vowel- system, i.e. the loss of the distinction between e and i, between 6 and u', then the change of breathed plosives and fricatives between vowels into voiced plosives and fricatives respectively; the use of the pluperfect subjunctive instead of the lost imperfect subjunctive (Hal. cantasse, Fr. que je chantasse, Sp. cantase, Port, cantasse), the formation of a new future from the infinitive of the verb and the present, or (as the case may be) the imperfect or perfect of habere, e.g. Ital. canterd, canterei, Fr. je chanterai, cha.nlera.is, Sp. cantare, cantaria. It it is safe to assume that this latter formation had its origin in places where we find it most firmly rooted, we are led to assign it to the north of France. For it is only there that both elements in the formation are inseparably connected from the beginning of our record. In the old Provencal the two constituent parts are still separable; in the oldest Spanish and Portuguese their position is not fixed (i.e. the auxiliary may follow or precede the verb). In north Italy we frequently find the form avrb cantare instead of canta.ro, obviously because this formation is not properly acclimatized. But at any rate it is clear that the change of function from cantare habeo to cantabo belongs to the time when the three great groups were still in close contact, and the evidence of the Latin texts falls into line with this view, showing this construction well established from the second half of the 4th century.1 In the vocabulary we must note, among other things, the introduction of Germanic words, e.g. elmo, Fr. heaume, Sp. yelmo, "helmet"; harpa, " harp," Ital. arpa, Fr. harpe, Sp. and Port, arpa; medus, " meed," which is found in Antimus and Isidore, but disappears later (cf. O. Fr. mies, "meed"); waidanian, Ital. guadagnare, Fr. gagner, Sp. guadanar, and many more. The further steps in the process of differentiation were con- ditioned by the breaking up of the Roman empire by the great migrations. The establishment of the rule of the Franks in north Gaul, of the Visigoths in south Gaul and the Iberian peninsula, loosened old ties, created new nations and in consequence new and independent groups of languages. The Iberian group was marked primarily by a striking simplicity in its flexions. The three-case system was given up at an early stage, even in prehistoric times, and has left no traces whatever. Owing to the preservation of -i the type membra was doomed to perish, and thus we find, from the beginning of our record and therefore presumably soon after the great cleavage took place, the prevalence in nouns of the following simple rule: sing, -e, -o, -a; plur. -es, -os, -as. The loss of the dative may have some connexion with the fact that the form illui for the 3rd personal pronoun had not yet established itself; and the desire for uni- formity may have ousted the nominative of o- stems. There are analogies in the conjugation. The pluperfect indicative was pre- served, and even (largely) with a Latin significance, but in the region of flexion much simplification took place, e.g. uniformity of accentuation in the three conjugations, marked reduction of the i- perfect and u- perfect forms and a great reduction in the number of u- participles. The vocabulary is characterized by certain archaisms, and still more by the fact that a series of common ideas are rendered by new words limited in use to the Iberian peninsula. Thus we have querer (quaerere) instead of vette; quedar (quietare) instead of manere; callar (deriv. uncertain) for tacere; hablar (fabulare), "to speak"; llegar (plicare), "to arrive"; dejar (?) instead of laware, &c. Further, we may mention the preference of tenere to habere even for the formation of perfect-forms, of which examples are to be found in Orosius, and of magis to plus for expressing comparisons, for which also we may find examples in Latin authors or the Iberian peninsula. The influence of the Goths or Suevi and Vandals on the vocabulary is inconsiderable, and when we trace it it is not easy to explain; e.g. Galician laverca, " lark," is clearly from a western Gothic *lawerka, but it is difficult to see why the name for this bird should have been supplied by the Germanic. To sum up, one may say that the Latin of Iberia was a self-contained language, at first showing little modification by influences from Iberian, or later by those from Germanic; further, that its develop- ment was slow, and that it aimed at simplicity. At the present day there are three great groups, running almost 1 See Thielmann, in Archiv f. lat. Lexikogr. ii. 48 seq. ROMANCE LANGUAGES 509 parallel from N.E. to S.W., e.g. Catalanian on the coast of the Mediterranean, akin to Provengal, Spanish in the centre, Galician- Portuguese on the Atlantic. From the historical point of view one part might be called Gothic- Romance, the other Sue vo- Romance. But the national and linguistic history of the times and countries we are dealing with is still very obscure. The difference between the two idioms is chiefly one of phonetics, while in their morpho- logy and vocabulary they dp not greatly differ. Spanish may be described as a language which favours vowels at the expense of consonants, and which therefore shows, more than other Romance languages, a weakening even of initial consonants. It changes voiced stops first to fricatives, then to mere noises or " burrs " which finally disappear altogether, and s before a consonant or finally, becomes h (through a middle stage ?) and is finally lost. The preferential treatment of vowels, however, entailed not a single change except that e was changed to the diphthong ie, o to ue; all else were preserved, e.g. diez (decent), tiempo (tempus), bueno (bonus), fuerte (fortis); but haver (habere), lid (lite), corona (corona), humo (fumus). The weakness of the initial sound is shown in enero (januaruis), hazer (facere), llamar (clamare with a transitional *clyamar), llaga (plaga), &c. The written language has no sign for voiced plosives between vowels, but -atho or -ao is spread over nearly the whole region. In contrast to Spanish, Portuguese has a strong pronunciation of initial sounds, and so does not go beyond Janeiro, fazer, and changes cl (with transitional form cly, ky), and also pi (via ply, py) to ch, e.g. chamar, chaga. On the other hand, it has a careless articulation of vowels and consonants, and consequently no diphthongs. The unaccented vowels are weakened, as finals almost to vanishing point. It shows further a fusion of nasals with the preceding vowel, so as to form a nasal vowel, and this new nasality takes the colour of the preceding vowel, e.g. vina becomes vinho, but una becomes uma, otherwise before a vowel the nasal finally disappears; cheio and cheia, from plenus, plena. Similarly / was lost between vowels, e.g. ceo (caelum) ; before consonants it became I, or u, e.g. out.ro (alteru), caldo (calidu). Voiced plosives have a weak pronunciation between vowels, and these are sometimes made fricatives. In relation to the somewhat careless articulation we note a marked reaction on accented vowels by the final vowel (e.g. nova has a close vowel, nova an open one), and also by the following consonants : I velarizes, s palatalizes preceding sounds, hence estas pronounced istas, " thou art," with reduced »', but devedor (debitor), " debtor," with reduced e. Lastly, the division between words is not sharp — the interaction of initial sounds and finals being very striking. Devedor has a plosive d, a devedor has a fricative; istas has a breathed -s, but istas nos ceus, " thou art in heaven," has a voiced -s; seja, " be," has a reduced a; o name is pronounced u name, but seja o name is pronounced sej o name, with an open o from a+o, &c. The separation of Gaul took place likewise in the second half of the 5th century, when the Visigoths had settled down in the south, the Burgundians in the east, and the Franks in the north. The type of language that was evolved here is distinct from Spanish primarily and principally in the loss of final vowels except a, or, when the formation of the word was incompatible with this loss, in a weakening to e. On the other hand, the declension is strongly conservative. Nowhere are the old case-endings so clearly preserved as in this region, e.g. reis, " king," but la rei file (regi filia), " the king's daughter"; veil le rei, " videt regem"; dunet le rei, " donat (dat) regi ; these are the modes of expression, and they last till far into the literary period. But at an early stage there was a breach between the Franks of the north and the Burgundians of the east on the one hand, and the Visigoths of the south on the other. For while the latter (the Visigoths) retained the old system of accented vowels, the former changed e to a diphthong ie, o became uo, ue, and moreover e and » became ei, o and u became ou; a was changed to a, assuming that these vowels were long in accordance with the later Latin pronunciation, e.g. — Lat. debere nepote pede mola pratu North Fr. deveir nevout piet muele pret South Fr. dever nebot pe mola prat The northern group, moreover, weakened the consonants stiU further. D and g, secondary consonants from t and c, disappear like the primary ones, and thus pratellus becomes preau, S. Fr. pradel; advocatus becomes avoue, S. Fr. avogat; a secondary p (from b) becomes v, as we see by the form which replaces nepos above. If we are right in ascribing this to the effort to stress the accented vowel at the expense of the other constituents of the word, we may take this to be connected with the weakening of a where final, and between two accented syllables, e.g. N. Fr. aime from amat, as against S. Fr. ania; or in one case armeure (Mod. Fr. armure), in the other armadura, from armatura. Parallel to the preservation of -s on the one hand, and the close following of the old flexions on the other, we find the type membra preserved at first, though not spreading, whereas the tempora-type is abandoned. In the verb the variety in Latin perfect forms is still fairly well preserved, though there is a distinct extension of the w-perfect and the dedt-perfect. As we might expect, the vocabulary seems to be strongly coloured by Germanic elements of Prankish, Burgundian and Gothic origin. The Raetic dialects, in their prehistoric phase, are less clear than others. Their contact, at an age nearing the Carolingian, with the French of the south-east in Valais seems to have caused a similar process of growth, especially as they change e and o into the diphthongs ei and on, leaving at the same time the consonants more intact. At an early stage the inroads of the migrating nations cut off Raetia from the Po valley, and the pressure of the German tribes severed its union with the Romance-speaking nations of the west. Thus isolated it was free to follow its own course. This language also preserved at first the three cases and the type membra, the latter being developed later freely in use as a collective plural. But its further development was checked by the Lombards and Venetians. But the most difficult problems are those that arise in Italy. Though one may say generally that the dialects of the region of the Po, and those of Liguria, belong to the types of north and western Romance, that is to say that the breathed plosives between vowels became voiced, yet they approach the typically Italian groups by their loss of -s. This means that when the whole Italian peninsula was separated from Gaul as well as from Iberia (after the close of the 5th century) and became again one homogeneous whole, the forms without s found their way into the north of Italy only slowly, so that 5 has remained in the west, i.e. in Piedmont, in mono- syllabic words to this day, e.g. as, " thou hast," ses, " thou art "; the same rule prevailed in older times in the east, in Venice, and there the s was also preserved (in questions) in polysyllabic words, e.g. venis-tu, " comest thou?"; and the old form maintained itself in Milanese in the single form sistu, " art thou ? " To the loss of t we trace the extinction of declensions, but as its action began to take effect later, the membra-type gained little footing, the tempora-type none at all. In the vocabulary the Lombard elements are numerous, extending, like the supremacy of the Lombards, over the whole peninsula. It may be that 5 was lost under the influence of central Italy acting on the north. If so, we may surmise that a similar influence has changed cl, pi, and- fl to chi, pi, ji (chiamare, pianta, fiamma). For it is precisely this point that differentiates both the Raetic dialects and Provencal from the contiguous Italian dialects, and the change certainly took place only after the latter were completely detached. On the other hand the Italian vocabulary has been strongly influenced by the north, especially in Tuscany. The rise and development of the Romance languages, in its large outline, appeals to the imagination as a vast historical phenomenon closely bound up with the fate of nations. One other element must not be overlooked on which we have touched more than once in the above sketch, for it bears so directly on the Romance vocabulary as to deserve the tribute of a general survey: this is the Germanic. When mercenaries of Germanic origin pervaded the Roman armies, Germanic words found their way first into the language of the camp, and thence into the vulgar language generally. And at that stage perhaps many words may actually have been im- ported which were, partly at any rate, lost again later.. Roman and Greek authors admit a considerable number of Germanic words, including terms belonging to warfare, e.g. bandum, " stan- dard," used by Procopius, which still continues in the form of O. Fr. ban, Ital. bandiera, Sp. bandera, &c. Brutis, " bride," " daughter-in-law," which occurs frequently in inscriptions, may date from the period of camp life, but for the rest it is retained only in Fr. bru, and in Friuh and Dalmatia. On the other hand, companio is clearly a Latinization of Gothic ga-hlaifa, the meaning of which carries us back to the same sphere. Other old words express ideas of culture, or names of animals which the Romans learned to know in the German-speaking north, e.g. ganta, " wild ?oose " (in Pliny), O. Fr. gante, Prov. ganta; or taxo, "badger," tal. tassone, Fr. taisson, Sp. tejon. But the impression made was not pronounced until the age of the Germanic invasions, and then we find a great variety in the various Romance countries. In Italy we have two invasions to consider — by the Goths, and by the Lombards. But the destruction of the rule of the Lombards by Charlemagne, and the introduction of Prankish elements con- sequent upon it, should not be considered under the same head, since these Franks may themselves have been a Romance-speaking tribe. Goths as well as Lombards have left a trail as noticeable in the language as elsewhere. Thus we find in several instances some uncertainty as between 6 and p as an initial sound in Italian words borrowed from Germanic, e.g. franco and panca, holla and palla, the forms with 6 being Gothic, those with p Lombardic. Or again recare, " to bring up, goes back to Gothic rikan, " heap up," "collect"; ricco, "rich," to Lomb. rihhi, &c. _ Whereas the vocabulary shows impartially an impress of both nationalities, tile Lombards have left their stamp unmistakably on the proper names. Speaking generally, Italy as well as the other Romance countries follows the rule that medieval names of persons are either " Christian " (in the strict sense) and therefore of Hebrew or Graeco-Roman origin, or on the other hand Germanic. Roman names that are not also Christian seem to have survived only in south Italy in any great number, while on the contrary the Germanic are not represented at all in Dalmatia. One of the characteristics 5io ROMAN DE LA ROSE— ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER of Gothic is the change of e to i, so that it has names ending in -mir. Of these we find no trace whatever in Italy, on the contrary we find Gundimar, Ildimar, &c. Then we have abbreviated forms in izzo, e.g. Gaudizzo, Albizzo, &c., which are distinctly Lombardic; but not Gothic ones in -ila. There is no parallel to all this in the Iberian peninsula. As we have already said, the Gothic con- tribution to the vocabulary is very slight. But on the other hand in the nth century the great majority of proper names is Gothic, e.g. Alfonsus (Hadufonsus), Gundomirus, Recimirus, &c. ; or Recila, Fafila, or Elvira, O. Port. Gelvira, Goth. *Gailamra, and scores of others, all proving the great influence of Gothic. And lastly, France possesses the largest number of Germanic elements in its vocabulary, Gothic in the south, Prankish in the north (though it is often impossible to ascertain to which class they belong). But beside these there are many Old High German words, and again Anglo-Saxon and northern ones, more particu- larly those connected with shipping and the sea. These Germanic elements cover nearly all branches of human activity. Thus bdt, Fr. bdtir, " to build," from "bastyan, " to bind together with bast," " to plait " ; hourder, " to cover with boards," from hurdi, " hurdle " ; macon, " the mason," in Isidore makjo (Prankish rather than Gothic) refer to house-building; gu&cher from waskyan, broder from *brusdan, point to the occupations of women, and danser from dinsan and O. Fr. treschier, " to dance," from treskan, " to thresh," to their amusements. Women's work is probably denoted further in rouir, rotjan, and E. Frank, naisier, natjan, "to net"; the same remark applies to the dyeing of cloths (Fr. touaille, Engl. " towel," from thwahila), and ribbons (bande from binda) with guede, " woad," and other colouring matters, whence we have, e.g., brun, bleu, blond, blanc. But while the vocabulary has had its accessions drawn from various races, the proper names show the same rules as in Italian, i.e. Frankish gains the sole supremacy. We find, it must be admitted, some Gothic names in -mir in the south early in the middle ages, but they were not maintained as late as the Romance period, such was the influence of the victorious northern race. Even after political and literary independence had enabled the individual Romance languages to grow as separate units on their own basis, they retained their interconnexion and were open to mutual influence. But this influence is only partial, i.e. it affects nothing but the vocabulary, and has a certain relation to various tendencies in the developments of civilization. And under this head the most important point is the really enormous in- fluence which France (both south and north) has exercised on all the Romance countries, just as she has on the Germanic — an influence which has hitherto not been duly recognized. The first traces go back to the invasions of Charlemagne already mentioned. To instance only one, we have schiavino, " justice, alderman," which cannot be derived directly from the Germanic, as is shown by the v. The second important period is the age of chivalry and the literary tendencies centring round it. A word like budriere, " baldric," is derived from Fr. baudrier, not directly from Germanic Balderich; Ital. banda goes back to O. Fr. bande, and this again to binda; Ital. giallo is not from galbinus but from O. Fr. jalne (Mod. Fr. jaune), derived from that word, &c. But it seems that in one of the prehistoric periods the Tuscan vocabulary was strongly affected by that of the Gallo-Romanic. Whereas in the Iberian peninsula, in Sardinia, in south Italy, Rumania and Rhaetia dies survives, in O. Fr. di has been almost completely ousted by jour, but in Tuscan and the Italian literary language we find giorno and di side by side. Thus trouver, Prov. trobar, spreading from France into Italy, drove the old afflare more and more back towards the south. The most recent layer was introduced during the reign of the house of Anjou chiefly in south Italy and Sicily, and kept its hold to the present day in spite of the Sicilian Vespers, e.g. Sic. vuccieri, " butcher," from Fr. boucher. The Iberian peninsula can likewise bear witness as to French influence, e.g. O. Sp. /onto, " shame," is not from Goth, *haunitha, but from Fr. honte; O. Port, saluar not from Lat. salutare, but O. Fr. saluer. On the whole, Portuguese seems to possess more of these Gallicisms than Spanish, history supplying a simple explanation. Italy too yielded its contributions, especially in the I5th and l6th centuries, many military terms (noble and ignoble), e.g. French carogne and canaille; poignard, " dagger," from Ital. pugnale, instead of O. Fr. poigniel; but also panache, "plume," from pennacchio, and many others that have become common property. But the influence of the Iberian peninsula on the contrary was not so strong as to be more than sporadic; the Sicilian and Neapolitan vocabu- laries alone are more closely akin to Spanish, and this is easily explained on the ground of their political and commercial relations... As to the Romance languages beyond Europe we have but little to say. There is a distinction to be made between Creole and genuine Romance. Belonging to the latter we have the French of Canada, the Spanish of Central and South America, the Portu- guese of the Brazils. Speaking generally we may say that the particular languages retained the form of the language in the i6th and 1 7th centuries, that is to say that of the time of the immigra- tion, and that they developed along the lines already established. Thus in Mexican Spanish the loss of d, g, between vowels, of s before consonants and as a final, has been carried further than in the mother-country. There are no proved traces of any noticeable influence from the languages of the natives. LITERATURE. — The real founder of scientific Romance philology and linguistics is Friedrich Diez, in his Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen (3 vols., Bonn, 1836-42), and Etymologist hes Worterbuch der romanischen Sprachen (2 vols., 1852). All questions concerning Romance philology and the historic grammar of the different Romance languages are treated in G. Grober's Grundriss der roma- nischenPhilologie(2nded.,Stra.ssbuTg, lQo6),andinW. Meyer-Lubke's Grammatik der romanischen Sprachen (4 vols., Leipzig, 1890-1900); Einfuhrung in die romanische Sprachwissenschaft (2nd ed., Heidel- berg, 1909). The principal magazines devoted to the subject are Zeit- schriftfur romanische Philologie (ed. Grober; since 1877) ; Zeilschrift fur neufranzo'sische Sprache und Literalur (ed. Behrens; since 1879); Romanische Forschungen (ed. Vollmoller; since 1885); Archill fur das Studium der neueren Sprachen (since 1846); Romania (ed. G. Paris and P. Meyer; since 1812); Archivio glotlologico italiano (ed. G. I. Ascoli; since 1873). The great development of Romanic philology after Diez is due principally to A. Tobler, G. Grober, W. Forster and H. Suchier in Germany; A. Mussafia (d. 1905), H. Schuchardt in Austria; G. Paris (d. 1905), P. Meyer in France; G. I. Ascoli (d. 1907), and F. d'Ovidio in Italy. (W. M.-L.) ROMAN DE LA ROSE, a French poem dating from the i3th century. The first part was written about 1230 by Guillaume de Lorris (q.v.), whose work formed the starting-point, about forty years later, for the more extensive section written by Jean de Meun (q.v.). Guillaume de Lorris wrote an allegory, possibly of an adventure of his own, which is an artistic and beautiful presentment of the love philosophy of the trouba- dours. In a dream the Lover visits a park to which he is admitted by Idleness. In the park he finds Pleasure, Delight, Cupid and other personages, and at length the Rose. Welcome grants him permission to kiss the Rose, but he is driven away by Danger, Shame, Scandal, and especially by Jealousy, who entrenches the Rose and imprisons Welcome, leaving the Lover disconsolate. The story, thus left incomplete by its inventor, was finished in 19,000 lines by Jean de Meun, who allows the Lover to win the Rose, but only after a long siege and much discourse from Reason, the Friend, Nature and Genius. In the second part, however, the story is entirely subsidiary to the display of the author's encyclopaedic knowledge, to pic- turesque and poetic digressions, and to violent satire in the manner of the fabliaux against the abuse of power, against women, against popular superstition, and against the celibacy of the clergy. The length of the work and its heterogeneous character proved no bar to its enormous popularity in the middle ages, attested by the 200 MSS. of it which have survived. The Romaunt of the Rose was translated into English by Chaucer (see the prologue to the Legende of Good Women), but the English version of that, extending to about one-third of the whole work, which has come down to us (see an edition by Dr Max Kaluza, Chaucer Society, 1891), is generally admitted to be by another hand. For a list of books on the vexed question of the authorship of the English translation see G. Korting, Grundriss der engl. Lit. (Miinster, 1905, 4th ed. p. 184). A Flemish version by Hein van Aken appeared during Jean de Meun's lifetime, and at the beginning of the I4th century a free imitation, in the form of a series of sonnets, // Fiore, was written in Italian by the Tuscan poet Durante. Three editions of the Roman de la Rose were printed at Lyons between 1473 and 1490; two by Antoine Verard (Paris, 1490 ? and 1496 ?), by Jean du Pr6 (Paris, 1493 ?), by Nicholas Desprez for Jean Petit (Paris), by Michel le Noir (Paris, 1509 and 1519). In 1503 Jean Molinet produced a prose version. Marot altered and modernized the text (1526), and his corrections were followed in subsequent editions. Modern editions are by Meon (4 vols., 1813), by Francisque Michel (2 vols., 1864), by Croissandeau (pseudonym for Pierre Marteau), with a translation into modern French (Orleans, 5 vols., 1878-80), and a critical edition by E. Langlois, author of Origines et sources du Roman de la Rose (Paris, 1890). There is a modern English version by F. S. Ellis (Temple Classics, 3 vols., 1900). ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER. The reign of Constantine the Great forms the most deep-reaching division in the history of Europe. The external continuity is not broken, but the principles which guided society in the Greek and Roman world are replaced by a new order of ideas. The emperor-worship, which expressed a belief in the ideal of the earthly empire of Rome, gives way to Christianity; this is the outward sign that ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER a mental transformation, which we can trace for 300 years before in visible processes of decay and growth, had reached a crisis. Besides the adoption of Christianity, Constantine's reign is marked by an event only second in importance, the shifting of the centre of gravity of the Empire from the west to the east by making Byzantium a second capital, a second Rome. The foundation of Constantinople (q.v.) determined the sub- sequent history of the state; it established permanently the division between the eastern and western parts of the Empire —a principle already introduced — and soon exhibited, though not immediately, the preponderance of the eastern half. The eastern provinces were the richest and most resourceful, and only needed a Rome in their midst to proclaim this fact; and further, it was eastward that the Empire fronted, for here was the one great civilized state with which it was in constant antagonism. Byzantium was refounded on the model of Rome, had its own senate, and presently a pracfcclus urbi. But its character was different in two ways: it was Christian and it was Greek. From its foundation New Rome had a Christian stamp; it had no history as the capital of a pagan empire. There was, however, no intention of depressing Rome to a secondary rank in political importance; this was brought about by the force of circumstances. The Christian Roman Empire, from the first to the last Constantine, endured for 1130 years, and during that long period, which witnessed the births of all the great modern nations of i Europe, experienced many vicissitudes of decline and revival. In the sth century it lost all its western provinces through the expansion of the Teutons; but in the 6th asserted something of its ancient power and won back some of its losses. In the 7th it was brought very low through the expansion of the Saracens and of the Slavs, but in consequence of internal reforms and prudent government in the Sth century was able before the end of the pth to initiate a new brilliant period of power and conquest. From the middle of the nth century a decline began; besides the perpetual dangers on the eastern and northern frontiers, the Empire was menaced by the political aggression of the Normans and the commercial aggression of Venice; then its capital was taken and its dominions dis- membered by Franks and Venetians in 1204. It survived the blow for 250 years, as a shadow of its former self. During this long life its chief political role was that of acting as a defender of Europe against the great powers of western Asia. While it had to resist a continuous succession of dangerous enemies on its northern frontier in Europe — German, Slavonic, Finnic and Tatar peoples — it always considered that its front was towards the east, and that its gravest task was to face the powers which successively inherited the dominion of Cyrus and Darius. From this point of view we might divide the external history of the Empire into four great periods, each marked by a struggle with a different Asiatic power: (i) with Persia, ending c. 630 with the triumph of Rome; (2) with the Saracens, who ceased to be formidable in the nth century; (3) with the Seljuk Turks, in the nth and i2th centuries; (4) with the Ottoman Turks, in which the Roman power went down. Medieval historians, concentrating their interest on the rising states of western Europe, often fail to recognize the position held by the later Empire and its European prestige. Up to the middle of the nth century it was in actual strength the first power in Europe, except in the lifetime of Charles the Great, and under the Comneni it was still a power of the first rank. But its political strength does not express the fulness of its importance. As the heir of antiquity it was confessedly superior in civilization, and it was supreme in commerce. Throughout the whole period (to 1204) Constantinople was the first city in the world. The influence which the Empire exerted upon its neighbours, especially the Slavonic peoples, is the second great r&le which it fulfilled for Europe — a role on which perhaps the most speaking commentary is the doctrine that the Russian Tsar is the heir of the Roman Caesar. The Empire has been called by many names- -Greek, Byzantine, Lower (Uas-empire), Eastern (or East-Roman). All these have a certain justification as descriptions, but the only strictly correct name is Roman (as recognized in the title of Gibbon's work). The continuity from Augustus to Constantine XI. is unbroken; the emperor was always the Roman emperor; his subjects were always Romans ('Pu/ieuoi: hence Romaic — Modern Greek). "Greek Empire" expresses the fact that the state became predominantly Greek in character, owing to the loss, first of the Latin provinces, afterwards of Syria and Egypt; and from the middle of the 6th century Greek became the official language. " Lower Empire " (Later is preferable) marks the great actual distinction in character between the development before Constantine (llaut-empirc) and after his adoption of Christianity. " Byzantine sums up in a word the unique Graeco-Roman civilization which was centred in New Rome. Eastern is a term of convenience, but it has been used in two senses, not to be confused. It has been used, loosely, to designate the eastern half of the Empire during the 80 years or so (from 395) when there were two lines of emperors, ruling formally as colleagues but practically independent, at Rome and Constanti- nople; but though there were two emperors, as often before, there was only one Empire. It has also been used, justifiably, to dis- tinguish the true Roman Empire from the new state founded by Charles the Great (800), which also claimed to be the Roman Empire; Eastern and Western Empire are from this date forward legitimate terms of distinction. But between the periods to which the legitimate and illegitimate uses of the term Eastern Empire " apply lies a period of more than 300 years, in which there was only one Empire in any sense of the word. A chronological table of the dynasties will assist the reader of the historical sketch which follows. Succession of Emperors arranged in Dynasties. 1. CONST ANTINIAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 324-363. Emperors (founder of dynasty, Constantius I., 305-306): Constantine I. (306, sole emperor since), 324-337. In west — Constantine II., 337-340; Constans, 337-350. In east — Constantius II., 337- . Sole emperors: Constantius II., 350-361; Julian, 361-363. INTER-DYNASTY. — Jovian, 363-364. 2. VALENTINIANEAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 364-392. Emperors : In west — Valcntinian I., 364-375; Gratian, 367-383; Valentinian II., 375-392. In east — Valens, 365-378 (Theodosius I., 379-392). 3. THEODOSIAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 392-457. Emperors: Theodosius I. (379), 392-395. In east — Arcadius, 395-408; Theodosius II., 408-450; Marcian, 450-^57. In west — Hononus, 395-423; Constantius III., 422; Valentinian III., 425-455; (non-dynastic) Maximus, 455 ;Avitus, 455-456. 4. LEONINE DYNASTY. — A.D. 457-518. Emperors : In east — Leo I., 457-474; Leo II., 474; Zeno, 474-491; Anastasius I., 491-518. In west — non-dynastic, Majorian, 457-461 ; Severus, 461-465; (Leo I. sole emperor, 465-467); Anthcmius, 467-472; Olybrius, 472; Glycerius, 473-474; Julius Nepos, 474-480; (usurper, Romulus August ulus, 475- 476). 5. JUSTINIANEAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 518-602. Emperors: Justin I., 518-527; Justinian I., 527-565; Justin II., 565-578; Tiberius II., 578-582; Maurice, 582-602. INTER-DYNASTY. — Phocas, 602-610 6. HERACLIAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 610-711. Emperors: Heraclius, 610-641; Constantine III., 641; Heracleonas, 641-642; Constans II., 642-668; Con- stantine IV. (Pogonatus) 668-685; Justinian II. (Rhinotmetus), 685-695 ; (non-dynastic) Leontius.695- 698 and Tiberius III. (Apsimar), 698-705; Justinian II. (restored), 705-711. II. INTER-DYNASTY. — Philip Bardanes, 711-713; Anastasius II., 713-716; Theodosius III., 716-717. 7. ISAURIAN (SYRIAN) DYNASTY. — A.D. 717-802. Emperors: Leo III., 717-740 (alias, 41); Constantine V. (Copronymus), 740-775; Leo IV. (Khazar), 775-780; Constantine VI., 780-797; Irene, 797-802. INTER-DYNASTY. — Nicephorus I., 802-81 1 ; Stauracius (son of Nicephorus), 811 ; Michael I. (Rhangabe, father-in-law of Stauracius), 811-813; Leo V. (Armenian), 813-820. 8. PHRYGIAN OR AMORIAN DYNASTY — A.D. 820-867. Emperors: Michael II. (Stammerer), 820-829; Theophilus, 829-842; Michael III. (Drunkard), 842-867. 9. MACEDONIAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 867-1057. Emperors: Basil I. (Macedonian), 867-886; Leo VI. (philo- sopher) and Alexander, 886-912; Constantino VII. 512 ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER (Porphyrogennetos), 912-959; Romanus I. (Lecapenus), 920-944; Romanus II., 959-963 ; Basil II.(Bulgaroctonus) and Constantine VIII., 963-1025; (non-dynastic) Nice- phorus II. (Phocas) , 963-969, and John Zimisces, 969-976 ; Constantine VIII., alone, 1025-1028; Romanus III. (Argyros), 1028-1034; Michael IV. (Paphlagonian), 1034- 1041; Michael V. (Calaphates): 1041-1042; Constantine IX. (Monomachus), 1042-1054; Theodora, 1054-1056; Michael VI. (Stratioticus), 1056-1057. INTER-DYNASTY. — Isaac I. (Comnenus), 1057-1059 ; Constan- tine X. (Ducas), 1059-1067; Michael VII. (Parapinaces), Andronicus and Constantine XI., 1067; Romanus IV. (Diogenes), 1067-1071; Michael VII., alone, 1071-1078; Nicephorus III. (Botaneiates) , 1078-1081. 10. COMNENIAN DYNASTY. — A.D. IO8l-I2O4. Emperors: Alexius I. (nephew of Isaac I.), 1081-1118; John II., 1118-1143; Manuel I., 1143-1180; Alexius II., 1180-1183; Andronicus I., 1183-1185; Isaac 1 1. (Angelus), 1185-1195; Alexius III. (Angelus), 1195-1203; Isaac II. and Alexius IV., 1203-1204. INTER-DYNASTY. — Alexius V. (Murtzuphlus), 1204. Capture of Constantinople and dismemberment of the Empire by the Venetians and Franks, A.D. 1204—1205. 11. LASCARID DYNASTY. — A.D. 1206-1259. Emperors: Theodore I. (Lascaris), 1206-1222; John III. (Vatatzes or Batatzes), 1222-1254; Theodore" II. (Lascaris), 1254-1259. 12. PALAEOLOGIAN DYNASTY. — A.D. 1259-1453. Emperors: Michael VIII. (Palaeologus), 1259-1282; And- ronicus II. (Elder), 1282-1328 ;Andronicus III. (Younger), 1328-1341 ; John V., 1341-1391 ; (non-dynastic), John (Cantacuzenus), 1347-1355; Manuel II., 1391-1425; John VI., 1425-1448; Constantine XI., or XII. (Dragases), 1448-1453. Historical Sketch. — Diocletian's artificial experiment of two Augusti and two Caesars had been proved a failure, leading to twenty years of disastrous civil wars; and when Constantine the Great (q.v.) destroyed his last rival and restored domestic peace, he ruled for the rest of his life with undivided sway. But he had three sons, and this led to a Hew partition of the Empire after his death, and to more domestic wars, Constans first annexing the share of Constantine II. (340) and becoming sole ruler of the west, to be in turn destroyed by Constantius II., who in 350 remained sole sovereign of the Empire. Having no children, he was succeeded by his cousin, Julian the Apostate (9.11.). This period was marked by wars against the Germans, who were pressing on the Rhine and Danish frontiers, and against Persia. Julian lost his life in the eastern struggle, which was then terminated by a disadvantageous peace. But the German danger grew graver, and the battle of Adrianople, in which the Visigoths, who had crossed the Danube in conse- quence of the coming of the Huns (see GOTHS and HUNS), won a great victory, and the emperor Valens perished (378), an- nounced that the question between Roman and Teuton had entered on a new stage. Theodosius the Great saved the situa- tion for the time by his Gothic pacification. The efforts of a series of exceptionally able and hard-working rulers preserved the Empire intact throughout the 4th century, but the dangers